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Kalayou S, Hamre AG, Ndossi D, Connolly L, Sørlie M, Ropstad E, Verhaegen S. Using SILAC proteomics to investigate the effect of the mycotoxin, alternariol, in the human H295R steroidogenesis model. Cell Biol Toxicol 2014; 30:361-76. [PMID: 25416481 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-014-9290-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The mycotoxin alternariol (AOH) is an important contaminant of fruits and cereal products. The current study sought to address the effect of a non-toxic AOH concentration on the proteome of the steroidogenic H295R cell model. Quantitative proteomics based on stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) coupled to 1D-SDS-PAGE-LC-MS/MS was applied to subcellular-enriched protein samples. Gene ontology (GO) and ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) were further carried out for functional annotation and identification of protein interaction networks. Furthermore, the effect of AOH on apoptosis and cell cycle distribution was also determined by the use of flow cytometry analysis. This work identified 22 proteins that were regulated significantly. The regulated proteins are those involved in early stages of steroid biosynthesis (SOAT1, NPC1, and ACBD5) and C21-steroid hormone metabolism (CYP21A2 and HSD3B1). In addition, several proteins known to play a role in cellular assembly, organization, protein synthesis, and cell cycle were regulated. These findings provide a new framework for studying the mechanisms by which AOH modulates steroidogenesis in H295R cell model.
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Vaquera S, Patriarca A, Fernández Pinto V. Water activity and temperature effects on growth of Alternaria arborescens on tomato medium. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 185:136-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Fernández-Blanco C, Font G, Ruiz MJ. Oxidative stress of alternariol in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol Lett 2014; 229:458-64. [PMID: 25072143 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is a mycotoxin produced by fungus Alternaria. It is found in a wide variety of fruits and cereals products. AOH is able to damage human health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxicity of AOH in human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells. Moreover, some events related to oxidative stress were evaluated: reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by oxidation of 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate; peroxidation of lipid (LPO) by malondialdehyde (MDA) production; and antioxidant enzymatic capability of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Cytotoxicity of AOH (from 3.125 to 100 μM) was determined during 24, 48 and 72 h of exposure by different endpoints. AOH decreased cell viability by MTT, NR and PC assays. However, no IC50 values were obtained by any of the assays tested. AOH induced a strong oxidative stress in Caco-2 cells by generation of ROS production and LPO associated with a rise in the SOD activity at all concentration tested. ROS increased 1.2-fold with respect to the control and MDA production ranged from 130% to 250% compared to control. Our results demonstrated that in spite of AOH showing cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 cells at the highest concentration tested, oxidative stress by LPO and ROS was observed at all concentrations assayed. This could cause an injury and be hazardous to health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Fernández-Blanco
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Guillermina Font
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria-Jose Ruiz
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
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Patriarca A, Medina A, Pinto VF, Magan N. Temperature and water stress impacts on growth and production of altertoxin-II by strains of Alternaria tenuissima from Argentinean wheat. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2014. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria tenuissima is commonly isolated from wheat in Argentina. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of temperature (15-34 °C) and water activity (0.98, 0.95 aw) on growth and temporal altertoxin II (ALTX-II) production by two strains over 14-21 days on a milled wheat agar. It was shown that growth occurred over the whole temperature range tested and was optimum at 25-30 °C and 0.98 aw, and 30 °C at 0.95 aw. The incubation time did not show any significant effect on ALTX-II accumulation. The optimum conditions for ALTX-II production were 0.98 aw and 30 °C for both strains. The strains also accumulated significant amounts of this toxin at 34 °C. This is the first study to evaluate the ecology of growth and production of ALTX-II by strains of A. tenuissima.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Patriarca
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón II, 3° Piso, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - A. Medina
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Soil and AgriFood Institute, Cranfield University, Bedford MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - V. Fernández Pinto
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón II, 3° Piso, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - N. Magan
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield Soil and AgriFood Institute, Cranfield University, Bedford MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
