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Liu X, Qin X, Xiang Y, Liu H, Gao G, Qin L, Liu C, Qu X. Progressive changes in inflammatory and matrix adherence of bronchial epithelial cells with persistent respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection (progressive changes in RSV infection). Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:18024-40. [PMID: 24005865 PMCID: PMC3794767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140918024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to the acute manifestations of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), persistent infection may be associated with long-term complications in the development of chronic respiratory diseases. To understand the mechanisms underlying RSV-induced long-term consequences, we established an in vitro RSV (strain A2) infection model using human bronchial epithelial (16HBE) cells that persists over four generations and analyzed cell inflammation and matrix adherence. Cells infected with RSV at multiplicity of infection (MOI) 0.0067 experienced cytolytic or abortive infections in the second generation (G2) or G3 but mostly survived up to G4. Cell morphology, leukocyte and matrix adherence of the cells did not change in G1 or G2, but subsequently, leukocyte adherence and cytokine/chemokine secretion, partially mediated by intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), increased drastically, and matrix adherence, partially mediated by E-cadherin, decreased until the cells died. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) secretion was inhibited by ICAM-1 antibody in infected-16HBE cells, suggesting that positive feedback between TNF-α secretion and ICAM-1 expression may be significant in exacerbated inflammation. These data demonstrate the susceptibility of 16HBE cells to RSV and their capacity to produce long-term progressive RSV infection, which may contribute to inflammation mobilization and epithelial shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoai Liu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
- Department of Physiology, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510182, China
| | - Xiaoqun Qin
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +86-731-8235-5051; Fax: +86-731-8235-5056
| | - Yang Xiang
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
| | - Huijun Liu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
| | - Ge Gao
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
| | - Ling Qin
- Respiratory Department, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mail:
| | - Chi Liu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
| | - Xiangping Qu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; E-Mails: (X.L.); (Y.X.); (H.L.); (G.G.); (C.L.); (X.Q.)
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Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause of respiratory illness in infants worldwide. Neurologic alterations, such as seizures and ataxia, have been associated with RSV infection. We demonstrate the presence of RSV proteins and RNA in zones of the brain--such as the hippocampus, ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus, and brainstem--of infected mice. One month after disease resolution, rodents showed behavioral and cognitive impairment in marble burying (MB) and Morris water maze (MWM) tests. Our data indicate that the learning impairment caused by RSV is a result of a deficient induction of long-term potentiation in the hippocampus of infected animals. In addition, immunization with recombinant bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) expressing RSV nucleoprotein prevented behavioral disorders, corroborating the specific effect of RSV infection over the central nervous system. Our findings provide evidence that RSV can spread from the airways to the central nervous system and cause functional alterations to the brain, both of which can be prevented by proper immunization against RSV.
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Neonatal calf infection with respiratory syncytial virus: drawing parallels to the disease in human infants. Viruses 2013; 4:3731-53. [PMID: 23342375 PMCID: PMC3528288 DOI: 10.3390/v4123731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common viral cause of childhood acute lower respiratory tract infections. It is estimated that RSV infections result in more than 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. Bovine RSV is a cause of enzootic pneumonia in young dairy calves and summer pneumonia in nursing beef calves. Furthermore, bovine RSV plays a significant role in bovine respiratory disease complex, the most prevalent cause of morbidity and mortality among feedlot cattle. Infection of calves with bovine RSV shares features in common with RSV infection in children, such as an age-dependent susceptibility. In addition, comparable microscopic lesions consisting of bronchiolar neutrophilic infiltrates, epithelial cell necrosis, and syncytial cell formation are observed. Further, our studies have shown an upregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators in RSV-infected calves, including IL-12p40 and CXCL8 (IL-8). This finding is consistent with increased levels of IL-8 observed in children with RSV bronchiolitis. Since rodents lack IL-8, neonatal calves can be useful for studies of IL-8 regulation in response to RSV infection. We have recently found that vitamin D in milk replacer diets can be manipulated to produce calves differing in circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D3. The results to date indicate that although the vitamin D intracrine pathway is activated during RSV infection, pro-inflammatory mediators frequently inhibited by the vitamin D intacrine pathway in vitro are, in fact, upregulated or unaffected in lungs of infected calves. This review will summarize available data that provide parallels between bovine RSV infection in neonatal calves and human RSV in infants.
