51
|
Surmeier DJ, Obeso JA, Halliday GM. Selective neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 2017; 18:101-113. [PMID: 28104909 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2016.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 643] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular α-synuclein (α-syn)-rich protein aggregates called Lewy pathology (LP) and neuronal death are commonly found in the brains of patients with clinical Parkinson disease (cPD). It is widely believed that LP appears early in the disease and spreads in synaptically coupled brain networks, driving neuronal dysfunction and death. However, post-mortem analysis of human brains and connectome-mapping studies show that the pattern of LP in cPD is not consistent with this simple model, arguing that, if LP propagates in cPD, it must be gated by cell- or region-autonomous mechanisms. Moreover, the correlation between LP and neuronal death is weak. In this Review, we briefly discuss the evidence for and against the spreading LP model, as well as evidence that cell-autonomous factors govern both α-syn pathology and neuronal death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D James Surmeier
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - José A Obeso
- Centro Integral de Neurociencias A.C. (CINAC), HM Puerta del Sur, Hospitales de Madrid, Mostoles and CEU San Pablo University, 28938 Madrid, Spain.,Network Center for Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Instituto Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales and Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney 2052, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
LRRK2: An Emerging New Molecule in the Enteric Neuronal System That Quantitatively Regulates Neuronal Peptides and IgA in the Gut. Dig Dis Sci 2017; 62:903-912. [PMID: 28168579 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-017-4476-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a recently discovered molecule associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. It regulates many central neuronal functions such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and axonal extension. However, in contrast to the well-documented function of LRRK2 in central neurons, it is unclear whether LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and affects the physiology of the gut. AIMS By examining LRRK2-KO mice, this study investigated whether enteric neurons express LRRK2 and whether intestinal neuronal peptides and IgA are quantitatively changed. METHODS Intestinal protein lysates and sections prepared from male C57BL/6 J mice were analyzed by Western blotting and immunostaining using anti-LRRK2 antibody, respectively. Intestinal neuronal peptide-mRNAs were quantified by real-time PCR in wild-type mice and LRRK2-KO mice. Intestinal IgA was quantified by ELISA. Lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMCs) were analyzed by flow cytometry to evaluate the ratio of B1 to B2 B cells. RESULTS Western analysis and immunostaining revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons. The amounts of mRNA for vasoactive intestinal peptide, neuropeptide Y, and substance P were increased in LRRK2-KO mice accompanied by an increment of IgA. However, the intestinal B cell subpopulations were not altered in LRRK2-KO mice. CONCLUSIONS For the first time, we have revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and related to quantitative alterations of neuronal peptide and IgA. Our study highlights the importance of LRRK2 in enteric neurons as well as central neurons.
Collapse
|
53
|
Thomas JM, Li T, Yang W, Xue F, Fishman PS, Smith WW. 68 and FX2149 Attenuate Mutant LRRK2-R1441C-Induced Neural Transport Impairment. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 8:337. [PMID: 28119604 PMCID: PMC5222795 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is a large protein with implications in genetic and sporadic causes of Parkinson's disease. The physiological functions of LRRK2 are largely unknown. In this report, we investigated whether LRRK2 alters neural transport using live-cell imaging techniques and human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Our results demonstrated that expression of the PD-linked mutant, LRRK2-R1441C, induced mitochondrial, and lysosomal transport defects in neurites of SH-SY5Y cells. Most importantly, recently identified GTP-binding inhibitors, 68 and FX2149, can reduce LRRK2 GTP-binding activity and attenuates R1441C-induced mitochondrial and lysosomal transport impairments. These results provide direct evidence and an early mechanism for neurite injury underlying LRRK2-induced neurodegeneration. This is the first report to show that LRRK2 GTP-binding activity plays a critical role during neurite transport, suggesting inhibition of LRRK2 GTP-binding could be a potential novel strategy for PD intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Thomas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Tianxia Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wei Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Fengtian Xue
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Paul S Fishman
- Department of Neurology, University of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA; Neurology Service, VA Maryland Healthcare SystemBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wanli W Smith
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Yılmaz ŞG, Geyik S, Neyal AM, Soko ND, Bozkurt H, Dandara C. Hypothesis: Do miRNAs Targeting the Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Gene (LRRK2) Influence Parkinson's Disease Susceptibility? OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2017; 20:224-8. [PMID: 27093107 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2016.0040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a frequently occurring neurodegenerative motor disorder adversely impacting global health. There is a paucity of biomarkers and diagnostics that can forecast susceptibility to PD. A new research frontier for PD pathophysiology is the study of variations in microRNA (miRNA) expression whereby miRNAs serve as "upstream regulators" of gene expression in relation to functioning of the dopamine neuronal pathways. Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a frequently studied gene in PD. Little is known about the ways in which expression of miRNAs targeting LRKK2 impact PD susceptibility. In a sample of 204 unrelated subjects (102 persons with PD and 102 healthy controls), we report here candidate miRNA expression in whole blood samples as measured by real-time PCR (hsa-miR-4671-3p, hsa-miR-335-3p, hsa-miR-561-3p, hsa-miR-579-3p, and hsa-miR-3143) that target LRRK2. Using step-wise logistic regression, and controlling for covariates such as age, gender, PD disease severity, concomitant medications, and co-morbidity, we found that the combination of has-miR-335-3p, has-miR-561-3p, and has-miR-579-3p account for 50% of the variation in regards to PD susceptibility (p<0.0001). Notably, the hsa-miR-561-3p expression was the most robust predictor of PD in both univariate and multivariate analyses (p<0.001). Moreover, the biological direction (polarity) of the association was plausible in that the candidate miRNAs displayed a diminished expression in patients. This is consistent with the hypothesis that decreased levels of miRNAs targeting LRRK2 might result in a gain of function for LRRK2, and by extension, loss of neuronal viability. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first clinical association study of the above candidate miRNAs' expression in PD using peripheral samples. These observations may guide future clinical diagnostics research on PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Şenay Görücü Yılmaz
- 1 Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Gaziantep University , Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Sırma Geyik
- 2 Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Gaziantep University , Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Ayşe Münife Neyal
- 2 Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Gaziantep University , Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Nyarai D Soko
- 3 Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town , South Africa
| | - Hakan Bozkurt
- 4 Neurology Department, Gaziantep Medical Park Hospital , Gaziantep, Turkey
| | - Collet Dandara
- 3 Division of Human Genetics, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town , South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Quintero-Espinosa D, Jimenez-Del-Rio M, Velez-Pardo C. Knockdown transgenic Lrrk Drosophila resists paraquat-induced locomotor impairment and neurodegeneration: A therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2016; 1657:253-261. [PMID: 28041945 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been linked to familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. However, it is still unresolved whether LRRK2 in dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons may or may not aggravate the phenotype. We demonstrate that knocking down (KD) the Lrrk gene by RNAi in DAergic neurons untreated or treated with paraquat (PQ) neither affected the number of DAergic clusters, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) protein levels, lifespan nor locomotor activity when compared to control (i.e. TH/+) flies. KD transgenic Lrrk flies dramatically increased locomotor activity in presence of TH enzyme inhibitor alpha-methyl-para-tyrosine (aMT), whereas no effect on lifespan was observed in both fly lines. Most importantly, KD Lrrk flies had reduced lipid peroxidation (LPO) index alone or in presence of PQ and the antioxidant minocycline (MC, 0.5mM). Taken together, these findings suggest that Lrrk appears unessential for the viability of DAergic neurons in D. melanogaster. Moreover, Lrrk might negatively regulate homeostatic levels of dopamine, thereby dramatically increasing locomotor activity, extending lifespan, and reducing oxidative stress (OS). Our data also indicate that reduced expression of Lrrk in the DAergic neurons of transgenic TH>Lrrk-RNAi/+ flies conferred PQ resistance and absence of neurodegeneration. The present findings support the notion that reduced/suppressed LRRK2 expression might delay or prevent motor symptoms and/or frank Parkinsonism in individuals at risk to suffer autosomal dominant Parkinsonism (AD-P) by blocking OS-induced neurodegenerative processes in the DAergic neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Quintero-Espinosa
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412; SIU Medellin, Colombia
| | - Marlene Jimenez-Del-Rio
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412; SIU Medellin, Colombia.
| | - Carlos Velez-Pardo
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412; SIU Medellin, Colombia.
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Azkona G, López de Maturana R, Del Rio P, Sousa A, Vazquez N, Zubiarrain A, Jimenez-Blasco D, Bolaños JP, Morales B, Auburger G, Arbelo JM, Sánchez-Pernaute R. LRRK2 Expression Is Deregulated in Fibroblasts and Neurons from Parkinson Patients with Mutations in PINK1. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 55:506-516. [PMID: 27975167 PMCID: PMC5808058 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0303-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in PINK1 (PARK6), a serine/threonine kinase involved in mitochondrial homeostasis, are associated with early onset Parkinson’s disease. Fibroblasts from Parkinson’s disease patients with compound heterozygous mutations in exon 7 (c.1488 + 1G > A; c.1252_1488del) showed no apparent signs of mitochondrial impairment. To elucidate changes primarily caused by lack of functional PINK1, we over-expressed wild-type PINK1, which induced a significant downregulation of LRRK2 (PARK8). Indeed, we found that LRRK2 protein basal levels were significantly higher in the mutant PINK1 fibroblasts. To examine the interaction between the two PARK genes in a disease-relevant cell context, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from mutant, carrier and control fibroblasts by lentiviral-mediated re-programming. Efficiency of neural induction and dopamine differentiation using a floor-plate induction protocol was similar in all genotypes. As observed in fibroblasts, PINK1 mutant neurons showed increased LRRK2 expression both at the RNA and protein level and transient over-expression of wild-type PINK1 efficiently downregulated LRRK2 levels. Additionally, we confirmed a dysregulation of LRRK2 expression in fibroblasts from patients with a different homozygous mutation in PINK1 exon 4, c.926G > A (G309D). Thus, our results identify a novel role of PINK1 modulating the levels of LRRK2 in Parkinson’s disease fibroblasts and neurons, suggest a convergent pathway for these PARK genes, and broaden the role of LRRK2 in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Garikoitz Azkona
