Effect of Mg2+, Sr2+, and Mn2+ on the chemico-physical and in vitro biological properties of calcium phosphate biomimetic coatings

Effects of Mn-doping on the structure and biological properties of β-tricalcium phosphate

Doping calcium phosphates with trace elements that exist in bone tissues is beneficial in terms of cell-material interactions and in vivo performance of the bone grafts made thereof. Manganese (Mn) is an essential element for normal growth and metabolism of bone tissues, but studies reporting the effects of Mn-doping calcium phosphates are scarce. The present study investigated the influence of Mn-doping on the structure, morphology and biological properties of β-tricalcium phosphate [β-Ca3(PO4)2] (β-TCP). Mn-doped (MnTCP) powders, with Mn contents varying from 0 to 10 mol%, were obtained through an aqueous precipitation method followed by heat treatment at 800 °C. The successful incorporation of Mn into β-TCP structure was proved through quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) phase analysis coupled with structural Rietveld refinement. Increasing Mn concentrations led to decreasing trends of a- and c-axis lattice parameters, and Mn-doping also significantly affected the morphology of β-TCP powders. In vitro proliferation and differentiation assays of MC3T3-E1 osteoblastic-like cells, grown in the presence of the powders, revealed that the biological benefits of Mn-doped β-TCP are limited to lower Mn incorporation levels and potentially related to their surface microstructure. The Mn1-βTCP composition revealed the best set of bioactivity properties, potentially a good candidate for future applications of β-TCP materials in osteoregeneration.

Generation of composites for bone tissue-engineering applications consisting of gellan gum hydrogels mineralized with calcium and magnesium phosphate phases by enzymatic means

Mineralization of hydrogels, desirable for bone regeneration applications, may be achieved enzymatically by incorporation of alkaline phosphatase (ALP). ALP-loaded gellan gum (GG) hydrogels were mineralized by incubation in mineralization media containing calcium and/or magnesium glycerophosphate (CaGP, MgGP). Mineralization media with CaGP:MgGP concentrations 0.1:0, 0.075:0.025, 0.05:0.05, 0.025:0.075 and 0:0.1 (all values mol/dm³ , denoted A, B, C, D and E, respectively) were compared. Mineral formation was confirmed by IR and Raman, SEM, ICP-OES, XRD, TEM, SAED, TGA and increases in the the mass fraction of the hydrogel not consisting of water. Ca was incorporated into mineral to a greater extent than Mg in samples mineralized in media A-D. Mg content and amorphicity of mineral formed increased in the order A < B < C < D. Mineral formed in media A and B was calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA). Mineral formed in medium C was a combination of CDHA and an amorphous phase. Mineral formed in medium D was an amorphous phase. Mineral formed in medium E was a combination of crystalline and amorphous MgP. Young's moduli and storage moduli decreased in dependence of mineralization medium in the order A > B > C > D, but were significantly higher for samples mineralized in medium E. The attachment and vitality of osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells were higher on samples mineralized in media B-E (containing Mg) than in those mineralized in medium A (not containing Mg). All samples underwent degradation and supported the adhesion of RAW 264.7 monocytic cells, and samples mineralized in media A and B supported osteoclast-like cell formation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Revisiting whitlockite, the second most abundant biomineral in bone: nanocrystal synthesis in physiologically relevant conditions and biocompatibility evaluation

The synthesis of pure whitlockite (WH: Ca18Mg2(HPO4)2(PO4)12) has remained a challenge even though it is the second most abundant inorganic in living bone. Although a few reports about the precipitation of WH in heterogeneous phases have been published, to date, synthesizing WH without utilizing any effects of a buffer or various other ions remains difficult. Thus, the related research fields have encountered difficulties and have not been fully developed. Here, we developed a large-scale synthesis method for pure WH nanoparticles in a ternary Ca(OH)2-Mg(OH)2-H3PO4 system based on a systematic approach. We used excess Mg(2+) to impede the growth of hydroxyapatite (HAP: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) and the formation of other kinetically favored calcium phosphate intermediate phases. In addition, we designed and investigated the synthesis conditions of WH under the acidic pH conditions required to dissolve HAP, which is the most thermodynamically stable phase above pH 4.2, and to incorporate the HPO4(2-) group into the chemical structure of WH. We demonstrated that pure WH nanoparticles can be precipitated under Mg(2+)-rich and acidic pH conditions without any intermediate phases. Interestingly, this synthesized nano-WH showed comparable biocompatibility with HAP. Our methodology for determining the synthesis conditions of WH could provide a new platform for investigating other important precipitants in aqueous systems.