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Lay MK, González PA, León MA, Céspedes PF, Bueno SM, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Advances in understanding respiratory syncytial virus infection in airway epithelial cells and consequential effects on the immune response. Microbes Infect 2012; 15:230-42. [PMID: 23246463 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews aspects of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in airway epithelial cells (AECs), including cytopathogenesis, entry, replication and the induction of immune response to the virus, including a new role for thymic stromal lymphopoietin in RSV immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita K Lay
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Alameda 340, Santiago E-8331010, Chile
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Katzov-Eckert H, Botosso VF, Neto EA, Zanotto PMDA. Phylodynamics and dispersal of HRSV entails its permanence in the general population in between yearly outbreaks in children. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41953. [PMID: 23077477 PMCID: PMC3471929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is one of the major etiologic agents of respiratory tract infections among children worldwide. Methodology/Principal Findings Here through a comprehensive analysis of the two major HRSV groups A and B (n = 1983) which comprise of several genotypes, we present a complex pattern of population dynamics of HRSV over a time period of 50 years (1956–2006). Circulation pattern of HRSV revealed a series of expansions and fluctuations of co-circulating lineages with a predominance of HRSVA. Positively selected amino acid substitutions of the G glycoprotein occurred upon population growth of GB3 with a 60-nucleotide insertion (GB3 Insert), while other genotypes acquired substitutions upon both population growth and decrease, thus possibly reflecting a role for immune selected epitopes in linkage to the traced substitution sites that may have important relevance for vaccine design. Analysis evidenced the co-circulation and predominance of distinct HRSV genotypes in Brazil and suggested a year-round presence of the virus. In Brazil, GA2 and GA5 were the main culprits of HRSV outbreaks until recently, when the GB3 Insert became highly prevalent. Using Bayesian methods, we determined the dispersal patterns of genotypes through several inferred migratory routes. Conclusions/Significance Genotypes spread across continents and between neighboring areas. Crucially, genotypes also remained at any given region for extended periods, independent of seasonal outbreaks possibly maintained by re-infecting the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagit Katzov-Eckert
- Laboratory of Molecular Evolution and Bioinformatics, Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute-ICB-II, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Eurico Arruda Neto
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil, and the VGDN Consortium
| | - Paolo Marinho de Andrade Zanotto
- Laboratory of Molecular Evolution and Bioinformatics, Department of Microbiology, Biomedical Sciences Institute-ICB-II, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Lee HC, Headley MB, Loo YM, Berlin A, Gale M, Debley JS, Lukacs NW, Ziegler SF. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is induced by respiratory syncytial virus-infected airway epithelial cells and promotes a type 2 response to infection. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 130:1187-1196.e5. [PMID: 22981788 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Respiratory viral infection, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and rhinovirus, has been linked to respiratory disease in pediatric patients, including severe acute bronchiolitis and asthma exacerbation. OBJECTIVE The study examined the role of the epithelial-derived cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) in the response to RSV infection. METHODS Infection of human airway epithelial cells was used to examine TSLP induction after RSV infection. Air-liquid interface cultures from healthy children and children with asthma were also tested for TSLP production after infection. Finally, a mouse model was used to directly test the role of TSLP signaling in the response to RSV infection. RESULTS Infection of airway epithelial cells with RSV led to the production of TSLP via activation of an innate signaling pathway that involved retinoic acid induced gene I, interferon promoter-stimulating factor 1, and nuclear factor-κB. Consistent with this observation, airway epithelial cells from asthmatic children a produced significantly greater levels of TSLP after RSV infection than cells from healthy children. In mouse models, RSV-induced TSLP expression was found to be critical for the development of immunopathology. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that RSV can use an innate antiviral signaling pathway to drive a potentially nonproductive immune response and has important implications for the role of TSLP in viral immune responses in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Chon Lee
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
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Gershwin LJ. Immunology of bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection of cattle. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 35:253-7. [PMID: 22410266 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2012.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2011] [Revised: 01/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) is a respiratory pathogen of cattle that causes severe disease in calves alone and as one of several viruses and bacteria that cause bovine respiratory disease complex. Like human RSV this virus modulates the immune response to avoid stimulation of a vibrant CD8+ T cytotoxic cell response and instead promotes a Th2 response. The Th2 skew sometimes results in the production of IgE antibodies and depresses production of the Th1 cytokine interferon γ. Innate immune cells have a pivotal role in guiding the adaptive response to BRSV, with selective secretion of cytokines by pulmonary dendritic cells. Here we review some of the pertinent observations on immune responses to BRSV infection and vaccination and illustrate how experimental infection models have been used to elucidate the immunopathogenesis of BRSV infection. Recent experiments using intranasal vaccination and/or immune modulation with DNA based adjuvants show promise for effective vaccination by the stimulation of Th1 T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel J Gershwin