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Müller ME, Korn U. Alternaria mycotoxins in wheat – A 10 years survey in the Northeast of Germany. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Oviedo MS, Sturm ME, Reynoso MM, Chulze SN, Ramirez ML. Toxigenic profile and AFLP variability of Alternaria alternata and Alternaria infectoria occurring on wheat. Braz J Microbiol 2013; 44:447-55. [PMID: 24294236 PMCID: PMC3833142 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822013000200017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the ability to produce alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by A. alternata and A. infectoria strains recovered from wheat kernels obtained from one of the main production area in Argentina; to confirm using AFLPs molecular markers the identify of the isolates up to species level, and to evaluate the intra and inter-specific genetic diversity of these two Alternaria species. Among all the Alternaria strains tested (254), 84% of them were able to produce mycotoxins. The most frequent profile of toxin production found was the co-production of AOH and AME in both species tested. TA was only produced by strains of A. alternata. Amplified fragment polymorphism (AFLPs) analysis was applied to a set of 89 isolates of Alternaria spp (40 were A. infectoria and 49 were A. alternata) in order to confirm the morphological identification. The results showed that AFLPs are powerful diagnostic tool for differentiating between A. alternata and A. infectoria. Indeed, in the current study the outgroup strains, A. tenuissima was consistently classified. Characteristic polymorphic bands separated these two species regardless of the primer combination used. Related to intraspecific variability, A. alternata and A. infectoria isolates evaluated seemed to form and homogeneous group with a high degree of similarity among the isolates within each species. However, there was more scoreable polymorphism within A. alternata than within A. infectoria isolates. There was a concordance between morphological identification and separation up to species level using molecular markers. Clear polymorphism both within and between species showed that AFLP can be used to asses genetic variation in A. alternata and A. infectoria. The most important finding of the present study was the report on AOH and AME production by A. infectoria strains isolated from wheat kernels in Argentina on a semisynthetic media for the first time. Also, specific bands for A. alternata and A. infectoria have been identified; these may be useful for the design of specific PCR primers in order to differentiate these species and to detect them in cereals.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Silvina Oviedo
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Fco-Qcas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina
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Garrido CE, González HHL, Salas MP, Resnik SL, Pacin AM. Mycoflora and mycotoxin contamination of Roundup Ready soybean harvested in the Pampean Region, Argentina. Mycotoxin Res 2013; 29:147-57. [PMID: 23765598 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-013-0169-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2012] [Revised: 05/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A total of 89 freshly harvested soybean seed samples (Roundup Ready [transgenic] soybean cultivars) from the 2010/2011 crop season were collected from five locations in the Northern Pampean Region II, Argentina. These samples were analyzed for internal mycoflora, toxin production of isolated fungi, and for a range of mycotoxins. Mycotoxin analysis of aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FBs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) was done by HPLC-FLD (high performance liquid chromatography with postcolumn fluorescence derivatization), alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether with HPLC-UV (HPLC with UV detection), trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, fusarenon X, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol were analyzed by GC-ECD (gas chromatography with electron capture detector). Fungal colonization was more frequently found for samples from América, Saladillo and Trenque Lauquen than for samples from General Villegas and Trenel; a total of 1,401 fungal isolates were obtained from the soybean seeds. The most commonly identified fungal genera were Alternaria, Sclerotinia, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Phomopsis and Fusarium. Alternaria alternata, A.tenuissima, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium citrinum, Fusarium verticillioides and F.semitectum were the predominant toxigenic fungal species. Mycotoxin production was confirmed for several isolates of toxigenic species, including Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, Alternaria alternata, A.tenuissima, Fusarium graminearum, F semitectum and F. verticillioides. In particular, the percentage of mycotoxigenic Alternaria alternata (100%), A.tenuissima (95%) and aflatoxigenic strains of A. flavus (57%) were remarkably high. Although none of the mycotoxins, AFs, ZEA, FBs, trichothecenes and OTA, were directly detected in samples of soybean seeds, the frequent presence of toxigenic fungal species indicates the risk of multiple mycotoxin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina E Garrido
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Shimshoni JA, Cuneah O, Sulyok M, Krska R, Galon N, Sharir B, Shlosberg A. Mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1614-25. [PMID: 23789893 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.802840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Silage is an important feed source for intensive dairy herds worldwide. Fungal growth and mycotoxin production before and during silage storage is a well-known phenomenon, resulting in reduced nutritional value and a possible risk factor for animal health. With this in mind, a survey was conducted to determine for the first time the occurrence of mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel. A total of 30 corn and wheat silage samples were collected from many sources and analysed using a multi-mycotoxin method based on LC-MS/MS. Most mycotoxins recorded in the present study have not been reported before in Israel. Overall, 23 mycotoxins were found in corn silage; while wheat silage showed a similar pattern of mycotoxin occurrence comprising 20 mycotoxins. The most common post-harvest mycotoxins produced by the Penicillium roqueforti complex were not found in any tested samples, indicative of high-quality preparation and use of silage. Moreover, none of the European Union-regulated mycotoxins--aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol and deoxynivalenol--were found above their limits of detection (LODs). The Alternaria mycotoxins--macrosporin, tentoxin and alternariol methyl ether--were highly prevalent in both corn and wheat silage (>80%), but at low concentrations. The most prominent (>80%) Fusarium mycotoxins in corn silage were fusaric acid, fumonisins, beauvericin, monilifomin, equisetin, zearalenone and enniatins, whereas in wheat silage only beauvericin, zearalenone and enniatins occurred in more than 80% of the samples. The high prevalence and concentration of fusaric acid (mean = 765 µg kg⁻¹) in Israeli corn silage indicates that this may be the toxin of highest potential concern to dairy cow performance. However, more data from different harvest years and seasons are needed in order to establish a more precise evaluation of the mycotoxin burden in Israeli silage.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Shimshoni