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Model Unit, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Research Facility, Scientific and Technological Centers, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rakel López de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Patricia Del Rio
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Vazquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaia Zubiarrain
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Daniel Jimenez-Blasco
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Blas Morales
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital San Cecilio, Granada, Spain
| | - Georg Auburger
- Experimental Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - José Matias Arbelo
- Parkinson's and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Rosario Sánchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain. .,Andalusian Initiative for Advanced Therapies, Junta de Andalucia, Sevilla, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Nardin A, Schrepfer E, Ziviani E. Counteracting PINK/Parkin Deficiency in the Activation of Mitophagy: A Potential Therapeutic Intervention for Parkinson's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 14:250-9. [PMID: 26517048 PMCID: PMC4857628 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666151030104414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s Disease (PD) related genes PINK1, a protein kinase [1], and Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase [2], operate within the same pathway [3-5], which controls, via specific elimination of dysfunctional mitochondria, the quality of the organelle network [6]. Parkin translocates to impaired mitochondria and drives their elimination via autophagy, a process known as mitophagy [6]. PINK1 regulates Parkin translocation through a not yet completely understood mechanism [7, 8]. Mitochondrial outer membrane proteins Mitofusin (MFN), VDAC, Fis1 and TOM20 were found to be targets for Parkin mediated ubiquitination [9-11]. By adding ubiquitin molecules to its targets expressed on mitochondria, Parkin tags and selects dysfunctional mitochondria for clearance, contributing to maintain a functional and healthy mitochondrial network. Abnormal accumulation of misfolded proteins and unfunctional mitochondria is a characteristic hallmark of PD pathology. Therefore a therapeutic approach to enhance clearance of misfolded proteins and potentiate the ubiquitin-proteosome system (UPS) could be instrumental to ameliorate the progression of the disease. Recently, much effort has been put to identify specific de-ubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) that oppose Parkin in the ubiquitination of its targets. Similar to other post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation and acetylation, ubiquitination is also a reversible modification, mediated by a large family of DUBs [12]. DUBs inhibitors or activators can affect cellular response to stimuli that induce mitophagy via ubiquitination of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins MFN, VDAC, Fis1 and TOM20. In this respect, the identification of a Parkin-opposing DUB in the regulation of mitophagy, might be instrumental to develop specific isopeptidase inhibitors or activators that can modulate the fundamental biological process of mitochondria clearance and impact on cell survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Elena Ziviani
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, via Ugo Bassi 58b, 35121, Padova, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
L'RRK de Triomphe: a solution for LRRK2 GTPase activity? Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 44:1625-1634. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20160240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a central protein in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), yet its normal function has proved stubbornly hard to elucidate. Even though it remains unclear how pathogenic mutations affect LRRK2 to cause PD, recent findings provide increasing cause for optimism. We summarise here the developing consensus over the effect of pathogenic mutations in the Ras of complex proteins and C-terminal of Roc domains on LRRK2 GTPase activity. This body of work has been greatly reinforced by our own study of the protective R1398H variant contained within the LRRK2 GTPase domain. Collectively, data point towards the pathogenicity of GTP-bound LRRK2 and strengthen a working model for LRRK2 GTPase function as a GTPase activated by dimerisation. Together with the identification of the protective R1398H variant as a valuable control for pathogenic mutations, we have no doubt that these triumphs for the LRRK2 field will accelerate research towards resolving LRRK2 function and towards new treatments for PD.
Collapse
|
59
|
Maekawa T, Sasaoka T, Azuma S, Ichikawa T, Melrose HL, Farrer MJ, Obata F. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) regulates α-synuclein clearance in microglia. BMC Neurosci 2016; 17:77. [PMID: 27903237 PMCID: PMC5131420 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-016-0315-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND α-Synuclein (αSYN) has been genetically implicated in familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD), and is associated with disease susceptibility, progression and pathology. Excess amounts of αSYN are toxic to neurons. In the brain, microglial αSYN clearance is closely related to neuronal survival. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the one of the other genes implicated in familial and sporadic PD. While LRRK2 is known to be expressed in microglia, its true function remains to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated αSYN clearance by microglia isolated from LRRK2-knockout (KO) mice. RESULTS In LRRK2-KO microglia, αSYN was taken up in larger amounts and cleared from the supernatant more effectively than for microglia isolated from wild-type (WT) mice. This higher clearance ability of LRRK2-KO microglia was thought to be due to an increase of Rab5-positive endosomes, but not Rab7- or Rab11-positive endosomes. Increased engagement between Rab5 and dynamin 1 was also observed in LRRK2-KO microglia. CONCLUSION LRRK2 negatively regulates the clearance of αSYN accompanied by down-regulation of the endocytosis pathway. Our findings reveal a new functional role of LRRK2 in microglia and offer a new insight into the mechanism of PD pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsunori Maekawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan.
