51
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Topical delivery of siRNA-based spherical nucleic acid nanoparticle conjugates for gene regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:11975-80. [PMID: 22773805 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118425109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Topical application of nucleic acids offers many potential therapeutic advantages for suppressing genes in the skin, and potentially for systemic gene delivery. However, the epidermal barrier typically precludes entry of gene-suppressing therapy unless the barrier is disrupted. We now show that spherical nucleic acid nanoparticle conjugates (SNA-NCs), gold cores surrounded by a dense shell of highly oriented, covalently immobilized siRNA, freely penetrate almost 100% of keratinocytes in vitro, mouse skin, and human epidermis within hours after application. Significantly, these structures can be delivered in a commercial moisturizer or phosphate-buffered saline, and do not require barrier disruption or transfection agents, such as liposomes, peptides, or viruses. SNA-NCs targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), an important gene for epidermal homeostasis, are > 100-fold more potent and suppress longer than siRNA delivered with commercial lipid agents in cultured keratinocytes. Topical delivery of 1.5 uM EGFR siRNA (50 nM SNA-NCs) for 3 wk to hairless mouse skin almost completely abolishes EGFR expression, suppresses downstream ERK phosphorylation, and reduces epidermal thickness by almost 40%. Similarly, EGFR mRNA in human skin equivalents is reduced by 52% after 60 h of treatment with 25 nM EGFR SNA-NCs. Treated skin shows no clinical or histological evidence of toxicity. No cytokine activation in mouse blood or tissue samples is observed, and after 3 wk of topical skin treatment, the SNA structures are virtually undetectable in internal organs. SNA conjugates may be promising agents for personalized, topically delivered gene therapy of cutaneous tumors, skin inflammation, and dominant negative genetic skin disorders.
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Wu Y, Chen X, Wang S, Jiang M, Zheng B, Zhou Q, Bi Y, Zhou Z, Huang X, Sha J. Flotillin-2 is an acrosome-related protein involved in mouse spermiogenesis. J Biomed Res 2012; 26:278-87. [PMID: 23554761 PMCID: PMC3596745 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.26.20120030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2012] [Revised: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Spermatogenesis is a complex process of terminal differentiation by which mature sperms are generated, and it can be divided into three phases: mitosis, meiosis and spermiogenesis. In a previous study, we established a series of proteomic profiles for spermatogenesis to understand the regulation of male fertility and infertility. Here, we further investigated the localization and the role of flotillin-2 in spermiogenesis. Flotillin-2 expression was investigated in the testis of male CD1 mice at various developmental stages of spermatogenesis by using Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. Flotillin-2 was knocked down in vivo in three-week-old male mice using intratesticular injection of small inhibitory RNA (siRNA), and sperm abnormalities were assessed three weeks later. Flotillin-2 was expressed at high levels in male germ cells during spermatogenesis. Flotillin-2 immunoreactivity was observed in pachytene spermatocytes as a strong dot-shaped signal and in round spermatids as a sickle-shaped distribution ahead of the acrosome. Immunofluorescence confirmed flotillin-2 was localized in front of the acrosome in round spermatids, indicating that flotillin-2 was localized to the Golgi apparatus. Knockdown of flotillin-2in vivo led to a significant increase in head sperm abnormalities isolated from the cauda epididymis, compared with control siRNA-injected testes. This study indicates that flotillin-2 is a novel Golgi-related protein involved in sperm acrosome biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yibo Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
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Fröhlich T, Edinger D, Kläger R, Troiber C, Salcher E, Badgujar N, Martin I, Schaffert D, Cengizeroglu A, Hadwiger P, Vornlocher HP, Wagner E. Structure–activity relationships of siRNA carriers based on sequence-defined oligo (ethane amino) amides. J Control Release 2012; 160:532-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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54
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Nam HY, Kim J, Kim SW, Bull DA. Cell targeting peptide conjugation to siRNA polyplexes for effective gene silencing in cardiomyocytes. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:1302-9. [PMID: 22452378 DOI: 10.1021/mp200589z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
To deliver siRNA specifically to cardiomyocytes with a high transfection efficiency, primary cardiomyocyte-targeting (PCM) and/or cell-penetrating (Tat) peptides were incorporated into the siRNA. With the addition of plasmid DNA, these peptide-conjugated siRNAs were able to form compact and stable nanosized polyplex particles with bioreducible poly(CBA-DAH). The peptide-modified siRNA polyplexes enhanced the cellular uptake and the gene-silencing capacity of the siRNA in cardiomyocytes without significant immunogenicity or cytotoxicity. These findings demonstrate that the cell-targeting peptide and/or cell-penetrating peptide conjugation of siRNA may be a potentially important strategy for cell-specific gene therapy in gene-mediated disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Yeong Nam
- Center for Controlled Chemical Delivery, Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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55
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Kiss T, Cadar D, Spînu M. Tick prevention at a crossroad: new and renewed solutions. Vet Parasitol 2012; 187:357-66. [PMID: 22424918 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 02/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Ticks have major economic impact through diseases they transmit, direct losses due to their detrimental effect and the efforts invested in prevention measures directed against them. Chemical acaricides represent the main line of anti-tick defense in both humans and domestic animals, but increasing concerns regarding development of acaricide resistance, especially in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus, and environmental safety issues indicate the need for other, less aggressive but equally efficient methods. This paper aims to evaluate the potential, the scientific and economical limitations and future research directions regarding different alternative methods of tick control and their use in integrated pest management, with a separate reference to the pet industry. New research data in each field is presented and the economical aspects for each approach are individually emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timea Kiss
- University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Mănăştur st. 3-5, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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56
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Chang CI, Lee TY, Kim S, Sun X, Hong SW, Yoo JW, Dua P, Kang HS, Kim S, Li CJ, Lee DK. Enhanced intracellular delivery and multi-target gene silencing triggered by tripodal RNA structures. J Gene Med 2012; 14:138-46. [DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tae Yeon Lee
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
| | - Sera Kim
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
| | | | - Sun Woo Hong
- Department of Biomedical Engineeering; Dongguk University; Seoul; Korea
| | - Jae Wook Yoo
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
| | - Pooja Dua
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
| | - Hye Suk Kang
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
| | - Soyoun Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineeering; Dongguk University; Seoul; Korea
| | | | - Dong-Ki Lee
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry; Sungkyunkwan University; Suwon; Korea
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57