Biomimetic magnesium-carbonate-apatite nanocrystals endowed with strontium ions as anti-osteoporotic trigger

The present work investigates the preparation of biomimetic nanocrystalline apatites co-substituted with Mg, CO3 and Sr to be used as starting materials for the development of nanostructured bio-devices for regeneration of osteoporotic bone. Biological-like amounts of Mg and CO3 ions were inserted in the apatite structure to mimic the composition of bone apatite, whereas the addition of increasing quantities of Sr ions, from 0 up to 12 wt.%, as anti-osteoporotic agent, was evaluated. The chemical-physical features, the morphology, the degradation rates, the ion release kinetics as well as the in vitro bioactivity of the as-prepared apatites were fully evaluated. The results indicated that the incorporation of 12 wt.% of Sr can be viewed as a threshold for the structural stability of Mg-CO3-apatite. Indeed, incorporation of lower quantity of Sr did not induce considerable variations in the chemical structure of Mg-CO3-apatite, while when the Sr doping extent reached 12 wt.%, a dramatically destabilizing effect was detected on the crystal structure thus yielding alteration of the symmetry and distortion of the PO4. As a consequence, this apatite exhibited the fastest degradation kinetic and the highest amount of Sr ions released when tested in physiological conditions. In this respect, the surface crystallization of new calcium phosphate phase when immersed in physiological-like solution occurred by different mechanisms and extents due to the different structural chemistry of the variously doped apatites. Nevertheless, all the apatites synthesized in this work exhibited in vitro bioactivity demonstrating their potential use to develop biomedical devices with anti-osteoporotic functionality.

Understanding of dopant-induced osteogenesis and angiogenesis in calcium phosphate ceramics

General trends in synthetic bone grafting materials are shifting towards approaches that can illicit osteoinductive properties. Pharmacologics and biologics have been used in combination with calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramics, however, they have recently become the target of scrutiny over safety. The importance of trace elements in natural bone health is well documented. Ions, for example, lithium, zinc, magnesium, manganese, silicon, strontium, etc., have been shown to increase osteogenesis and neovascularization. Incorporation of dopants (trace metal ions) into CaPs can provide a platform for safe and efficient delivery in clinical applications where increased bone healing is favorable. This review highlights the use of trace elements in CaP biomaterials, and offers an insight into the mechanisms of how metal ions can enhance both osteogenesis and angiogenesis.

Characterisation, corrosion resistance and in vitro bioactivity of manganese-doped hydroxyapatite films electrodeposited on titanium

This work elucidated the corrosion resistance and in vitro bioactivity of electroplated manganese-doped hydroxyapatite (MnHAp) film on NaOH-treated titanium (Ti). The NaOH treatment process was performed on Ti surface to enhance the adhesion of the MnHAp coating on Ti. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that the MnHAp coating had needle-like apatite crystals, and the approximately 10 μm thick layer was denser than HAp. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis revealed that the MnHAp crystals were Ca-deficient and the Mn/P molar ratio was 0.048. X-ray diffraction confirmed the presence of single-phase MnHAp, which was aligned vertically to the substrate. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated the presence of phosphate bands ranging from 500 to 650 and 900 to 1,100 cm(-1), and a hydroxyl band at 3,571 cm(-1), which was characteristic of HAp. Bond strength test revealed that adhesion for the MnHAp coating was more enhanced than that of the HAp coating. Potentiodynamic polarisation test showed that the MnHAp-coated surface exhibited superior corrosion resistance over the HAp single-coated surface. Bioactivity test conducted by immersing the coatings in simulated body fluid showed that MnHAp coating can rapidly induce bone-like apatite nucleation and growth. Osteoblast cellular tests revealed that the MnHAp coating was better at improving the in vitro biocompatibility of Ti than the HAp coating.

Integrin-mediated osteoblastic adhesion on a porous manganese-incorporated TiO2 coating prepared by plasma electrolytic oxidation

This study was conducted to evaluate the bioactivity of manganese-incorporated TiO₂ (Mn-TiO₂) coating prepared on titanium (Ti) plate by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) technique in Ca-, P- and Mn-containing electrolytes. The surface topography, phase and element compositions of the coatings were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), respectively. The adhesion of osteoblast-like MG63 cells onto Ti, TiO₂ and Mn-TiO₂ surfaces was evaluated, and the signal transduction pathway involved was confirmed by the sequential expression of the genes for integrins β₁, β₃, α₁ and α₃, focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and the extracellular regulated kinases (ERKs), including ERK1 and ERK2. The results obtained indicated that Mn was successfully incorporated into the porous nanostructured TiO₂ coating, and did not alter the surface topography or the phase composition of the coating. The adhesion of the MG63 cells onto the Mn-incorporated TiO₂ coating was significantly enhanced compared with that on the Mn-free TiO₂ coating and the pure Ti plates. In addition, the enhanced cell adhesion on the Mn-TiO₂ coatings may have been mediated by the binding of the integrin subunits, β₁ and α₁, and the subsequent signal transduction pathway, involving FAK and ERK2. The study indicated that the novel Mn-TiO₂ coating has potential for orthopedic implant applications, and that further investigations are required.