| | - Toshikuni Sasaoka
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Kitasato University School of Medicine, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan.,Laboratory of Neurochemistry, National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi, 444-8585, Japan.,Department of Comparative and Experimental Medicine, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, 1-757 Asahimachidori, Chuo-ku, Niigata, Niigata, 951-8585, Japan
| | - Sadahiro Azuma
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Kitasato University School of Medicine, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| | - Takafumi Ichikawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| | - Heather L Melrose
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Rd S, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Matthew J Farrer
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Fumiya Obata
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan.,R & D Center for Cell Design, Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Design, Kitasato University School of Allied Health Sciences, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, 252-0373, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Atashrazm F, Dzamko N. LRRK2 inhibitors and their potential in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: current perspectives. Clin Pharmacol 2016; 8:177-189. [PMID: 27799832 PMCID: PMC5076802 DOI: 10.2147/cpaa.s102191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Major advances in understanding how genetics underlies Parkinson's disease (PD) have provided new opportunities for understanding disease pathogenesis and potential new targets for therapeutic intervention. One such target is leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), an enigmatic enzyme implicated in both familial and idiopathic PD risk. Both academia and industry have promoted the development of potent and selective inhibitors of LRRK2, and these are currently being employed to assess the safety and efficacy of such compounds in preclinical models of PD. This review examines the evidence that LRRK2 kinase activity contributes to the pathogenesis of PD and outlines recent progress on inhibitor development and early results from preclinical safety and efficacy testing. This review also looks at some of the challenges remaining for translation of LRRK2 inhibitors to the clinic, if indeed this is ultimately warranted. As a disease with no current cure that is increasing in prevalence in line with an aging population, there is much need for developing new treatments for PD, and targeting LRRK2 is currently a promising option.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Park S, Han S, Choi I, Kim B, Park SP, Joe EH, Suh YH. Interplay between Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) and p62/SQSTM-1 in Selective Autophagy. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163029. [PMID: 27631370 PMCID: PMC5025236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The deposit of polyubiquitinated aggregates has been implicated in the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease (PD), and growing evidence indicates that selective autophagy plays a critical role in the clearance of ubiquitin-positive protein aggregates by autophagosomes. The selective autophagic receptor p62/SQSTM-1, which associates directly with both ubiquitin and LC3, transports ubiquitin conjugates to autophagosomes for degradation. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a PD-associated protein kinase, is tightly controlled by autophagy-lysosome degradation as well as by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. However, little is known about the degradation of ubiquitinated LRRK2 via selective autophagy. In the present study, we found that p62/SQSTM-1 physically interacts with LRRK2 as a selective autophagic receptor. The overexpression of p62 leads to the robust degradation of LRRK2 through the autophagy-lysosome pathway. In addition, LRRK2 indirectly regulates Ser351 and Ser403 phosphorylation of p62. Of particular interest, the interaction between phosphorylated p62 and Keap1 is reduced by LRRK2 overexpression. Therefore, we propose that the interplay between LRRK2 and p62 may contribute to the pathophysiological function and homeostasis of LRRK2 protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sangwook Park
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Health, Kyungwoon University, Gumi, 39160, South Korea
- * E-mail: (YHS); (SP)
| | - Seulki Han
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
| | - Insup Choi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, 16499, South Korea
| | - Beomsue Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, 16499, South Korea
| | - Seung Pyo Park
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Joe
- Department of Pharmacology and Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, 16499, South Korea
| | - Young Ho Suh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, 03080, South Korea
- * E-mail: (YHS); (SP)
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Comparison of protein repeat classifications based on structure and sequence families. Biochem Soc Trans 2016; 43:832-7. [PMID: 26517890 DOI: 10.1042/bst20150079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tandem repeats (TR) in proteins are common in nature and have several unique functions. They come in various forms that are frequently difficult to recognize from a sequence. A previously proposed structural classification has been recently implemented in the RepeatsDB database. This defines five main classes, mainly based on repeat unit length, with subclasses representing specific folds. Sequence-based classifications, such as Pfam, provide an alternative classification based on evolutionarily conserved repeat families. Here, we discuss a detailed comparison between the structural classes in RepeatsDB and the corresponding Pfam repeat families and clans. Most instances are found to map one-to-one between structure and sequence. Some notable exceptions such as leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) and α-solenoids are discussed.