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Chang CI, Lee TY, Yoo JW, Shin D, Kim M, Kim S, Lee DK. Branched, Tripartite-Interfering RNAs Silence Multiple Target Genes with Long Guide Strands. Nucleic Acid Ther 2012; 22:30-9. [DOI: 10.1089/nat.2011.0315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chan Il Chang
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
- Skip Ackerman Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Tae Yeon Lee
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
| | - Jae Wook Yoo
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
| | | | - Meehyein Kim
- Korean Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Soyoun Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Dongguk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong-ki Lee
- Global Research Laboratory for RNAi Medicine, Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
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58
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Ryu DW, Kim HA, Ryu JH, Lee DY, Lee M. Amphiphilic peptides with arginine and valine residues as siRNA carriers. J Cell Biochem 2012; 113:619-28. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.23389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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59
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Liu Y, Wang XF, Chen Y, Zhang LH, Yang ZJ. A solid-phase method for peptide–siRNA covalent conjugates based on click chemistry. MEDCHEMCOMM 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2md00198e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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60
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Nimesh S, Gupta N, Chandra R. Strategies and advances in nanomedicine for targeted siRNA delivery. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2011; 6:729-46. [PMID: 21718181 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
siRNA are a rapidly emerging class of new therapeutic molecules for the treatment of inherited and acquired diseases. However, poor cellular uptake and instability in physiological conditions limits its therapeutic potential, hence a need to develop a delivery system that can protect and efficiently transport siRNA to the target cells has arisen. Nanoparticles have been proposed as suitable delivery vectors with reduced cytotoxicity and enhanced efficacy. These delivery vectors form condensed complexes with siRNA which, in turn, provides protection to siRNA against enzymatic degradation and further leads to tissue and cellular targeting. Nanoparticles derived from polymers, such as chitosan and polyethylenimine have found numerous applications owing to ease of manipulation, high stability, low cost and high gene carrying capability. This article focuses on various aspects of nanomedicine based siRNA delivery with emphasis on targeted delivery to tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendra Nimesh
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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61
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Duan F, Ni S, Nie Y, Huang Q, Wu K. Small interfering RNA targeting for infected-cell polypeptide 4 inhibits herpes simplex virus type 1 replication in retinal pigment epithelial cells. Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2011; 40:195-204. [PMID: 21883773 PMCID: PMC7162062 DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9071.2011.02668.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background: This study sought to inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 replication using small interfering RNA which targeting infected‐cell polypeptide 4 genes to mediate transcription of early and late viral genes in herpes simplex virus type 1 lytic (productive) infection in retina epithelial cells. Methods: After pre‐ or post‐infecting with herpes simplex virus type 1, small interfering RNAs were transfected into retina epithelial cells. The antiviral effects of small interfering RNA were evaluated by Western blot, plaque assays, indirect immunofluorescence and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The viral titre was detected by the 50% tissue culture infective dose method. Results: Small interfering RNA decreased infected‐cell polypeptide 4 expression in retina epithelial cells that were infected with herpes simplex virus type 1 before or after small interfering RNA transfection. Compared with herpes simplex virus type 1 infection alone or transfection with negative control small interfering RNA, the viral titre and the retina epithelial cell cytopathic effect were significantly decreased in retina epithelial cells transfected with infected‐cell polypeptide 4‐targeting small interfering RNA (50 and 100 nM) (P < 0.05). The small interfering RNA effectively silenced herpes simplex virus type 1 infected‐cell polypeptide 4 expression on both mRNA and the protein levels (P < 0.05). The inhibition of infected‐cell polypeptide 4‐targeting small interfering RNA on infected‐cell polypeptide 4 protein expression was also verified by Western blot in herpes simplex virus type 1 infected human cornea epithelial cell, human trabecular meshwork cells and Vero cells. Conclusions: Infected‐cell polypeptide 4‐targeting small interfering RNA can inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 replication in retina epithelial cells, providing a foundation for development of RNA interference as an antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Duan
- Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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62
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Li H, Nelson CE, Evans BC, Duvall CL. Delivery of intracellular-acting biologics in pro-apoptotic therapies. Curr Pharm Des 2011; 17:293-319. [PMID: 21348831 DOI: 10.2174/138161211795049642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The recent elucidation of molecular regulators of apoptosis and their roles in cellular oncogenesis has motivated the development of biomacromolecular anticancer therapeutics that can activate intracellular apoptotic signaling pathways. Pharmaceutical scientists have employed a variety of classes of biologics toward this goal, including antisense oligodeoxynucleotides, small interfering RNA, proteins, antibodies, and peptides. However, stability in the in vivo environment, tumor-specific biodistribution, cell internalization, and localization to the intracellular microenvironment where the targeted molecule is localized pose significant challenges that limit the ability to directly apply intracellular-acting, pro-apoptotic biologics for therapeutic use. Thus, approaches to improve the pharmaceutical properties of therapeutic biomacromolecules are of great significance and have included chemically modifying the bioactive molecule itself or formulation with auxiliary compounds. Recently, promising advances in delivery of pro-apoptotic biomacromolecular agents have been made using tools such as peptide "stapling", cell penetrating peptides, fusogenic peptides, liposomes, nanoparticles, smart polymers, and synergistic combinations of these components. This review will discuss the molecular mediators of cellular apoptosis, the respective mechanisms by which these mediators are dysregulated in cellular oncogenesis, the history and development of both nucleic-acid and amino-acid based drugs, and techniques to achieve intracellular delivery of these biologics. Finally, recent applications where pro-apoptotic functionality has been achieved through delivery of intracellular-acting biomacromolecular drugs will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmei Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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63