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, & Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
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58
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González PA, Bueno SM, Carreño LJ, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Respiratory syncytial virus infection and immunity. Rev Med Virol 2012; 22:230-44. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Carreño LJ, González PA, Bueno SM, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Modulation of the dendritic cell-T-cell synapse to promote pathogen immunity and prevent autoimmunity. Immunotherapy 2011; 3:6-11. [PMID: 21524159 DOI: 10.2217/imt.11.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular interactions occurring at the interface between dendritic cells (DCs) and T cells play an important role in the immune surveillance against infectious agents, as well as in autoimmune pathogenesis. Therefore, regulation of this interaction arises as an important tool for the prevention and treatment of immune disorders and to improve the protection against pathogens without causing detrimental inflammation. Some of the molecular interactions defining the outcome of the DC-T cell interaction are: T-cell receptor (TCR) binding to the pMHC on the DC surface, which is responsible for the antigenic specificity; and the ratio of activating/inhibitory receptor pairs on the surface of DCs and T cells, which modulate DC immunogenicity and T-cell function, respectively. An alteration in the proper function of these molecules could lead to unbalanced DC-T-cell synapses that either cause a failure to control infections or exacerbated inflammation. Furthermore, some pathogens have developed molecular strategies to impair the function of the synapse to evade adaptive immunity. In this article, we will discuss recent work relative to the molecular mechanisms controlling DC-T-cell synapse and their implications on immunoregulation to control autoimmunity and potentiate pathogen immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro J Carreño
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Alameda 340, Casilla 114-D, Santiago, Chile
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Luo YH, Huang CY, Yang KY, Lee YC. Tratamiento con ribavirina inhalada en el síndrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda inducida por virus respiratorio sincitial en el adulto. Arch Bronconeumol 2011; 47:315-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2010] [Revised: 11/21/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Bueno SM, González PA, Riedel CA, Carreño LJ, Vásquez AE, Kalergis AM. Local cytokine response upon respiratory syncytial virus infection. Immunol Lett 2010; 136:122-9. [PMID: 21195729 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2010.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Revised: 11/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of childhood hospitalization and respiratory distress and has been recognized for several decades as a major health and economic burden worldwide. This virus has developed several virulence mechanisms to impair the establishment of a protective immune response to re-infection. Accordingly, inefficient immunological memory is usually generated after exposure to this pathogen. Furthermore, it has been shown that RSV can actively promote the induction of an inadequate cellular immune response at the site of infection that causes exacerbated inflammation in the respiratory tract. Such an inflammatory response is both inefficient for clearing the virus and can be responsible for detrimental symptoms, such as asthma and wheezing. Recent data suggest that RSV possesses molecular mechanisms to induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines that modulate the immune response and impair viral clearance by reducing IFN-γ production. Here, we discuss recent research leading to the identification of RSV virulence factors that are responsible of promoting a pro-inflammatory environment at the airways and their implications on pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Bueno
- Millennium Nucleus on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Cautivo KM, Bueno SM, Cortes CM, Wozniak A, Riedel CA, Kalergis AM. Efficient lung recruitment of respiratory syncytial virus-specific Th1 cells induced by recombinant bacillus Calmette-Guérin promotes virus clearance and protects from infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:7633-45. [PMID: 21084664 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Infection by the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can cause extensive inflammation and lung damage in susceptible hosts due to a Th2-biased immune response. Such a deleterious inflammatory response can be enhanced by immunization with formalin- or UV-inactivated RSV, as well as with vaccinia virus expressing the RSV-G protein. Recently, we have shown that vaccination with rBCG-expressing RSV Ags can prevent the disease in the mouse. To further understand the immunological mechanisms responsible for protection against RSV, we have characterized the T cell populations contributing to virus clearance in mice immunized with this BCG-based vaccine. We found that both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were recruited significantly earlier to the lungs of infected mice that were previously vaccinated. Furthermore, we observed that simultaneous adoptive transfer of CD8(+) and CD4(+) RSV-specific T cells from vaccinated mice was required to confer protection against virus infection in naive recipients. In addition, CD4(+) T cells induced by vaccination released IFN-γ after RSV challenge, indicating that protection is mediated by a Th1 immune response. These data suggest that vaccination with rBCG-expressing RSV Ags can induce a specific effector/memory Th1 immune response consisting on CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells, both necessary for a fully protective response against RSV. These results support the notion that an effective induction of Th1 T cell immunity against RSV during childhood could counteract the unbalanced Th2-like immune response triggered by the natural RSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Cautivo
- Millennium Nucleus on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Alameda 340, Santiago, Chile