Collapse
|
63
|
Abstract
The power of Drosophila genetics has attracted attention in tackling important biomedical challenges such as the understanding and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder which results from the relentless degeneration of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Over the past two decades tremendous advances have been made in identifying genes responsible for inherited forms of PD. The ease of genetic manipulation in Drosophila has spurred the development of numerous models of PD, including expression of human genes carrying pathogenic mutations or the targeted mutation of conserved orthologs. The genetic and cellular analysis of these models is beginning to reveal fundamental insights into the pathogenic mechanisms. Numerous pathways and processes are disrupted in these models but some common themes are emerging. These often implicate aberrant synaptic function, protein aggregation, autophagy, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, an impressive list of small molecule compounds have been identified as effective in reversing pathogenic phenotypes, paving the way to explore these for therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V L Hewitt
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - A J Whitworth
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
64
|
Mendivil-Perez M, Velez-Pardo C, Jimenez-Del-Rio M. Neuroprotective Effect of the LRRK2 Kinase Inhibitor PF-06447475 in Human Nerve-Like Differentiated Cells Exposed to Oxidative Stress Stimuli: Implications for Parkinson's Disease. Neurochem Res 2016; 41:2675-2692. [PMID: 27394417 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-016-1982-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been implicated in oxidative stress (OS) and neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the pathophysiological mechanism of the LRRK2 kinase in neurons under stress stimuli is not yet understood. We demonstrate that rotenone (ROT), a mitochondria complex I inhibitor frequently used to generate in vitro and in vivo experimental models of PD, induces LRRK2 phosphorylation at serine 935 p-(S935) concomitant with cell death in nerve-like differentiated cells (NLCs). Indeed, ROT (50 µM) at 6 h exposure significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) (~100 %), p-(S935)-LRRK2 kinase [~2 f(old)-(i)ncrease] level, induced nuclei condensation/fragmentation (16 %), increased the expression of NF-κB (5.6 f-i), p53 (5.3 f-i), c-Jun (5.4 f-i) transcription factors, activated caspase-3 (8.0 f-i) and AIF (6.8 f-i) proteins; but significantly decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψm, ~21 %), indicative of apoptosis -a type of regulated cell death process- compared to untreated cells. Strikingly, the LRRK2 kinase inhibitor PF-06447475 (PF-475, 1 µM) protects NLCs against ROT induced noxious effect. The inhibitor not only blocked the p-(S935)-LRRK2 kinase phosphorylation but also completely abolished ROS, and significantly reversed all ROT-induced apoptosis signaling and OS associated markers to comparable control values. We conclude that wild-type LRRK2 may act as a pro-apoptotic factor under OS stimuli. Our findings suggest an association between OS and LRRK2 phosphorylation in the NLCs death process, as PD model. Therefore, the pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 might help to understand the OS-mediated kinase activation in PD neurodegenerative disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Mendivil-Perez
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412, SIU Medellin, Colombia
| | - Carlos Velez-Pardo
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412, SIU Medellin, Colombia
| | - Marlene Jimenez-Del-Rio
- Neuroscience Research Group, Medical Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Antioquia (UdeA), Calle 70 No. 52-21, and Calle 62 # 52-59, Building 1, Room 412, SIU Medellin, Colombia.
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
Esteves AR, Cardoso SM. LRRK2 at the Crossroad Between Autophagy and Microtubule Trafficking: Insights into Parkinson's Disease. Neuroscientist 2016; 23:16-26. [PMID: 26740081 DOI: 10.1177/1073858415616558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 ( lrrk2) gene cause inherited Parkinson's disease (PD), and common variants in lrrk2 are a risk factor for sporadic PD. The neuropathology associated with LRRK2-linked PD is extremely pleomorphic involving inclusions of α-synuclein (SNCA), tau or neither, therefore suggesting that LRRK2 may be central in the pathogenic pathways of PD. This large protein localizes in the cytosol, as well as, in specific membrane domains, including mitochondria and autophagosomes and interacts with a wide range of proteins such as SNCA, tau, α- and β-tubulin. For this reason LRRK2 has been associated with a variety of cellular functions, including autophagy, mitochondrial function/dynamics and microtubule/cytoskeletal dynamics. LRRK2 has been shown to interact with microtubules as well as with mitochondria interfering with their network and dynamics. Moreover, LRRK2 knock-out or mutations affect autophagic efficiency. Here, we review and discuss the literature on how LRRK2 affects mitochondrial function, autophagy, and microtubule dynamics and how this is implicated in the PD etiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- 1 CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,2 CNC-IBILI, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- 1 CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,2 CNC-IBILI, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,3 Institute of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Parkinson's Disease: The Mitochondria-Iron Link. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2016; 2016:7049108. [PMID: 27293957 PMCID: PMC4886095 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7049108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage are conditions often found in damaged brain areas of Parkinson's disease. We propose that a causal link exists between these three events. Mitochondrial dysfunction results not only in increased reactive oxygen species production but also in decreased iron-sulfur cluster synthesis and unorthodox activation of Iron Regulatory Protein 1 (IRP1), a key regulator of cell iron homeostasis. In turn, IRP1 activation results in iron accumulation and hydroxyl radical-mediated damage. These three occurrences-mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage-generate a positive feedback loop of increased iron accumulation and oxidative stress. Here, we review the evidence that points to a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and iron accumulation as early events in the development of sporadic and genetic cases of Parkinson's disease. Finally, an attempt is done to contextualize the possible relationship between mitochondria dysfunction and iron dyshomeostasis. Based on published evidence, we propose that iron chelation-by decreasing iron-associated oxidative damage and by inducing cell survival and cell-rescue pathways-is a viable therapy for retarding this cycle.