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Portnoy V, Huang V, Place RF, Li LC. Small RNA and transcriptional upregulation. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2011; 2:748-60. [PMID: 21823233 PMCID: PMC3154074 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Small RNA molecules, such as microRNA and small interfering RNA, have emerged as master regulators of gene expression through their ability to suppress target genes in a phenomenon collectively called RNA interference (RNAi). There is growing evidence that small RNAs can also serve as activators of gene expression by targeting gene regulatory sequences. This novel mechanism, known as RNA activation (RNAa), appears to be conserved in at least mammalian cells and triggered by both endogenous and artificially designed small RNAs. RNAa depends on Argonaute proteins, but possesses kinetics distinct from that of RNAi. Epigenetic changes are associated with RNAa and may contribute to transcriptional activation of target genes, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Given the potential of RNAa as a molecular tool for studying gene function and as a therapeutic for disease, further research is needed to completely elucidate its molecular mechanism in order to refine the rules for target selection and improve strategies for exploiting it therapeutically. WIREs RNA 2011 2 748-760 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.90 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Portnoy
- Department of Urology and Helen-Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Vera Huang
- Department of Urology and Helen-Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Robert F. Place
- Department of Urology and Helen-Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Long-Cheng Li
- Department of Urology and Helen-Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158
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64
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Ogris M, Wagner E. To Be Targeted: Is the Magic Bullet Concept a Viable Option for Synthetic Nucleic Acid Therapeutics? Hum Gene Ther 2011; 22:799-807. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2011.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Manfred Ogris
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich 81377, Germany
| | - Ernst Wagner
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich 81377, Germany
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65
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Dougherty SS, Santangelo KS, Bertone AL. Evaluation of the ability of two transfection reagents to deliver small interfering RNA molecules to equine and guinea pig cartilage in vitro. Am J Vet Res 2011; 72:813-9. [PMID: 21627528 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.72.6.813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate 2 commercially available transfection reagents for transfection efficiency and distribution of small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules to chondrocytes in monolayer cultures and full-thickness cartilage explants from guinea pigs and horses. SAMPLE Cartilage explants from 5 one-month-old and 3 adult guinea pigs and 5 adult clinically normal horses. PROCEDURES Monolayer chondrocytes and uniform cartilage explants were exposed to 1 of 2 siRNA transfection complexes according to manufacturers' protocols (1μM [1×]). Additionally, monolayer chondrocytes were exposed to 2× the suggested amount of a proprietary siRNA molecule. Full-thickness cartilage explants were treated with 1× (1μM), 2× (2μM), and 4× (4μM) or 1× (0.13μM), 4× (0.52μM), and 8× (1.04μM) the recommended concentrations of the proprietary siRNA and the cationic liposome siRNA, respectively, in equivalent media volumes. Use of fluorescent siRNA duplexes allowed quantification of transfected cells via flow cytometry and direct visualization of the depth and distribution of in situ transfection via fluorescent microscopy. RESULTS With both transfection reagents, > 90% of monolayer chondrocytes were transfected. In explants, only use of the proprietary molecule achieved > 50% transfection efficiency, whereas use of the cationic liposome achieved < 20%. Only the proprietary molecule-treated cartilage consistently contained fluorescent cells throughout all zones; the cationic liposome-transfected chondrocytes were restricted to explant surfaces. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Robust transfection of chondrocytes in monolayer was achieved with both reagents, but only use of the proprietary molecule attained effective full-thickness transfection of explants that may allow relevant transcript reduction via RNAi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah S Dougherty
- Willamette Valley Equine Surgical and Medical Center, Aurora, OR 97002, USA
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66
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Wilson PA, Plucinski M. A simple Bayesian estimate of direct RNAi gene regulation events from differential gene expression profiles. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:250. [PMID: 21599879 PMCID: PMC3128064 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microarrays are commonly used to investigate both the therapeutic potential and functional effects of RNA interfering (RNAi) oligonucleotides such as microRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA). However, the resulting datasets are often challenging to interpret as they include extensive information relating to both indirect transcription effects and off-target interference events. METHOD In an attempt to refine the utility of microarray expression data when evaluating the direct transcriptional affects of an RNAi agent we have developed SBSE (Simple Bayesian Seed Estimate). The key assumption implemented in SBSE is that both direct regulation of transcription by miRNA, and siRNA off-target interference, can be estimated using the differential distribution of an RNAi sequence (seed) motif in a ranked 3' untranslated region (3' UTR) sequence repository. SBSE uses common microarray summary statistics (i.e. fold change) and a simple Bayesian analysis to estimate how the RNAi agent dictated the observed differential expression profile. On completion a trace of the estimate and the location of the optimal partitioning of the dataset are plotted within a simple graphical representation of the 3'UTR landscape. The combined estimates define the differential distribution of the query motif within the dataset and by inference are used to quantify the magnitude of the direct RNAi transcription effect. RESULTS SBSE has been evaluated using five diverse human RNAi microarray focused investigations. In each instance SBSE unambiguously identified the most likely location of the direct RNAi effects for each of the differential gene expression profiles. CONCLUSION These analyses indicate that miRNA with conserved seed regions may share minimal biological activity and that SBSE can be used to differentiate siRNAs of similar efficacy but with different off-target signalling potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Wilson
- Computational Biology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicine Research Centre, Stevenage, UK.
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67
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Cell penetrating peptide conjugated bioreducible polymer for siRNA delivery. Biomaterials 2011; 32:5213-22. [PMID: 21501867 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.03.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The primary cardiomyocyte-specific peptide (PCM) and the cell-penetrating peptide (CPP), HIV-Tat (49-57), were incorporated into the polymer, cystamine bisacrylamide-diaminohexane (CBA-DAH), to increase the delivery of RNAi to target cells, specifically cardiomyocytes. Interestingly, the impact of PCM and Tat conjugation on cellular uptake and transfection efficiency was greater in H9C2 rat cardiomyocytes than in NIH 3T3 cells. We examined the potential for siRNA targeting SHP-1 or Fas to inhibit the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes under hypoxic conditions using PCM and Tat-modified poly(CBA-DAH), (PCM-CD-Tat). To evaluate for efficacy in inhibiting apoptosis, either Fas siRNA/polymer or SHP-1 siRNA/polymer were transfected into cardiomyocytes treated under hypoxic and serum-deprived conditions. After incubation under hypoxic conditions, treatment with either the SHP-1 siRNA complex or the Fas siRNA complex resulted in an increase in cell viability and a reduction in LDH-cytotoxicity. The cells transfected with either of the siRNA polyplexes had a lower incidence of apoptosis as demonstrated by Annexin V-FITC/PI staining. Both the SHP-1 siRNA/PCM-CD-Tat complex and the Fas siRNA/PCM-CD-Tat complex warrant further investigation as therapeutic agents to inhibit the apoptosis of cardiomyocytes.