- a Department of Toxicology , Kimron Veterinary Institute , Bet Dagan 50250 , Israel
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Vučković J, Bodroža-Solarov M, Vujić Đ, Bočarov-Stančić A, Bagi F. The protective effect of hulls on the occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in spelt wheat. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2013; 93:1996-2001. [PMID: 23255302 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.6005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Revised: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since there is an increasing demand on the world market for alternative crops suitable for organic production, spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum spp. spelta L.) is a highly attractive farming option. Alternaria species are widespread and infect a great variety of economically important crops. Certain species are known producers of mycotoxins. The aim of this study was to assess the protective effect of hulls covering the spelt kernels on Alternaria toxins. RESULTS Alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) were evaluated in hulls and dehulled kernels after plant inoculation with one A. alternata and two different A. tenuissima isolates. Mycotoxins were determinated using high-performance liquid chromatography with dioade array detection. The detected levels of AOH and AME were four times higher in hulls compared to kernels in inoculation treatments. AOH was registered at levels ranging from 227 to 331 µg kg(-1) in dehulled kernels and from 433 up to 1647 µg kg(-1) in hulls. AME was predominant toxin detected in the range of 277 to 398 µg kg(-1) in dehulled kernels and from 1844 to 2183 µg kg(-1) in hulls, with highly significant difference to water control treatment. CONCLUSION Obtained results indicate the significantly higher concentrations of Alternaria toxins in hulls than in dehulled kernels which implicate the possible protective effect of spelt wheat hulls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jovana Vučković
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, Serbia.
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60
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Mikula H, Horkel E, Hans P, Hametner C, Fröhlich J. Structure and tautomerism of tenuazonic acid--a synergetic computational and spectroscopic approach. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 250-251:308-317. [PMID: 23474405 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
All reasonable tautomers and rotamers of tenuazonic acid, which is considered to be of the highest toxicity amongst the Alternaria mycotoxins, were investigated by DFT calculations at different levels of theory in gas phase and in solution to obtain optimized geometries for further examinations. Calculated NMR spectra of tautomeric structures are being presented and compared to experimental data to finally achieve a synergetic computational and spectroscopic approach for structure elucidation of 3-acetyltetramic acids, affording the predominant tautomer of tenuazonic acid in aqueous solution. Furthermore we were able to simulate the less hindered rotation of the exocyclic acetyl group, which occurs after dissociation of tenuazonic acid in protic solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Mikula
- Vienna University of Technology, Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Getreidemarkt 9/163-OC, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
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61
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Development of analytical methods for the determination of tenuazonic acid analogues in food commodities. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1289:27-36. [PMID: 23578482 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Analogues of the Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid (TA, biosynthesized by the fungus from the amino acid isoleucine) derived from valine (ValTA), leucine (LeuTA), alanine (AlaTA) and phenylalanine (PheTA) were synthesized and characterized by mass spectrometry (MS) and (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Concentrations of stock solutions were determined by quantitative (1)H NMR (qHNMR). Two analytical methods based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and MS detection were developed, one with derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) and one without derivatization. Limits of detection (LODs) were between 1-3 μg/kg (with derivatization) and 50-80 μg/kg (without derivatization). Respective limits of quantitation (LOQs) were about three times higher. Beside TA, the analogues LeuTA (about 4% of TA content) and ValTA (about 10% of TA content) were found in highly contaminated sorghum infant cereals and sorghum grains. Other analogues were not detected. Quantification of LeuTA and ValTA was performed using [(13)C6,(15)N]-TA as internal standard and matrix matched calibration. Recovery was between 95±11% and 102±10% for both compounds. Precision (relative standard deviation of triplicate sorghum cereal analyses three times during 3 weeks) was 7% for TA (912±60 μg/kg), 17% for LeuTA (43±8 μg/kg) and 19% for ValTA (118±22 μg/kg). These results indicate that several TA-like compounds, which are not yet characterized in aspects of their toxic properties, were detected in sorghum based infant food highly contaminated with TA, already.