Collapse
|
67
|
Activation Mechanism of LRRK2 and Its Cellular Functions in Parkinson's Disease. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2016; 2016:7351985. [PMID: 27293958 PMCID: PMC4880697 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7351985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human LRRK2 (Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2) has been associated with both familial and idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). Although several LRRK2 mediated pathways and interaction partners have been identified, the cellular functions of LRRK2 and LRRK2 mediated progression of PD are still only partially understood. LRRK2 belongs to the group of Roco proteins which are characterized by the presence of a Ras-like G-domain (Roc), a C-terminal of Roc domain (COR), a kinase, and several protein-protein interaction domains. Roco proteins exhibit a complex activation mechanism involving intramolecular signaling, dimerization, and substrate/effector binding. Importantly, PD mutations in LRRK2 have been linked to a decreased GTPase and impaired kinase activity, thus providing putative therapeutic targets. To fully explore these potential targets it will be crucial to understand the function and identify the pathways responsible for LRRK2-linked PD. Here, we review the recent progress in elucidating the complex LRRK2 activation mechanism, describe the accumulating evidence that link LRRK2-mediated PD to mitochondrial dysfunction and aberrant autophagy, and discuss possible ways for therapeutically targeting LRRK2.
Collapse
|
68
|
Shu Y, Ming J, Zhang P, Wang Q, Jiao F, Tian B. Parkinson-Related LRRK2 Mutation R1628P Enables Cdk5 Phosphorylation of LRRK2 and Upregulates Its Kinase Activity. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149739. [PMID: 26930193 PMCID: PMC4773127 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent studies have linked certain single nucleotide polymorphisms in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene with Parkinson’s disease (PD). Among the mutations, LRRK2 c.4883G>C (R1628P) variant was identified to have a significant association with the risk of PD in ethnic Han-Chinese populations. But the molecular pathological mechanisms of R1628P mutation in PD is still unknown. Principle Findings Unlike other LRRK2 mutants in the Roc-COR-Kinase domain, the R1628P mutation didn’t alter the LRRK2 kinase activity and promote neuronal death directly. LRRK2 R1628P mutation increased the binding affinity of LRRK2 with Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5). Interestingly, R1628P mutation turned its adjacent amino acid residue S1627 on LRRK2 protein to a novel phosphorylation site of Cdk5, which could be defined as a typical type II (+) phosphorylation-related single nucleotide polymorphism. Importantly, we showed that the phosphorylation of S1627 by Cdk5 could activate the LRRK2 kinase, and neurons ectopically expressing R1628P displayed a higher sensitivity to 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium, a bioactive metabolite of environmental toxin MPTP, in a Cdk5-dependent manner. Conclusion Our data indicate that Parkinson-related LRRK2 mutation R1628P leads to Cdk5 phosphorylation of LRRK2 at S1627, which would upregulate the kinase activity of LRRK2 and consequently cause neuronal death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Shu
- Department of Neurobiology, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- Central laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Jiangsu University, 438 Jiefang Road, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, 212000, P. R. China
| | - Jie Ming
- Wuhan Union hospital, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1277 Jiefang Avenue, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430022, P. R. China
| | - Pei Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Neurological Diseases, Ministry of Education, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
| | - Qingzhi Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
| | - Fengjuan Jiao
- Department of Neurobiology, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
| | - Bo Tian
- Department of Neurobiology, Tongji Medical School, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- Institute for Brain Research, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Neurological Diseases, Ministry of Education, 13 Hangkong Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430030, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
69
|
Sloan M, Alegre-Abarrategui J, Potgieter D, Kaufmann AK, Exley R, Deltheil T, Threlfell S, Connor-Robson N, Brimblecombe K, Wallings R, Cioroch M, Bannerman DM, Bolam JP, Magill PJ, Cragg SJ, Dodson PD, Wade-Martins R. LRRK2 BAC transgenic rats develop progressive, L-DOPA-responsive motor impairment, and deficits in dopamine circuit function. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:951-63. [PMID: 26744332 PMCID: PMC4754049 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) lead to late-onset, autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease, characterized by the degeneration of dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta, a deficit in dopamine neurotransmission and the development of motor and non-motor symptoms. The most prevalent Parkinson's disease LRRK2 mutations are located in the kinase (G2019S) and GTPase (R1441C) encoding domains of LRRK2. To better understand the sequence of events that lead to progressive neurophysiological deficits in vulnerable neurons and circuits in Parkinson's disease, we have generated LRRK2 bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic rats expressing either G2019S or R1441C mutant, or wild-type LRRK2, from the complete human LRRK2 genomic locus, including endogenous promoter and regulatory regions. Aged (18-21 months) G2019S and R1441C mutant transgenic rats exhibit L-DOPA-responsive motor dysfunction, impaired striatal dopamine release as determined by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry, and cognitive deficits. In addition, in vivo recordings of identified substantia nigra pars compacta dopamine neurons in R1441C LRRK2 transgenic rats reveal an age-dependent reduction in burst firing, which likely results in further reductions to striatal dopamine release. These alterations to dopamine circuit function occur in the absence of neurodegeneration or abnormal protein accumulation within the substantia nigra pars compacta, suggesting that nigrostriatal dopamine dysfunction precedes detectable protein aggregation and cell death in the development of Parkinson's disease. In conclusion, our longitudinal deep-phenotyping provides novel insights into how the genetic burden arising from human mutant LRRK2 manifests as early pathophysiological changes to dopamine circuit function and highlights a potential model for testing Parkinson's therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Max Sloan