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68
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Schlegel A, Largeau C, Bigey P, Bessodes M, Lebozec K, Scherman D, Escriou V. Anionic polymers for decreased toxicity and enhanced in vivo delivery of siRNA complexed with cationic liposomes. J Control Release 2011; 152:393-401. [PMID: 21497175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
We recently reported a cationic lipid-based vector of siRNA, termed siRNA lipoplex that was very efficient in specific gene silencing, both in cell culture and in mouse disease models. To be more efficient, this vector included the addition of a plasmid DNA as an anionic "cargo." Although this plasmid DNA was devoid of any eukaryotic expression cassette, we decided to replace it by an anionic polymer that would be more acceptable for clinical applications. We identified seven anionic polymers, regarded as non-toxic, biodegradable, of various characteristics and nature. The addition of polymers to siRNA lipoplexes led to the formation of particles with similar characteristics to crude siRNA lipoplexes, decreased cellular toxicity and variable in vitro gene silencing efficiency depending on the type of polymer used. Upon i.v. injection in mice, siRNA lipoplexes prepared with the best polymer, polyglutamate, led to significantly increased recovery of siRNA in liver and lung compared with lipoplexes without polymer.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Anions/chemistry
- Cations/chemistry
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Survival
- Female
- Gene Transfer Techniques
- Lipids/chemistry
- Liposomes/chemistry
- Liposomes/pharmacokinetics
- Liposomes/toxicity
- Liposomes/ultrastructure
- Liver/metabolism
- Luciferases/genetics
- Luciferases/metabolism
- Lung/metabolism
- Melanoma, Experimental/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Microscopy, Electron, Transmission
- Particle Size
- Phosphatidylethanolamines/chemistry
- Polyamines/chemistry
- Polyethylene Glycols
- Polyglutamic Acid/chemistry
- Polymers/chemistry
- RNA, Small Interfering/administration & dosage
- RNA, Small Interfering/blood
- RNA, Small Interfering/chemistry
- RNA, Small Interfering/genetics
- RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering/pharmacokinetics
- Rhodamines/chemistry
- Ribonucleases/metabolism
- Serum/metabolism
- Static Electricity
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69
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Highly effective gene transfection in vivo by alkylated polyethylenimine. JOURNAL OF DRUG DELIVERY 2011; 2011:204058. [PMID: 21490747 PMCID: PMC3065804 DOI: 10.1155/2011/204058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We mechanistically explored the effect of increased hydrophobicity of the polycation on the efficacy and specificity of gene delivery in mice. N-Alkylated linear PEIs with varying alkyl chain lengths and extent of substitution were synthesized and characterized by biophysical methods. Their in vivo transfection efficiency, specificity, and biodistribution were investigated. N-Ethylation improves the in vivo efficacy of gene expression in the mouse lung 26-fold relative to the parent polycation and more than quadruples the ratio of expression in the lung to that in all other organs. N-Propyl-PEI was the best performer in the liver and heart (581- and 3.5-fold enhancements, resp.) while N-octyl-PEI improved expression in the kidneys over the parent polymer 221-fold. As these enhancements in gene expression occur without changing the plasmid biodistribution, alkylation does not alter the cellular uptake but rather enhances transfection subsequent to cellular uptake.
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70
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Philipp A, Meyer M, Zintchenko A, Wagner E. Functional modification of amide-crosslinked oligoethylenimine for improved siRNA delivery. REACT FUNCT POLYM 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2010.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Zhang L, Lu Z, Zhao Q, Huang J, Shen H, Zhang Z. Enhanced chemotherapy efficacy by sequential delivery of siRNA and anticancer drugs using PEI-grafted graphene oxide. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2011; 7:460-4. [PMID: 21360803 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201001522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 384] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2010] [Revised: 11/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Liming Zhang
- Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech & Nano-bionics CAS, Suzhou, PR China
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72
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Functional Polymer Conjugates for Medicinal Nucleic Acid Delivery. POLYMERS IN NANOMEDICINE 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/12_2011_148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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73
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Mowa MB, Crowther C, Arbuthnot P. Therapeutic potential of adenoviral vectors for delivery of expressed RNAi activators. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2010; 7:1373-85. [PMID: 21073358 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2010.533655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Harnessing RNA interference (RNAi) to silence pathology-causing genes has shown promise as a mode of therapy. The sustained gene inhibition that may be achieved with expressed sequences is potentially useful for treatment of chronic viral infections, but efficient and safe delivery of these sequences remains a challenge. It is generally recognized that there is no ideal vector for all therapeutic RNAi applications, but recombinant adenovirus vectors are well suited to hepatic delivery of expressed RNAi activators. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW Adenoviruses are hepatotropic after systemic administration, and this is useful for delivering expressed RNAi activators that silence pathology-causing genes in the liver. However, drawbacks of adenoviruses are toxicity and diminished efficacy, which result from induction of innate and adaptive immune responses. In this review, the advantages and hurdles facing therapeutic application of adenoviral vectors for liver delivery of RNAi effectors are covered. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Insights into adenovirus vectorology and the methods that have been used to make these vectors safer for advancing clinical application of RNAi-based therapy. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Adenoviruses are very powerful hepatotropic vectors. To make adenoviruses more effective for clinical use, polymer conjugation and deletion of viral vector sequences have been used successfully. However, further modifications to attenuate immunostimulation as well as improvements in large-scale production are necessary before the therapeutic potential of adenovirus-mediated delivery of RNAi activators is realized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohube Betty Mowa
- University of the Witwatersrand, School of Pathology, Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, Health Sciences Faculty, Private Bag 3, WITS 2050, South Africa
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74
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Chun HK, Chung KS, Kim HC, Kang JE, Kang MA, Kim JT, Choi EH, Jung KE, Kim MH, Song EY, Kim SY, Won M, Lee HG. OIP5 is a highly expressed potential therapeutic target for colorectal and gastric cancers. BMB Rep 2010; 43:349-54. [PMID: 20510019 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2010.43.5.349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we reported that overexpression of Opa (Neisseria gonorrhoeae opacity-associated)-interacting protein 5 (OIP5) caused multi-septa formation and growth defects, both of which are considered cancer-related phenotypes. To evaluate OIP5 as a possible cancer therapeutic target, we examined its expression level in 66 colorectal cancer patients. OIP5 was upregulated about 3.7-fold in tumors and over 2-fold in 58 out of 66 colorectal cancer patients. Knockdown of OIP5 expression by small interfering RNA specific to OIP5 (siOIP5) resulted in growth inhibition of colorectal and gastric cancer cell lines. Growth inhibition of SNU638 by siOIP5 caused an increase in sub-G1 DNA content, as measured by flow cytometry, as well as an apoptotic gene expression profile. These results indicate that knockdown of OIP5 may induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Therefore, we suggest that OIP5 might be a potential cancer therapeutic target, although the mechanisms of OIP5-induced carcinogenesis should be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Kyung Chun
- Medical Genomics Research Center, KRIBB, Daejeon, Korea
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75
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Oskuee RK, Philipp A, Dehshahri A, Wagner E, Ramezani M. The impact of carboxyalkylation of branched polyethylenimine on effectiveness in small interfering RNA delivery. J Gene Med 2010; 12:729-38. [DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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76
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Tokatlian T, Segura T. siRNA applications in nanomedicine. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 2:305-15. [PMID: 20135697 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The ability to specifically silence genes using RNA interference (RNAi) has wide therapeutic applications for the treatment of disease or the augmentation of tissue formation. RNAi is the sequence-specific gene silencing mediated by a 21-25 nucleotide double-stranded small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecule. siRNAs are incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which mediates mRNA sequence-specific binding and cleavage. Although RNAi has the potential to be a powerful therapeutic drug, its delivery remains a major limitation. The generation of nanosized particles is being investigated to enhance the delivery of siRNA-based drugs. These nanoparticles are generally designed to overcome one or more of the barriers encountered by the siRNA when trafficked to the cytosol. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in the design of delivery strategies for siRNA, focusing our attention to those strategies that have had in vivo success or have introduced novel functionality that allowed enhanced intracellular trafficking and/or cellular targeting. First, we will discuss the different barriers that must be overcome for efficient siRNA delivery. Second, we will discuss the approaches for siRNA delivery by size including direct modification of siRNAs (less than 10 nm), self-assembled particles based on cationic polymers and cationic lipids (100-300 nm), neutral liposomes (<200 nm), and macroscale matrices that contain naked siRNA or siRNA loaded nanoparticles (>100 microm). Finally, we will briefly discuss recent in vivo therapeutic success.
