Phosphoinositides: regulators of membrane traffic and protein function

Cutting edge: phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate concentration at the APC side of the immunological synapse is required for effector T cell function

Little is known about the signaling that occurs in an APC during contact with a T cell. In this article we report the concentration of the signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)) at the APC side of the immunological synapse. In both human and mouse cells, a PI(4,5)P(2)-specific fluorescent reporter, PH-GFP (where PH is pleckstrin homology), detected an Ag-dependent enrichment of PI(4,5)P(2) at the synapse between Ag-specific T cells and APC. When PIP(4,5)P(2) was sequestered by a high concentration of PH-GFP reporter, cells were less susceptible to CTL-mediated lysis than control cells. These findings suggest a new regulatory target for modulating immune function that may be exploited for immune escape by pathogens and tumors.

Fabrication of fracture-free nanoglassified substrates by layer-by-layer deposition with a paint gun technique for real-time monitoring of protein-lipid interactions

New sensing materials that are robust, biocompatible, and amenable to array fabrication are vital to the development of novel bioassays. Herein we report the fabrication of ultrathin (ca. 5-8 nm) glass (silicate) layers on top of a gold surface for surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensing applications. The nanoglass layers are fabricated by layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition of poly(allylamine) hydrochloride (PAH) and sodium silicate (SiO(x)), followed by calcination at high temperature. To deposit these layers in a uniform and reproducible manner, we employed a high-volume, low-pressure (HVLP) paint gun technique that offers high precision and better control through pressurized nitrogen gas. The new substrates are stable in solution for a long period of time, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirm that these films are nearly fracture-free. In addition, atomic force microscopy (AFM) indicates that the surface roughness of the silicate layers is low (rms = 2 to 3 nm), similar to that of bare glass slides. By tuning the experimental parameters such as HVLP gun pressure and layers deposited, different surface morphology could be obtained as revealed by fluorescence microscopy and SEM images. To demonstrate the utility of these ultrathin, fracture-free substrates, lipid bilayer membranes composed of phosphorylated derivatives of phosphoinositides (PIs) were deposited on the new substrates for biosensing applications. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) data indicated that these lipid components in the membranes were highly mobile. Furthermore, interactions of PtdIns(4,5)P2 and PtdIns(4)P lipids with their respective binding proteins were detected with high sensitivity by using SPR spectroscopy. This method of glass deposition can be combined with already well-developed surface chemistry for a range of planar glass assay applications, and the process is amenable to automation for mass production of nanometer thick silicate chips in a highly reproducible manner for label-free measurements.

Counterregulation of clathrin-mediated endocytosis by the actin and microtubular cytoskeleton in human neutrophils

We have recently reported that disruption of the actin cytoskeleton enhanced N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-stimulated granule exocytosis in human neutrophils but decreased plasma membrane expression of complement receptor 1 (CR1), a marker of secretory vesicles. The present study was initiated to determine if reduced CR1 expression was due to fMLP-stimulated endocytosis, to determine the mechanism of this endocytosis, and to examine its impact on neutrophil functional responses. Stimulation of neutrophils with fMLP or ionomycin in the presence of latrunculin A resulted in the uptake of Alexa fluor 488-labeled albumin and transferrin and reduced plasma membrane expression of CR1. These effects were prevented by preincubation of the cells with sucrose, chlorpromazine, or monodansylcadaverine (MDC), inhibitors of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Sucrose, chlorpromazine, and MDC also significantly inhibited fMLP- and ionomycin-stimulated specific and azurophil granule exocytosis. Disruption of microtubules with nocodazole inhibited endocytosis and azurophil granule exocytosis stimulated by fMLP in the presence of latrunculin A. Pharmacological inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, ERK1/2, and PKC significantly reduced fMLP-stimulated transferrin uptake in the presence of latrunculin A. Blockade of clathrin-mediated endocytosis had no significant effect on fMLP-stimulated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in neutrophils pretreated with latrunculin A. From these data, we conclude that the actin cytoskeleton functions to limit microtubule-dependent, clathrin-mediated endocytosis in stimulated human neutrophils. The limitation of clathrin-mediated endocytosis by actin regulates the extent of both specific and azurophilic granule exocytosis.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate accumulates extracellularly upon xylanase treatment in tomato cell suspensions