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | | | - Dawid Potgieter
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | - Anna-Kristin Kaufmann
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and
| | - Richard Exley
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | - Thierry Deltheil
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | - Sarah Threlfell
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | | | | | - Rebecca Wallings
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | - Milena Cioroch
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics
| | - David M Bannerman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - J Paul Bolam
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and
| | - Peter J Magill
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and
| | - Stephanie J Cragg
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
| | - Paul D Dodson
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Department of Pharmacology and
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics,
| |
Collapse
|
70
|
Xu Y, Deng Y, Qing H. The phosphorylation of α-synuclein: development and implication for the mechanism and therapy of the Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2015; 135:4-18. [PMID: 26134497 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is cited to be the second most common neuronal degenerative disorders; however, the exact mechanism of PD is still unclear. α-synuclein is one of the key proteins in PD pathogenesis as it's the main component of the PD hallmark Lewy bodies (LBs). Nowadays, the study of α-synuclein phosphorylation mechanism related to the PD pathology has become a research hotspot, given that 90% of α-synuclein deposition in LBs is phosphorylated at Ser129, whereas in normal brains, only 4% or less of α-synuclein is phosphorylated at the residue. Here, we review the related study of PD pathological mechanism involving the phosphorylation of α-synuclein mainly at Ser129, Ser87, and Tyr125 residues in recent years, as well as some explorations relating to potential clinical application, in an attempt to describe the development and implication for the mechanism and therapy of PD. Given that some of the studies have yielded paradoxical results, there is need for more comprehensive research in the field. The phosphorylation of α-synuclein might provide a breakthrough for PD mechanism study and even supply a new therapeutic strategy. The milestone study on the phosphorylation of α-synuclein mainly at Ser129, Ser87, and Tyr125 relating to PD in recent years as well as some clinical application exploration are overviewed. The potential pathways of the phosphorylated α-synuclein related to PD are also summarized. The review may supply more ideas and thinking on this issue for the scientists in related research field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xu
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Yulin Deng
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Qing
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
71
|
Abdullah R, Basak I, Patil KS, Alves G, Larsen JP, Møller SG. Parkinson's disease and age: The obvious but largely unexplored link. Exp Gerontol 2015; 68:33-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2014.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
72
|
Menezes R, Tenreiro S, Macedo D, Santos CN, Outeiro TF. From the baker to the bedside: yeast models of Parkinson's disease. MICROBIAL CELL 2015; 2:262-279. [PMID: 28357302 PMCID: PMC5349099 DOI: 10.15698/mic2015.08.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been extensively explored for our understanding of fundamental cell biology processes highly conserved in the eukaryotic kingdom. In this context, they have proven invaluable in the study of complex mechanisms such as those involved in a variety of human disorders. Here, we first provide a brief historical perspective on the emergence of yeast as an experimental model and on how the field evolved to exploit the potential of the model for tackling the intricacies of various human diseases. In particular, we focus on existing yeast models of the molecular underpinnings of Parkinson’s disease (PD), focusing primarily on the central role of protein quality control systems. Finally, we compile and discuss the major discoveries derived from these studies, highlighting their far-reaching impact on the elucidation of PD-associated mechanisms as well as in the identification of candidate therapeutic targets and compounds with therapeutic potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Regina Menezes
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, Oeiras 2781-901, Portugal. ; Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sandra Tenreiro
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, Lisboa 1649-028, Portugal. ; CEDOC - Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 130, Lisboa 1169-056, Portugal
| | - Diana Macedo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Cláudia N Santos
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, Oeiras 2781-901, Portugal. ; Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago F Outeiro
- Instituto de Fisiologia, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa 1649-028, Portugal. ; CEDOC - Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Campo dos Mártires da Pátria, 130, Lisboa 1169-056, Portugal. ; Department of NeuroDegeneration and Restorative Research, University Medical Center Göttingen, Waldweg 33, Göttingen 37073, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
73
|