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77
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Guo X, Shen J, Xia Z, Zhang R, Zhang P, Zhao C, Xing J, Chen L, Chen W, Lin M, Huo R, Su B, Zhou Z, Sha J. Proteomic analysis of proteins involved in spermiogenesis in mouse. J Proteome Res 2010; 9:1246-56. [PMID: 20099899 DOI: 10.1021/pr900735k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Spermiogenesis is a unique process in mammals during which haploid round spermatids mature into spermatozoa in the testis. Its successful completion is necessary for fertilization and its malfunction is an important cause of male infertility. Here, we report the high-confidence identification of 2116 proteins in mouse haploid germ cells undergoing spermiogenesis: 299 of these were testis-specific and 155 were novel. Analysis of these proteins showed many proteins possibly functioning in unique processes of spermiogenesis. Of the 84 proteins annotated to be involved in vesicle-related events, VAMP4 was shown to be important for acrosome biogenesis by in vivo knockdown experiments. Knockdown of VAMP4 caused defects of acrosomal vesicle fusion and significantly increased head abnormalities in spermatids from testis and sperm from the cauda epididymis. Analysis of chromosomal distribution of the haploid genes showed underrepresentation on the X chromosome and overrepresentation on chromosome 11, which were due to meiotic sex chromosome inactivation and expansion of testis-expressed gene families, respectively. Comparison with transcriptional data showed translational regulation during spermiogenesis. This characterization of proteins involved in spermiogenesis provides an inventory of proteins useful for understanding the mechanisms of male infertility and may provide candidates for drug targets for male contraception and male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiang Guo
- Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
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78
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Kruglova NS, Meschaninova MI, Venyaminova AG, Zenkova MA, Vlassov VV, Chernolovskaya EL. Cholesterol-modified anti-MDR1 small interfering RNA: Uptake and biological activity. Mol Biol 2010. [DOI: 10.1134/s002689331002010x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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79
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Alshamsan A, Hamdy S, Samuel J, El-Kadi AO, Lavasanifar A, Uludağ H. The induction of tumor apoptosis in B16 melanoma following STAT3 siRNA delivery with a lipid-substituted polyethylenimine. Biomaterials 2010; 31:1420-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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80
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Hu Y, Atukorale PU, Lu JJ, Moon JJ, Um SH, Cho EC, Wang Y, Chen J, Irvine DJ. Cytosolic delivery mediated via electrostatic surface binding of protein, virus, or siRNA cargos to pH-responsive core-shell gel particles. Biomacromolecules 2010; 10:756-65. [PMID: 19239276 DOI: 10.1021/bm801199z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We recently described a strategy for intracellular delivery of macromolecules, utilizing pH-responsive "core-shell" structured gel particles. These cross-linked hydrogel particles disrupt endosomes with low toxicity by virtue of physical sequestration of an endosome-disrupting "proton sponge" core inside a nontoxic hydrophilic shell. Here we tested the efficacy of this system for cytosolic delivery of a broad range of macromolecular cargos, and demonstrate the delivery of proteins, whole viral particles, or siRNA oligonucleotides into the cytosol of dendritic cells and epithelial cells via core-shell particles. We assessed the functional impact of particle delivery for vaccine applications and found that cytosolic delivery of protein antigens in dendritic cells via the core-shell particles promotes priming of CD8(+) T-cells at 100-fold lower doses than soluble protein. Functional gene knockdown following delivery of siRNA using the particles was demonstrated in epithelial cells. Based on these findings, these materials may be of interest for a broad range of biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhua Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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81
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Kavaz D, Odabaş S, Güven E, Demirbilek M, Denkbaş EB. Bleomycin Loaded Magnetic Chitosan Nanoparticles as Multifunctional Nanocarriers. J BIOACT COMPAT POL 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/0883911509360735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Iron oxide (Fe3O4) containing magnetic chitosan nanoparticles were prepared with Concanavalin-A and Bleomycin as multifunctional nanocarriers for the targeted cancer therapy by co-precipitation techniques. The chemical structures of nanoparticles were analyzed by FTIR and the magnetic properties of the nanoparticles were evaluated by electron spin resonance technique and vibrational scanning mangnetometer measurements. The in vitro release profiles of Bleomycin were investigated and chitosan nanoparticles characteristics were optimized for subsequent in vivo applications. The magnetic chitosan nanoparticles are biocompatible-based MTT assays. The therapeutic potential of these nanoparticles are being investigated for in vivo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doğa Kavaz
- Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University Biochemistry Division, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sedat Odabaş
- Bioengineering Division, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Eylem Güven
- Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine Division Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Murat Demirbilek
- Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine Division Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Emir Baki Denkbaş
- Department of Chemistry, Hacettepe University Biochemistry Division, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey, Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine Division Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey,
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82
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Spizzo R, Rushworth D, Guerrero M, Calin GA. RNA inhibition, microRNAs, and new therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 9 Suppl 3:S313-8. [PMID: 19778859 DOI: 10.3816/clm.2009.s.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Over the past few years, molecular oncology research has revealed that abnormalities in both protein-coding genes (PCGs) and noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) can be identified in tumors and that the interplay between PCGs and ncRNAs is causally involved in the initiation, progression, and metastases of human cancers. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), which are among the most studied ncRNAs, are small 19- to 25-nucleotide genes involved in the regulation of PCGs and other ncRNAs. With the recent findings of miRNAs' involvement in cancer, RNA inhibition can be used to treat cancer patients in two ways: (1) by using RNA or DNA molecules as therapeutic drugs against messenger RNA of genes involved in the pathogenesis of cancers and (2) by directly targeting ncRNAs that participate in cancer pathogenesis. In this review, we focus on the possible use of miRNAs or compounds interacting with miRNAs as new therapeutic agents in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Spizzo
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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83
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Yu CG, Yezierski RP, Joshi A, Raza K, Li Y, Geddes JW. Involvement of ERK2 in traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurochem 2010; 113:131-42. [PMID: 20067580 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06579.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) are implicated in the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI). However, the specific functions of individual ERK isoforms in neurodegeneration are largely unknown. We investigated the hypothesis that ERK2 activation may contribute to pathological and functional deficits following SCI and that ERK2 knockdown using RNA interference may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for SCI. Lentiviral ERK2 shRNA and siRNA were utilized to knockdown ERK2 expression in the spinal cord following SCI. Pre-injury intrathecal administration of ERK2 siRNA significantly reduced excitotoxic injury-induced activation of ERK2 (p < 0.001) and caspase 3 (p < 0.01) in spinal cord. Intraspinal administration of lentiviral ERK2 shRNA significantly reduced ERK2 expression in the spinal cord (p < 0.05), but did not alter ERK1 expression. Administration of the lentiviral ERK2 shRNA vector 1 week prior to severe spinal cord contusion injury resulted in a significant improvement in locomotor function (p < 0.05), total tissue sparing (p < 0.05), white matter sparing (p < 0.05), and gray matter sparing (p < 0.05) 6 weeks following severe contusive SCI. Our results suggest that ERK2 signaling is a novel target associated with the deleterious consequences of spinal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen-Guang Yu
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0509, USA.