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A new method for detection of five alternaria toxins in food matrices based on LC-APCI-MS. Food Chem 2013; 140:161-7. [PMID: 23578628 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.12.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A new method for the detection of alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT), tentoxin (TEN), and tenuazonic acid (TeA), five alternaria toxins (ATs) was developed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry equipped with atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI). A single extraction was used to recover the five ATs by apple juices, beers, tomato sauces, olives and dried basil. Different Solid Phase Extractions (SPE) and clean-up were selected to optimise the purification step for each food matrix. Limits of detection and quantification were, respectively, in the range 0.16-12.31 and 0.54-41.04 ng g(-1). Recovery rates were generally above 70%, except for dried basil and olives. Thirty out of 70 samples analysed (7 apple juices, 14 beers and 9 tomato sauces) resulted positive to at least one alternaria toxin investigated. AOH was the most common AT (14 samples), followed by ALT (10 samples). The highest concentration of ATs was found in commercial apple juices (35.33 ng g(-1)).
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AMATULLI MT, FANELLI F, MORETTI A, MULE G, LOGRIECO AF. Alternaria species and mycotoxins associated to black point of cereals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.63.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Müller M, Steier I, Köppen R, Siegel D, Proske M, Korn U, Koch M. Cocultivation of phytopathogenic Fusarium and Alternaria strains affects fungal growth and mycotoxin production. J Appl Microbiol 2012; 113:874-87. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05388.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M.E.H. Müller
- Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research ZALF; Institute of Landscape Biogeochemistry; Müncheberg; Germany
| | - I. Steier
- Technical University of Applied Sciences; Wildau; Germany
| | - R. Köppen
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing; Berlin; Germany
| | - D. Siegel
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing; Berlin; Germany
| | - M. Proske
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing; Berlin; Germany
| | - U. Korn
- Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research ZALF; Institute of Landscape Biogeochemistry; Müncheberg; Germany
| | - M. Koch
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing; Berlin; Germany
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Graf E, Schmidt-Heydt M, Geisen R. HOG MAP kinase regulation of alternariol biosynthesis in Alternaria alternata is important for substrate colonization. Int J Food Microbiol 2012; 157:353-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Brzonkalik K, Hümmer D, Syldatk C, Neumann A. Influence of pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio on mycotoxin production by Alternaria alternata in submerged cultivation. AMB Express 2012; 2:28. [PMID: 22608165 PMCID: PMC3441619 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-2-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Production of the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by Alternaria alternata DSM 12633 was influenced by pH and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the growth medium both in shaking flasks and bioreactor cultivation. The impact of medium pH on mycotoxin production was studied in the range of pH 3.5 - 8. pH values above 5.5 led to a decreased mycotoxin production or inhibited mycotoxin formation completely whereas an acidic pH in the range of 4.0-4.5 was optimal for mycotoxin production. The influence of the C:N ratio was evaluated over the range of 24 to 96. Glucose was used as carbon source and its concentration was altered while nitrogen concentration was kept constant. Growth kinetics and mycotoxin production parameters were studied depending on different C:N ratios. With increasing initial glucose concentration fungal biomass did increase but the maximum specific growth rate was not influenced. The optimal initial C:N ratio for attaining highest mycotoxin concentrations was 72. A higher C:N ratio did not further enhance mycotoxin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Brzonkalik
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Dominik Hümmer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Syldatk
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anke Neumann
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Pavón MÁ, Luna A, de la Cruz S, González I, Martín R, García T. PCR-based assay for the detection of Alternaria species and correlation with HPLC determination of altenuene, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether production in tomato products. Food Control 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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68