Gurevich EV, Gurevich VV. Beyond traditional pharmacology: new tools and approaches. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:3229-41. [PMID: 25572005 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional pharmacology is defined as the science that deals with drugs and their actions. While small molecule drugs have clear advantages, there are many cases where they have proved to be ineffective, prone to unacceptable side effects, or where due to a particular disease aetiology they cannot possibly be effective. A dominant feature of the small molecule drugs is their single mindedness: they provide either continuous inhibition or continuous activation of the target. Because of that, these drugs tend to engage compensatory mechanisms leading to drug tolerance, drug resistance or, in some cases, sensitization and consequent loss of therapeutic efficacy over time and/or unwanted side effects. Here we discuss new and emerging therapeutic tools and approaches that have potential for treating the majority of disorders for which small molecules are either failing or cannot be developed. These new tools include biologics, such as recombinant hormones and antibodies, as well as approaches involving gene transfer (gene therapy and genome editing) and the introduction of specially designed self-replicating cells. It is clear that no single method is going to be a 'silver bullet', but collectively, these novel approaches hold promise for curing practically every disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - V V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| |
Collapse
|
74
|
Porras P, Duesbury M, Fabregat A, Ueffing M, Orchard S, Gloeckner CJ, Hermjakob H. A visual review of the interactome of LRRK2: Using deep-curated molecular interaction data to represent biology. Proteomics 2015; 15:1390-404. [PMID: 25648416 PMCID: PMC4415485 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Molecular interaction databases are essential resources that enable access to a wealth of information on associations between proteins and other biomolecules. Network graphs generated from these data provide an understanding of the relationships between different proteins in the cell, and network analysis has become a widespread tool supporting –omics analysis. Meaningfully representing this information remains far from trivial and different databases strive to provide users with detailed records capturing the experimental details behind each piece of interaction evidence. A targeted curation approach is necessary to transfer published data generated by primarily low-throughput techniques into interaction databases. In this review we present an example highlighting the value of both targeted curation and the subsequent effective visualization of detailed features of manually curated interaction information. We have curated interactions involving LRRK2, a protein of largely unknown function linked to familial forms of Parkinson's disease, and hosted the data in the IntAct database. This LRRK2-specific dataset was then used to produce different visualization examples highlighting different aspects of the data: the level of confidence in the interaction based on orthogonal evidence, those interactions found under close-to-native conditions, and the enzyme–substrate relationships in different in vitro enzymatic assays. Finally, pathway annotation taken from the Reactome database was overlaid on top of interaction networks to bring biological functional context to interaction maps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Porras
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Hinxton, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
75
|
Henderson JL, Kormos BL, Hayward MM, Coffman KJ, Jasti J, Kurumbail RG, Wager TT, Verhoest PR, Noell GS, Chen Y, Needle E, Berger Z, Steyn SJ, Houle C, Hirst WD, Galatsis P. Discovery and preclinical profiling of 3-[4-(morpholin-4-yl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-5-yl]benzonitrile (PF-06447475), a highly potent, selective, brain penetrant, and in vivo active LRRK2 kinase inhibitor. J Med Chem 2014; 58:419-32. [PMID: 25353650 DOI: 10.1021/jm5014055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) has been genetically linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) by genome-wide association studies (GWAS). The most common LRRK2 mutation, G2019S, which is relatively rare in the total population, gives rise to increased kinase activity. As such, LRRK2 kinase inhibitors are potentially useful in the treatment of PD. We herein disclose the discovery and optimization of a novel series of potent LRRK2 inhibitors, focusing on improving kinome selectivity using a surrogate crystallography approach. This resulted in the identification of 14 (PF-06447475), a highly potent, brain penetrant and selective LRRK2 inhibitor which has been further profiled in in vivo safety and pharmacodynamic studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn L Henderson
- Worldwide Medicinal Chemistry, ‡Neuroscience Research Unit, and §Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer Worldwide R&D , 610 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
76
|
The Impact of Mitochondrial Fusion and Fission Modulation in Sporadic Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 52:573-86. [PMID: 25218511 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8893-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating data suggests that mitochondrial deficits may underline both sporadic and familial Parkinson's disease (PD) neurodegenerative process. Impairment of mitochondrial dynamics results in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, decreases mitochondrial membrane potential, and could potentiate the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria. Excessive mitochondrial fragmentation is associated with the pathology of sporadic PD. Therefore, we modulated mitochondria fusion and fission in different sporadic PD cellular models. We found alterations in two proteins known to regulate mitochondrial fusion and fission events (OPA1 and Drp1, respectively). OPA1 long isoform cleavage seems to be, at least in part, responsible for mitochondrial fragmented pattern observed in sporadic PD cellular models. Moreover, mitochondrial fragmentation can also occur due to an increase in Drp1 that is translocated into the mitochondria by phosphorylation. To disclose the relevance of these alterations to the fragmentation of the mitochondrial network, we overexpressed OPA1 and knock down Drp1. OPA1 overexpression did not rescue MPP(+)-induced increase in ROS. Nevertheless, Drp1 knockdown due to an increase in mitochondrial elongation and interconnectivity rescued mitochondrial membrane potential and decreased ROS production in sporadic PD cells. Overall, our findings suggest that Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fragmentation plays a crucial role in mediating mitochondrial DNA induced mitochondria abnormalities and cellular dysfunction in sporadic PD.
Collapse
|