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84
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Abstract
Plasmid DNA and siRNA have a large potential for use as therapeutic nucleic acids in medicine. The way to the target cell and its proper compartment is full of obstacles. Polymeric carriers help to overcome the encountered barriers. Cationic polymers can interact with the nucleic acid in a nondamaging way but still require optimization with regard to transfer efficiency and biocompatibility. Aiming at virus-like features, as viruses are the most efficient natural gene carriers, the design of bioresponsive polymers shows promising results regarding DNA and siRNA delivery. By specific chemical modifications dynamic structures are created, programmed to respond towards changing demands on the delivery pathway by cleavage of labile bonds or conformational changes, thus enhancing biocompatible gene delivery.
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85
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Pseudovirions as vehicles for the delivery of siRNA. Pharm Res 2009; 27:400-20. [PMID: 19998056 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-009-0012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated gene silencing has quickly become one of the most powerful techniques used to study gene function in vitro and a promising area for new therapeutics. Delivery remains a significant impediment to realizing the therapeutic potential of siRNA, a problem that is also tied to immunogenicity and toxicity. Numerous delivery vehicles have been developed, including some that can be categorized as pseudovirions: these are vectors that are directly derived from viruses but whose viral coding sequences have been eliminated, preventing their classification as viral vectors. Characteristics of the pseudovirions discussed in this review, namely phagemids, HSV amplicons, SV40 in vitro-packaged vectors, influenza virosomes, and HVJ-Envelope vectors, make them attractive for the delivery of siRNA-based therapeutics. Pseudovirions were shown to deliver siRNA effector molecules and bring about RNA interference (RNAi) in various cell types in vitro, and in vivo using immune-deficient and immune-competent mouse models. Levels of silencing were not always determined directly, but the duration of siRNA-induced knockdown lasted at least 3 days. We present examples of the use of pseudovirions for the delivery of synthetic siRNA as well as the delivery and expression of DNA-directed siRNA.
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86
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de Miranda JR, Cordoni G, Budge G. The Acute bee paralysis virus-Kashmir bee virus-Israeli acute paralysis virus complex. J Invertebr Pathol 2009; 103 Suppl 1:S30-47. [PMID: 19909972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Kashmir bee virus (KBV) and Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) are part of a complex of closely related viruses from the Family Dicistroviridae. These viruses have a widespread prevalence in honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies and a predominantly sub-clinical etiology that contrasts sharply with the extremely virulent pathology encountered at elevated titres, either artificially induced or encountered naturally. These viruses are frequently implicated in honey bee colony losses, especially when the colonies are infested with the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Here we review the historical and recent literature of this virus complex, covering history and origins; the geographic, host and tissue distribution; pathology and transmission; genetics and variation; diagnostics, and discuss these within the context of the molecular and biological similarities and differences between the viruses. We also briefly discuss three recent developments relating specifically to IAPV, concerning its association with Colony Collapse Disorder, treatment of IAPV infection with siRNA and possible honey bee resistance to IAPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim R de Miranda
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750-07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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87
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Abstract
Formation of small interfering RNA (siRNA) occurs in two steps involving binding of the RNA nucleases to a large double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) and its cleavage into fragments called siRNA. In the second step, these siRNAs join a multinuclease complex, which degrades the homologous single‐stranded mRNAs. The delivery of siRNA involves viral‐ and non‐viral‐mediated delivery systems; the approaches for chemical modifications have also been developed. It has various therapeutic applications for disorders like cardiovascular diseases, central nervous system (CNS) disorders, cancer, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatic disorders, etc. The present review gives an overview of the applications of siRNA and their potential for treating many hitherto untreatable diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhoomika R Goyal
- Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University of Science and Technology, Ahmedabad 382 481, Gujarat, India.
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88
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Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a potent gene silencing process that is playing an increasingly important role in investigations of gene function in schistosomes. Here we review what is known about the process in these parasites and provide an update on the methodology and machinery of RNAi. Data are presented to demonstrate that: (1) not all schistosome genes can be suppressed to the same extent, using the methods employed here; (2) while there is variation in the level of suppression achieved for one target gene (SmAP) in adult parasites, all individuals exhibit robust (>80%) suppression; (3) short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) can effect suppression when delivered by soaking (and not just via electroporation, as reported previously); (4) Male/female adult pairs need not be separated prior to siRNA delivery by electroporation for effective gene suppression in both genders and (5) electroporation of siRNAs in medium is as efficient as in commercial electroporation buffer. Regarding the machinery of RNAi in schistosomes, a homologue of the C. elegans multi-membrane spanning, RNA importing protein SID-1 is identified in silico. The gene encoding this protein contains 21 exons and spans over 50 kb to potentially encode a 115,556 Mr protein (SmSID-1). These analyses, and a review of the literature, permit us to derive and present here a draft of potential RNAi pathways in schistosomes.