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Content of the Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid in food commodities determined by a stable isotope dilution assay. Mycotoxin Res 2011; 28:9-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-011-0111-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/10/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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69
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Brzonkalik K, Herrling T, Syldatk C, Neumann A. Process development for the elucidation of mycotoxin formation in Alternaria alternata. AMB Express 2011; 1:27. [PMID: 21970547 PMCID: PMC3222323 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-1-27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The black mould Alternaria alternata produces a wide diversity of mycotoxins which are of particular health concern. Since no maximum allowable limits are set for Alternaria toxins in food and feed, prevention of Alternaria infestations and mycotoxin spoilage is the only way to avoid health risks. Thus, the understanding of mycotoxin biosynthesis is essential. For that purpose, a reliable batch process in a 2 L bioreactor was established which enables the study of several parameters influencing the production of the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by A. alternata DSM 12633. Modified Czapek-Dox medium was used with glucose as carbon source and ammonium and nitrate as nitrogen sources. Consumption of carbon and nitrogen sources as well as formation of the three mycotoxins were monitored; the average data of five independent fermentations was plotted and fitted using a logistic equation with four parameters. Maximum mycotoxin concentrations of 3.49 ± 0.12 mg/L AOH, 1.62 ± 0.14 mg/L AME and 38.28 ± 0.1 mg/L TA were obtained.In this system the effect of different aeration rates (0.53 vvm-0.013 vvm) was tested which exerted a great influence on mycotoxin production. The use of the semi-synthetic Czapek-Dox medium allowed the exchange of carbon and nitrogen sources for acetate and aspartic acid. The use of acetate instead of glucose resulted in the sole production of alternariol whereas the exchange of ammonium and nitrate for aspartate enhanced the production of both AOH and AME while TA production was not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Brzonkalik
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Tanja Herrling
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Syldatk
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anke Neumann
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Bensassi F, Bouslimi A, Golli-Bennour EE, Gargouri S, Rabeh Hajlaoui M, Bacha H. Comparative Cytotoxicity of the Possibly Occurring Mycotoxins in Wheat on the Basis of a Mycological Analysis. CRYPTOGAMIE MYCOL 2011. [DOI: 10.7872/crym.v32.iss3.2011.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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71
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Brzonkalik K, Herrling T, Syldatk C, Neumann A. The influence of different nitrogen and carbon sources on mycotoxin production in Alternaria alternata. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 147:120-6. [PMID: 21496935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the influence of different carbon and nitrogen sources on the production of the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by Alternaria alternata at 28°C using a semi-synthetic medium (modified Czapek-Dox broth) supplemented with nitrogen and carbon sources. Additionally the effect of shaken and static cultivation on mycotoxin production was tested. Initial experiments showed a clear dependency between nitrogen depletion and mycotoxin production. To assess whether nitrogen limitation in general or the type of nitrogen source triggers the production, various nitrogen sources including several ammonium/nitrate salts and amino acids were tested. In static culture the production of AOH/AME can be enhanced greatly with phenylalanine whereas some nitrogen sources seem to inhibit the AOH/AME production completely. TA was not significantly affected by the choice of nitrogen source. In shaken culture the overall production of all mycotoxins was lower compared to static cultivation. Furthermore tests with a wide variety of carbon sources including monosaccharides, disaccharides, complex saccharides such as starch as well as glycerol and acetate were performed. In shaken culture AOH was produced when glucose, fructose, sucrose, acetate or mixtures of glucose/sucrose and glucose/acetate were used as carbon sources. AME production was not detected. The use of sodium acetate resulted in the highest AOH production. In static culture AOH production was also stimulated by acetate and the amount is comparable to shaken conditions. Under static conditions production of AOH was lower except when cultivated with acetate. In static cultivation 9 of 14 tested carbon sources induced mycotoxin production compared to 4 in shaken culture. This is the first study which analyses the influence of carbon and nitrogen sources in a semi-synthetic medium and assesses the effects of culture conditions on mycotoxin production by A. alternata.
