Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method to detect Tetrodotoxin and Its analogues in the puffer fish Lagocephalus sceleratus (Gmelin, 1789) from European waters

First Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Greek Shellfish by UPLC-MS/MS Potentially Linked to the Presence of the Dinoflagellate Prorocentrum minimum

During official shellfish control for the presence of marine biotoxins in Greece in year 2012, a series of unexplained positive mouse bioassays (MBA) for lipophilic toxins with nervous symptomatology prior to mice death was observed in mussels from Vistonikos Bay–Lagos, Rodopi. This atypical toxicity coincided with (a) absence or low levels of regulated and some non-regulated toxins in mussels and (b) the simultaneous presence of the potentially toxic microalgal species Prorocentrum minimum at levels up to 1.89 × 10³ cells/L in the area’s seawater. Further analyses by different MBA protocols indicated that the unknown toxin was hydrophilic, whereas UPLC-MS/MS analyses revealed the presence of tetrodotoxins (TTXs) at levels up to 222.9 μg/kg. Reviewing of official control data from previous years (2006–2012) identified a number of sample cases with atypical positive to asymptomatic negative MBAs for lipophilic toxins in different Greek production areas, coinciding with periods of P. minimum blooms. UPLC-MS/MS analysis of retained sub-samples from these cases revealed that TTXs were already present in Greek shellfish since 2006, in concentrations ranging between 61.0 and 194.7 μg/kg. To our knowledge, this is the earliest reported detection of TTXs in European bivalve shellfish, while it is also the first work to indicate a possible link between presence of the toxic dinoflagellate P. minimum in seawater and that of TTXs in bivalves. Confirmed presence of TTX, a very heat-stable toxin, in filter-feeding mollusks of the Mediterranean Sea, even at lower levels to those inducing symptomatology to humans, indicates that this emerging risk should be seriously taken into account by the EU to protect the health of shellfish consumers.

Immunoaffinity chromatography purification and ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry determination of tetrodotoxin in marine organisms

A highly selective and sensitive method was developed for the determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in marine organisms by immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) purification coupled with ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). An IAC column was prepared and used to cleanup the extracted samples. The operating conditions of the IAC column were optimized, and the capacity of new IAC column was found to be 1106 ng mL(-1), which was sufficient for TTX determination. The MS/MS conditions and UPLC mobile phase were also studied to optimize the operation conditions. Fortified marine organism samples at levels of 0.3-5.0 ng g(-1) were utilized, and the average recoveries were 86.5-103.6% with intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations less than 7.22 and 9.88%, respectively. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.1 and 0.3 ng g(-1), respectively. The method was later successfully applied for the determination of TTX in 100 marine organism samples collected from local markets.

Tetrodotoxin: chemistry, toxicity, source, distribution and detection

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a naturally occurring toxin that has been responsible for human intoxications and fatalities. Its usual route of toxicity is via the ingestion of contaminated puffer fish which are a culinary delicacy, especially in Japan. TTX was believed to be confined to regions of South East Asia, but recent studies have demonstrated that the toxin has spread to regions in the Pacific and the Mediterranean. There is no known antidote to TTX which is a powerful sodium channel inhibitor. This review aims to collect pertinent information available to date on TTX and its analogues with a special emphasis on the structure, aetiology, distribution, effects and the analytical methods employed for its detection.

Microbial diversity associated with tetrodotoxin production in marine organisms

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), is a potent neurotoxin found in genetically diversed organisms. Many TTX producing microorganism have also been isolated from TTX bearing animals. The TTX producing microbes found in four different phylum (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes), the Proteobacteria are the dominating one. In most of the cases, TTX producing microbes are found in the intestine of the TTX producing vector indicating the origin of TTX through food chain. This paper reviews the TTX and its analogs and the geographic distribution of TTX in symbiotic microorganism and its production.

Development and single laboratory validation of an optical biosensor assay for tetrodotoxin detection as a tool to combat emerging risks in European seafood

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin emerging in European waters due to increasing ocean temperatures. Its detection in seafood is currently performed as a consequence of using the Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) mouse bioassay (MBA) for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, but TTX is not monitored routinely in Europe. Due to ethical and performance-related issues associated with this bioassay, the European Commission has recently published directives extending procedures that may be used for official PSP control. An AOAC-accredited high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method has now been accepted by the European Union as a first action screening method for PSP toxins to replace the MBA. However, this AOAC HPLC method is not capable of detecting TTX, so this potent toxin would be undetected; thereby, a separate method of analysis is required. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical biosensor technology has been proven as a potential alternative screening method to detect PSP toxins in seafood. The addition of a similar SPR inhibition assay for TTX would complement the PSP assay in removing the MBA. The present report describes the development and single laboratory validation in accordance with AOAC and IUPAC guidelines of an SPR method to be used as a rapid screening tool to detect TTX in the sea snail Charonia lampas lampas, a species which has been implicated in 2008 in the first case of human TTX poisoning in Europe. As no current regulatory limits are set for TTX in Europe, single laboratory validation was undertaken using those for PSP toxins at 800 μg/kg. The decision limit (CCα) was 100 μg/kg, with the detection capability (CCβ) found to be ≤200 μg/kg. Repeatability and reproducibility were assessed at 200, 400, and 800 μg/kg and showed relative standard deviations of 8.3, 3.8, and 5.4% and 7.8, 8.3, and 3.7% for both parameters at each level, respectively. At these three respective levels, the recovery of the assay was 112, 98, and 99%.

New gastropod vectors and tetrodotoxin potential expansion in temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean

Tetrodotoxin is a potent low weight marine toxin found in warm waters, especially of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Intoxications are usually linked to the consumption of the puffer fish, although TTX was already detected in several different edible taxa. Benthic organisms such as mollusks and echinoderms, with different feeding habits, were collected monthly along the Portuguese coast from the summer of 2009 until the end of 2010. The extraction and analysis techniques were optimized and TTX and some analogues were detected for the first time in two intertidal gastropod species-Gibbula umbilicalis and Monodonta lineata by LC-MS/MS and UPLC-MS/MS. Although the levels are low, these findings suggest that monitoring of TTX and analogues in North Atlantic species should be implemented so as to detect potentially new toxin vectors and seasonal and/or geographical patterns.