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89
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Chiang HI, Berghman LR, Zhou H. Inhibition of NF-kB 1 (NF-kBp50) by RNA interference in chicken macrophage HD11 cell line challenged with Salmonellaenteritidis. Genet Mol Biol 2009; 32:507-15. [PMID: 21637513 PMCID: PMC3036038 DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572009000300013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The NF-kB pathway plays an important role in regulating the immunity response in animals. In this study, small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were used to specifically inhibit NF-kB 1 expression and to elucidate the role of NF-kB in the signal transduction pathway of the Salmonella challenge in the chicken HD11 cell line. The cells were transfected with either NF-kB 1 siRNA, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase siRNA (positive control) or the negative control siRNA for 24 h, followed by Salmonella enteritidis (SE) challenge or non-challenge for 1 h and 4 h. Eight candidate genes related to the signal pathway of SE challenge were selected to examine the effect of NF-kB 1 inhibition on their expressions by mRNA quantification. The results showed that, with a 36% inhibition of NF-kB 1 expression, gene expression of both Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and interleukin (IL)-6 was consistently and significantly increased at both 1 h and 4 h following SE challenge, whereas the gene expression of MyD88 and IL-1β was increased at 1 h and 4 h, respectively. These findings suggest a likely inhibitory regulation by NF-kB 1, and could lay the foundation for studying the gene network of the innate immune response of SE infection in chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-I Chiang
- Department of Poultry Science, Texas AM University, College Station, TX USA
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90
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Caribé dos Santos AC, Sena JAL, Santos SC, Dias CV, Pirovani CP, Pungartnik C, Valle RR, Cascardo JCM, Vincentz M. dsRNA-induced gene silencing in Moniliophthora perniciosa, the causal agent of witches' broom disease of cacao. Fungal Genet Biol 2009; 46:825-36. [PMID: 19602443 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2009.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2009] [Revised: 06/06/2009] [Accepted: 06/29/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The genome sequence of the hemibiotrophic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa revealed genes possibly participating in the RNAi machinery. Therefore, studies were performed in order to investigate the efficiency of gene silencing by dsRNA. We showed that the reporter gfp gene stably introduced into the fungus genome can be silenced by transfection of in vitro synthesized gfpdsRNA. In addition, successful dsRNA-induced silencing of endogenous genes coding for hydrophobins and a peroxiredoxin were also achieved. All genes showed a silencing efficiency ranging from 18% to 98% when compared to controls even 28d after dsRNA treatment, suggesting systemic silencing. Reduction of GFP fluorescence, peroxidase activity levels and survival responses to H(2)O(2) were consistent with the reduction of GFP and peroxidase mRNA levels, respectively. dsRNA transformation of M. perniciosa is shown here to efficiently promote genetic knockdown and can thus be used to assess gene function in this pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Caribé dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Rodovia Ilhéus - Itabuna, Km 16, CEP 45662-000 Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
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91
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Herringson TP, Altin JG. Convenient targeting of stealth siRNA-lipoplexes to cells with chelator lipid-anchored molecules. J Control Release 2009; 139:229-38. [PMID: 19595724 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2009] [Revised: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A major obstacle for the use of siRNAs as novel therapeutics is the requirement for functional delivery to specific cells in vivo. siRNA delivery by cationic agents is generally non-specific and a convenient targeting strategy has been lacking. This work explored the potential for using the chelator lipid 3(nitrilotriacetic acid)-ditetradecylamine (NTA(3)-DTDA) with neutral stealth liposomes to target siRNA to cells. A novel method for incorporating siRNAs into lipoplexes was developed which utilised helper lipids and the ionisable lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-3-dimethylammonium-propane (DODAP). This approach results in an efficient (>50%) incorporation of siRNA into lipoplexes, which when incorporated with Ni-NTA(3)-DTDA and engrafted with a His-tagged form of murine CD4 can target siRNA to murine A20 B cells, in vitro. Also, siRNA-lipoplexes engrafted with His-tagged peptides that target receptors on HEK-293 cells, or the receptor for tumour necrosis factor alpha expressed on the murine dendritic cell line DC2.4, could target siRNA and silence the expression of enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP). siRNA-lipoplexes produced by this method are approximately 240 nm dia, exhibit low zeta-potential (-1 mV), and target cells in serum-containing media. The results show that NTA(3)-DTDA can be used to target siRNA-lipoplexes to cells, and could provide a convenient approach for targeting siRNA to cells in vivo for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas P Herringson
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Research School of Biology, ANU College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
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92
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Gondi CS, Rao JS. Concepts in in vivo siRNA delivery for cancer therapy. J Cell Physiol 2009; 220:285-91. [PMID: 19391103 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In vivo gene silencing using RNAi plays an important role in target validation and is advancing towards the development of RNAi-based therapeutics. RNAs were thought to have just two broad functions in cells as messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs, but recently the relevance of microRNAs is becoming more clearly understood. mRNA molecules transmit information between DNA and protein and, as such, are vital intermediaries for gene expression. Ribosomal and transfer RNAs have structural, catalytic, and information-decoding roles in the process of protein synthesis, whereas microRNAs are regulators of gene expression. This review presents the early and intriguing successes of using siRNAs for in vivo gene silencing and its use as a possible cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S Gondi
- Department of Cancer Biology and Pharmacology, University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, IL 61605, USA
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93
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Whitson JM, Noonan EJ, Pookot D, Place RF, Dahiya R. Double stranded-RNA-mediated activation of P21 gene induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in renal cell carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2009; 125:446-52. [PMID: 19384944 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Small double stranded RNAs (dsRNA) are a new class of molecules which regulate gene expression. Accumulating data suggest that some dsRNA can function as tumor suppressors. Here, we report further evidence on the potential of dsRNA mediated p21 induction. Using the human renal cell carcinoma cell line A498, we found that dsRNA targeting the p21 promoter significantly induced the expression of p21 mRNA and protein levels. As a result, dsP21 transfected cells had a significant decrease in cell viability with a concomitant G1 arrest. We also observed a significant increase in apoptosis. These findings were associated with a significant decrease in survivin mRNA and protein levels. This is the first report that demonstrates dsRNA mediated gene activation in renal cell carcinoma and suggests that forced over-expression of p21 may lead to an increase in apoptosis through a survivin dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared M Whitson
- University of California San Francisco, Department of Urology, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA
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94
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Manrique C, Compan V, Rosselet C, Duflo SGD. Specific knock-down of GAD67 in the striatum using naked small interfering RNAs. J Biotechnol 2009; 142:185-92. [PMID: 19497341 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2009] [Revised: 05/18/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Small interfering RNAs (siRNA) are double-stranded RNAs of 9-29 nucleotides designed to reduce the expression of homologous genes by a process known as RNA interference (RNAi). Most studies using siRNA in neurons have been performed in mammalian cell cultures. Only few reports have reported the effects of in vivo infusion of siRNA into the brain. In the present study, we performed local intracerebral infusions of naked siRNA against glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67) mRNA to engineer specific knock-down of GAD67 protein in the striatum of adult rats. Directly injecting a mix of GAD67 siRNAs into the striatum decreased the levels of corresponding mRNA, evaluated by quantitative real-time PCR. In particular, we show that GAD67 mRNA expression is reduced in the striatum for 3, 6, and 24h following intrastriatal injection of GAD67 siRNA and is restored at 72h. Relative to controls, the levels of GAD67 protein were also lower in the striatum for 6 and 24h after injection. No changes in GAD65 expression, one of the two isoforms of GAD, were detected in the striatum, which further validates the specificity of the siRNA. We demonstrate the efficiency of the RNAi strategy for producing a specific and selective down-regulation of GAD67 in the adult rat brain. This suggests that siRNA-mediated gene knock-down constitute a valid methodological approach for studying the functional consequences of a transient decrease of a gene expression in a brain structure.