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Bioactive metabolites from Alternaria brassicicola ML-P08, an endophytic fungus residing in Malus halliana. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-009-0062-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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73
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Logrieco A, Moretti A, Solfrizzo M. Alternaria toxins and plant diseases: an overview of origin, occurrence and risks. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2009. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2009.1145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The genus Alternaria includes both plant-pathogenic and saprophytic species, which may affect crops in the field or cause harvest and postharvest decay of plant products. The taxonomy of the genus Alternaria is not well-defined yet. A polyphasic approach based on morphological features, phylogeny and toxin profiles could be the key to a correct identification at species level and the evaluation of mycotoxin risks associated with fungal contamination. Species of Alternaria are known to produce many metabolites, mostly phytotoxins, which play an important role in the pathogenesis of plants. However, certain species, in particular the most common one A. alternata, are capable of producing several mycotoxins in infected plants and/or in agricultural commodities. The major Alternaria mycotoxins belong to three structural classes: the tetramic acid derivative, tenuazonic acid; the dibenzopyrone derivatives, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and altenuene; and the perylene derivatives, the altertoxins. The toxic effects of the Alternaria toxins have not yet received the same attention as the biological activities of other mycotoxins. However, the Alternaria mycotoxins should not be underestimated since they are produced by several Alternaria species frequently associated with a wide range of diseases in many plants of a high agrifood value. The major problems associated with Alternaria mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products are illustrated by focusing on various crops and their relevant diseases, e.g. black rot of tomato, olive, and carrots; black and grey rot of citrus fruits; black point of small-grain cereals; and Alternaria diseases of apples.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - A. Moretti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - M. Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
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Determination of the Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid in cereals by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization ion-trap multistage mass spectrometry after derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:4582-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.03.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Revised: 03/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Azcarate MP, Patriarca A, Terminiello L, Fernández Pinto V. Alternaria toxins in wheat during the 2004 to 2005 Argentinean harvest. J Food Prot 2008; 71:1262-5. [PMID: 18592757 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-71.6.1262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The natural occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in Argentinean wheat from the zone 5 South during the 2004 to 2005 harvest was investigated in 64 wheat samples. All samples were highly contaminated with a wide range of fungal species. Alternaria was found as the main component of the mycota, with an infection percentage of 100%. Three mycotoxins produced by species of Alternaria were determined in wheat: alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and tenuazonic acid. Alternariol was detected in 4 (6%) of 64 samples, with a range of 645 to 1,388 microg/kg (mean of 1,054 microg/kg); alternariol monomethyl ether, with a range of 566 to 7,451 microg/kg (mean of 2,118 microg/kg) in 15 (23%) of 64 samples; and tenuazonic acid in 12 (19%) of 64 samples, with a range of 1,001 to 8,814 microg/kg (mean, 2,313 microg/kg). Alternariol monomethyl ether was the predominant toxin, but tenuazonic acid was detected in higher concentrations. Alternariol was present in fewer samples and in lower levels than were the other toxins. Tenuazonic acid and alternariol monomethyl ether occurred together in four samples, while tenuazonic acid and alternariol co-occurred in one sample. This the first report of the natural occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in Argentinean wheat. Toxin levels were high, probably due to the heavy infection with Alternaria species found in the samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Azcarate
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Anguil "Ing. Agr. Guillermo Covas.," Ruta Nacional 5 Km 580, C.C: 11 (6326), Anguil, La Pampa, Argentina
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Ostry V. Alternaria mycotoxins: an overview of chemical characterization, producers, toxicity, analysis and occurrence in foodstuffs. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2008. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.x013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Microfungi of the genus Alternaria are ubiquitous pathogens and saprophytes. Many species of the genus Alternaria commonly cause spoilage of various food crops in the field or post-harvest decay. Due to their growth even at low temperatures, they are also responsible for spoilage of these commodities during refrigerated transport and storage. Several Alternaria species are known producers of toxic secondary metabolites - Alternaria mycotoxins. A. alternata produces a number of mycotoxins, including alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, altertoxins I, II, III, tenuazonic acid and other less toxic metabolites. Tenuazonic acid is toxic to several animal species, e.g. mice, chicken, dogs. Alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene and altertoxin I are not very acutely toxic. There are several reports on the mutagenicity and genotoxicity of alternariol, and alternariol monomethyl ether. Alternariol has been identified as a topoisomerase I and II poison which might contribute to the impairment of DNA integrity in human colon carcinoma cells. Analytical methods to determine Alternaria toxins are largely based on procedures, involving cleanup by solvent partitioning or solid phase extraction, followed by chromatographic separation techniques, in combination with ultraviolet, fluorescence, electrochemical and mass spectroscopic detection. A large number of Alternaria metabolites has been reported to occur naturally in food commodities (e.g. fruit, vegetables, cereals and oil plants). Alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid were frequently detected in apples, apple products, mandarins, olives, pepper, red pepper, tomatoes, tomato products, oilseed rape meal, sunflower seeds, sorghum, wheat and edible oils. Alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether were detected in citrus fruit, Japanese pears, prune nectar, raspberries, red currant, carrots, barley and oats. Alternariol monomethyl ether and tenuazonic acid were detected in melon. Natural occurrence of alternariol has been reported in apple juice, cranberry juice, grape juice, prune nectar, raspberry juice, red wine and lentils.
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Affiliation(s)
- V. Ostry
- National Institute of Public Health, Centre for Hygiene of Food Chains, National Reference Centre for Microfungi and Mycotoxins in Food Chains, Palackeho 3a, 61242 Brno, Czech Republic
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