Pulsed electrodeposition for the synthesis of strontium-substituted calcium phosphate coatings with improved dissolution properties

Strontium-substituted calcium phosphate coatings are synthesized by pulsed electrodeposition on titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) substrates. Experimental conditions of the process are optimized in order to obtain a coating with a 5% atomic substitution of calcium by strontium which corresponds to the best observations on the osteoblast cells activity and on the osteoclast cells proliferation. The physical and chemical characterizations of the obtained coating are carried out by scanning electron microscopy associated to energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) for X-ray microanalysis and the structural characterization of the coating is carried out by X-ray diffraction. The in vitro dissolution/precipitation properties of the coated substrates are investigated by immersion into Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) from 1h to 14 days. The calcium, phosphorus and strontium concentrations variations in the biological liquid are assessed by Induced Coupled Plasma - Atomic Emission Spectroscopy for each immersion time. The results show that under specific experimental conditions, the electrodeposition process is suitable to synthesize strontium-substituted calcium phosphate coatings. Moreover, the addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into the electrolytic solution used in the process allows us to observe a control of the strontium release during the immersion of the prosthetic materials into DMEM.

Systematic strontium substitution in hydroxyapatite coatings on titanium via micro-arc treatment and their osteoblast/osteoclast responses

This study attempts to enhance the osseointegration of titanium implants by adopting a micro-arc treatment (MAT) capable of replacing calcium (Ca) with different percentages of strontium (Sr) in order to fabricate strontium-containing hydroxyapatite (Sr-HAp) coatings. Sr, regarded as a significant therapy promoting bone mass and bone strength, has a dual mechanism, enhancing osteoblast differentiation and inhibiting osteoclast differentiation. This study also investigates how Sr content affects the microstructure of and osteoblast/osteoclast growth on the coatings. Experimental results indicate that an increase in the Sr content in the electrolyte bath results in a greater degree of Sr substitution at Ca sites within the HAp phase, facilitating the formation of Sr-HAp coatings with Sr fully solid soluble in the HAp phase. Irrespective of the Sr content, most coatings are similar in porous morphology and pore size. Additionally, the Sr-HAp coating shows higher osteoblast compatibility than raw titanium metal and the HAp coating. Moreover, cell adhesion and proliferation after 48 h was greater than that after 4 h, indicating that Sr can stimulate osteoblast adhesion and proliferation. Further, Sr significantly inhibits osteoclast differentiation when the Sr-HAp coatings exceed 38.9 at.% Sr.

Simultaneous Insertion of Mg2+, Sr2+ and Mn2+ Ions into Hydroxyapatite Structure

The current trends in bioactive ceramics point out the ionic substitution in hydroxyapatite (HA) as a concrete way to create new active ceramics with a high developed biomimetic character. Accordingly, our objective in this work was investigating the effects of the simultaneous replacement of Ca2+ ions for Mg2+, Sr2+ and Mn2+ into the crystalline structure of HA.

Effect of strontium ions substitution on gene delivery related properties of calcium phosphate nanoparticles

Gene therapy has been considered a strategy for delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids to a specific site. Calcium phosphates are one gene delivery vector group of interest. However, low transfection efficiency has limited the use of calcium phosphate in gene delivery applications. Present work aims at studying the fabrication of strontium substituted calcium phosphate nanoparticles with improved gene delivery related properties. Strontium substituted calcium phosphate was prepared using a simple sol gel method. X-ray diffraction analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, specific surface area analysis, zeta potential measurement and ion release evaluation were used to characterize the samples. This characterization showed strontium and carbonate co-substituted calcium phosphate which resulted in nano size particles with low crystallinity, high specific surface area, positive surface charge, and a high dissolution rate. These improved properties could increase the DNA concentration on the vector as well as the endosomal escape of the complex that leads to higher transfection efficiency of this novel gene delivery vector.

Mg2+ substituted calcium phosphate nano particles synthesis for non viral gene delivery application

Gene therapy provides a unique approach to medicine as it can be adapted towards the treatment of both inherited and acquired diseases. Recently, calcium phosphate vectors as a new generation of the non viral gene delivery nano carriers have been studied because of their biocompatibility and DNA condensation and gene transfer ability. Substituting cations, like magnesium, affects physical and chemical properties of calcium phosphate nano particles. In this study, Mg(2+) substituted calcium phosphate nano particles have been prepared using the simple sol gel method. X-ray diffraction analysis, Fourier transform infra red spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, specific surface area analysis, zeta potential measurement and ion release evaluation were used for characterization of the samples. It was concluded that presence of Mg ions decrease particle size and crystallinity of the samples and increase positive surface charge as well as beta tricalcium phosphate fraction in chemical composition of calcium phosphate. These properties result in increasing the DNA condensation ability, specific surface area and dissolution rate of the samples which make them suitable particles for gene delivery application.

Ionic substitutions in calcium phosphates synthesized at low temperature

Ionic substitutions have been proposed as a tool to improve the biological performance of calcium phosphate based materials. This review provides an overview of the recent results achieved on ion-substituted calcium phosphates prepared at low temperature, i.e. by direct synthesis in aqueous medium or through hydrolysis of more soluble calcium phosphates. Particular attention is focused on several ions, including Si, Sr, Mg, Zn and Mn, which are attracting increasing interest for their possible biological role, and on the recent trends and developments in the applications of ion-substituted calcium phosphates in the biomedical field.