Various phosphoinositides have been implicated in plant defence signalling. Until now, such molecules have been exclusively related to intracellular signalling. Here, evidence is provided for the detection of extracellular phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) in tomato cell suspensions. We have analysed and compared the intracellular and extracellular phospholipid profiles of [(32)P(i)]-prelabelled tomato cells, challenged with the fungal elicitor xylanase. These phospholipid patterns were found to be different, being phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) the most abundant phospholipid in the extracellular medium. Moreover, while cells responded with a typical increase in phosphatidic acid and a decrease in intracellular PIP upon xylanase treatment, extracellular PIP level increased in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Using two experimental approaches, the extracellular PIP isoform was identified as PI4P. Addition of PI4P to tomato cell suspensions triggered the same defence responses as those induced by xylanase treatment. These include production of reactive oxygen species, accumulation of defence-related gene transcripts and induction of cell death. We demonstrate that extracellular PI4P is accumulated in xylanase-elicited cells and that exogenous application of PI4P mimics xylanase effects, suggesting its putative role as an intercellular signalling molecule.

The Arabidopsis Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate 5-Kinase PIP5K3 is a key regulator of root hair tip growth

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] functions as a site-specific signal on membranes to promote cytoskeletal reorganization and membrane trafficking. Localization of PtdIns(4,5)P2 to apices of growing root hairs and pollen tubes suggests that it plays an important role in tip growth. However, its regulation and mode of action remain unclear. We found that Arabidopsis thaliana PIP5K3 (for Phosphatidylinositol Phosphate 5-Kinase 3) encodes a phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase, a key enzyme producing PtdIns(4,5)P2, that is preferentially expressed in growing root hairs. T-DNA insertion mutations that substantially reduced the expression of PIP5K3 caused significantly shorter root hairs than in the wild type. By contrast, overexpression caused longer root hairs and multiple protruding sites on a single trichoblast. A yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) fusion of PIP5K3, driven by the PIP5K3 promoter, complemented the short-root-hair phenotype. PIP5K3-YFP localized to the plasma membrane and cytoplasmic space of elongating root hair apices, to growing root hair bulges, and, notably, to sites about to form root hair bulges. The signal was greatest in rapidly growing root hairs and quickly disappeared when elongation ceased. These results provide evidence that PIP5K3 is involved in localizing PtdIns(4,5)P2 to the elongating root hair apex and is a key regulator of the machinery that initiates and promotes root hair tip growth.

Clathrin/AP-2-dependent endocytosis: a novel playground for the pharmacological toolbox?

Endocytosis is a vital process for mammalian cells by which they communicate with their environment, internalize nutrients, hormones, or growth factors, or take up extracellular fluids and particles. The best studied among the various pathways to ingest material from the extracellular side is clathrin/AP-2-mediated endocytosis. The past several years have allowed us to gain unprecedented molecular insights into the role of the heterotetrameric AP-2 adaptor complex as a central protein-protein and protein-lipid interaction hub at the plasmalemma. During the initial stages of clathrin-coated pit formation, AP-2 interacts with phosphoinositides and cargo membrane proteins as well as with a variety of accessory proteins and clathrin to coordinate clathrin coat polymerization with membrane deformation and cargo recruitment. In addition, a growing list of alternative adaptors provides opportunity for clathrin-dependent cargo selective pathways of internalization and endosomal sorting. Many of these interactions are now understood in structural detail and are thus amenable to pharmacological interference. In this review we will summarize our present state of knowledge about AP-2 and its partners in endocytosis and delineate potential strategies for pharmacological manipulations.