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Qiao J, Li A, Jin X. TSLP from RSV-stimulated rat airway epithelial cells activates myeloid dendritic cells. Immunol Cell Biol 2010; 89:231-8. [PMID: 20603637 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2010.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a primary cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children, the elderly and in people who are immune suppressed, and is also the cause for the development of asthma primarily in infants. However, the immunological mechanisms by which RSV enhances allergic sensitization and asthma remain unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of RSV-infected airway epithelial cells on the activation and functions of rat myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs).We found that the exposure of primary rat airway epithelial cells (PRAECs) to RSV induced a rapid (6 h), high (12 h) and persistent (18 h) increase in thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) mRNA compared with untreated PRAECs. TSLP protein expression was also enhanced by RSV infection. Functional maturation of mDCs was induced by RSV-treated PRAECs, as shown by their enhanced levels of OX40L and thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC) mRNAs, which increased the expressions of major histocompatibility complex II (MHCII) and CD86 costimulatory molecules and promoted enhanced T-cell proliferation in mixed lymphocyte reactions. These activities were inhibited in cocultures with RSV-infected RTECs (rat tracheal epithelial cells, an immortalized cell strain) that had been pretreated with TSLP-targeted small interfering RNA. These results suggest that RSV can induce epithelial cells to produce TSLP, which in turn promotes the maturation of mDCs that might support Th2 cell polarization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianou Qiao
- Respiratory Department, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
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Shirey KA, Pletneva LM, Puche AC, Keegan AD, Prince GA, Blanco JC, Vogel SN. Control of RSV-induced lung injury by alternatively activated macrophages is IL-4R alpha-, TLR4-, and IFN-beta-dependent. Mucosal Immunol 2010; 3:291-300. [PMID: 20404812 PMCID: PMC2875872 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2010.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced bronchiolitis has been associated with a mixed "Th1" and "Th2" cytokine storm. We hypothesized that differentiation of "alternatively activated" macrophages (AA-M phi) would mediate the resolution of RSV-induced lung injury. RSV induced interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13 by murine lung and peritoneal macrophages, IL-4R alpha/STAT6-dependent AA-M phi differentiation, and significantly enhanced inflammation in the lungs of IL-4R alpha(-/-) mice. Adoptive transfer of wildtype macrophages to IL-4R alpha(-/-) mice restored RSV-inducible AA-M phi phenotype and diminished lung pathology. RSV-infected Toll-like receptor (TLR)4(-/-) and interferon (IFN)-beta(-/-) macrophages and mice also failed to express AA-M phi markers, but exhibited sustained proinflammatory cytokine production (e.g., IL-12) in vitro and in vivo and epithelial damage in vivo. TLR4 signaling is required for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma expression, a DNA-binding protein that induces AA-M phi genes, whereas IFN-beta regulates IL-4, IL-13, IL-4R alpha, and IL-10 expression in response to RSV. RSV-infected cotton rats treated with a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor increased expression of lung AA-M phi. These data suggest new treatment strategies for RSV that promote AA-M phi differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Ann Shirey
- Dept. of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB), Baltimore, MD 21201; USA
| | | | - Adam C. Puche
- Dept. of Anatomy and Neurobiology; University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB), Baltimore, MD 21201; USA
| | - Achsah D. Keegan
- Dept. of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB), Baltimore, MD 21201; USA
| | | | | | - Stefanie N. Vogel
- Dept. of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB), Baltimore, MD 21201; USA
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66
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Abstract
Although most viral infections cause minor, if any, symptoms, a certain number result in serious illness. Viral disease symptoms result both from direct viral replication within host cells and from indirect immunopathological consequences. Dendritic cells (DCs) are key determinants of viral disease outcome; they activate immune responses during viral infection and direct T cells toward distinct T helper type responses. Certain viruses are able to skew cytokine secretion by DCs inducing and/or downregulating the immune system with the aim of facilitating and prolonging release of progeny. Thus, the interaction of DCs with viruses most often results in the absence of disease or complete recovery when natural functions of DCs prevail, but may lead to chronic illness or death when these functions are outmanoeuvred by viruses in the exploitation of DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Freer
- Retrovirus Center and Virology Section, Department of Experimental Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
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67
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Oshansky CM, Zhang W, Moore E, Tripp RA. The host response and molecular pathogenesis associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Future Microbiol 2009; 4:279-97. [PMID: 19327115 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.09.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the isolation of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in 1956, its significance as an important human pathogen in infants, the elderly and the immunocompromised has been established. Many important mechanisms contributing to RSV infection, replication and disease pathogenesis have been uncovered; however, there is still insufficient knowledge in these and related areas, which must be addressed to facilitate the development of safe and effective vaccines and therapeutic treatments. A better understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of RSV infection, particularly the host-cell response and transcription profiles to RSV infection, is required to advance disease intervention strategies. Substantial information is accumulating regarding how RSV proteins modulate molecular signaling and regulation of cytokine and chemokine responses to infection, molecular signals regulating programmed cell death, and innate and adaptive immune responses to infection. This review discusses RSV manipulation of the host response to infection and related disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Oshansky
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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