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95
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Gao S, Dagnaes-Hansen F, Nielsen EJB, Wengel J, Besenbacher F, Howard KA, Kjems J. The effect of chemical modification and nanoparticle formulation on stability and biodistribution of siRNA in mice. Mol Ther 2009; 17:1225-33. [PMID: 19401674 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2009.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Instability and inadequate biodistribution of double-stranded RNA are major drawbacks to the clinical use of RNA interference. This work compares chemical modification and nanoparticle formulation as strategies to improve the systemic delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA). Variable levels of chemical modified siRNA, either naked or within nanoparticle, were intravenously injected into mice to study temporal stability and biodistribution detected by direct radioactive labeling or by northern blotting. Naked siRNA showed rapid renal clearance, with circulatory half-life of <5 minutes that could be extended to >30 minutes by cholesterol conjugation. The integrity of the chemically stabilized siRNA was maintained in blood for at least 30 minutes, whereas, unmodified siRNA duplex was degraded within 1 minute. Intact chemically modified siRNA could also be detected in all analyzed organs at 30 minutes but disappeared at 24 hours, except for heavy locked nucleic acid (LNA)-modified and cholesterol-conjugated siRNA in the lungs. Chitosan, liposomal, or JetPEI formulation greatly improved the stability and biodistribution of siRNA. Interestingly, high siRNA accumulation of the chitosan/siRNA formulation within the kidney was observed 24 hours postadministration. This comparative study highlights improvements to siRNA stability and pharmacokinetics, key determinants for development of clinically relevant RNAi therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Gao
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Aarhus, Denmark.
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96
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Meyer M, Dohmen C, Philipp A, Kiener D, Maiwald G, Scheu C, Ogris M, Wagner E. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of a Bioresponsive and Endosomolytic siRNA−Polymer Conjugate. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:752-62. [DOI: 10.1021/mp9000124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Meyer
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Dohmen
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Philipp
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Kiener
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Gelja Maiwald
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christina Scheu
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Manfred Ogris
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ernst Wagner
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Center for Drug Research, Department of Pharmacy, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Center for Nanoscience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
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97
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Viel T, Boisgard R, Kuhnast B, Jego B, Siquier-Pernet K, Hinnen F, Dollé F, Tavitian B. Molecular imaging study on in vivo distribution and pharmacokinetics of modified small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Oligonucleotides 2009; 18:201-12. [PMID: 18729822 DOI: 10.1089/oli.2008.0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Molecular imaging was used to study the biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and activity of naked small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). siRNAs with riboses chemically modified in the 2' position were compared with unmodified siRNA. In vitro, replacement of the 2'-hydroxyl (2'OH) group of certain nucleotides in an siRNA sequence by a fluorine atom (2'F) on both antisense (AS) and sense (S) strands [2'F(AS/S)], or by a methoxy group (2'OMe) on the S strand [2'OH(AS)/2'OMe(S)], was compatible with RNA interference. Different siRNAs [2'F(AS/S), 2'OH(AS)/2'OMe(S), and 2'OH(AS/S)] were labeled with fluorine-18 (conjugation with [(18)F]FPyBrA), and comparative dynamic and quantitative imaging was performed with positron emission tomography. After intravenous injections of [(18)F]siRNAs in rodents, total radioactivity was rapidly eliminated by the kidneys and the liver. Tissue distribution of the different siRNAs were similar, and their bioavailability (as judged from blood persistence and stability) increased in the order 2'OH(AS/S) = 2'OH(AS)/2'OMe(S) < 2'F(AS/S). However, in our in vivo model, the 2'F(AS/S) siRNA, despite its higher bioavailability, was not able to induce a higher interference effect with respect to the 2'OH(AS/S) siRNA. Molecular imaging approaches, applied in the present work to both natural and chemically modified siRNAs, can contribute to the development of these macromolecules as therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Viel
- Laboratoire d'imagerie de l'Expression des gènes, CEA, DSV, I2BM, SHFJ, LIME, INSERM, Orsay, France
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98
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99
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Garbacki N, Di Valentin E, Piette J, Cataldo D, Crahay C, Colige A. Matrix metalloproteinase 12 silencing: a therapeutic approach to treat pathological lung tissue remodeling? Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2009; 22:267-78. [PMID: 19327406 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Among the large matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) family, MMP-12, also referred to as macrophage elastase, plays a significant role in chronic pulmonary pathologies characterized by an intense tissue remodeling such as asthma and COPD. This review will summarize knowledge about MMP-12 structure, functions and mechanisms of activation and regulation, including potential MMP-12 modulation by microRNA. As MMP-12 is involved in many tissue remodeling diseases, efforts have been made to develop specific synthetic inhibitors. However, at this time, very few chemical inhibitors have proved to be efficient and specific to a particular MMP. The relevance of silencing MMP-12 by RNA interference is highlighted. The specificity of this approach using siRNA or shRNA and the strategies to deliver these molecules in the lung are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Garbacki
- GIGA-Research, Laboratory of Connective Tissues Biology, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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100
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Hu Q, Chen C, Yan J, Yang X, Shi X, Zhao J, Lei J, Yang L, Wang K, Chen L, Huang H, Han J, Zhang JH, Zhou C. Therapeutic application of gene silencing MMP-9 in a middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced focal ischemia rat model. Exp Neurol 2009; 216:35-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2008] [Revised: 11/04/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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