Lithospermic acid B isolated from Salvia miltiorrhiza ameliorates ischemia/reperfusion-induced renal injury in rats

Enhanced antioxidant bioactivity of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) products prepared using nanotechnology

The traditional Chinese medicine, Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen), promotes blood circulation and relieves blood stasis, also demonstrating good antioxidant activity. In the present study, therefore, the antioxidant activities of medicinal plant materials prepared using nanotechnology or traditional grinding methods were compared using three biological assays. It was found that the nanotechnology preparation had stronger antioxidant bioactivities. Complementary quantitative analysis of four active constituents, salvianolic acid B, cryptotanshinone, tanshinone I and tanshinone IIA, by HPLC revealed only marked differences for salvianolic acid B. The results indicate that the polar active constituent in the nanotechnology samples was released faster compared to the traditionally powdered samples.

Novel pharmacological approaches to the treatment of renal ischemia-reperfusion injury: a comprehensive review

Renal ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) contributes to the development of ischemic acute renal failure (ARF). Multi-factorial processes are involved in the development and progression of renal I-R injury with the generation of reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide and peroxynitrite, and the decline of antioxidant protection playing major roles, leading to dysfunction, injury, and death of the cells of the kidney. Renal inflammation, involving cytokine/adhesion molecule cascades with recruitment, activation, and diapedesis of circulating leukocytes is also implicated. Clinically, renal I-R occurs in a variety of medical and surgical settings and is responsible for the development of acute tubular necrosis (a characteristic feature of ischemic ARF), e.g., in renal transplantation where I-R of the kidney directly influences graft and patient survival. The cellular mechanisms involved in the development of renal I-R injury have been targeted by several pharmacological interventions. However, although showing promise in experimental models of renal I-R injury and ischemic ARF, they have not proved successful in the clinical setting (e.g., atrial natriuretic peptide, low-dose dopamine). This review highlights recent pharmacological developments, which have shown particular promise against experimental renal I-R injury and ischemic ARF, including novel antioxidants and antioxidant enzyme mimetics, nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, erythropoietin, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor agonists, inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, carbon monoxide-releasing molecules, statins, and adenosine. Novel approaches such as recent research involving combination therapies and the potential of non-pharmacological strategies are also considered.

Evolution of medical treatment for endometriosis: back to the roots?

Experimental evidence is accumulating to suggest that medicinal botanicals have anti-inflammatory and pain-alleviating properties and hold promise for treatment of endometriosis. Herein, we present a systematic review of clinical and experimental data on the use of medicinal herbs in the treatment of endometriosis. Although there is a general lack of evidence from clinical studies on the potential efficacy of medicinal herbs for the treatment of endometriosis-associated symptoms, our review highlights the anti-inflammatory and pain-alleviating mechanisms of action of herbal remedies. Medicinal herbs and their active components exhibit cytokine-suppressive, COX-2-inhibiting, antioxidant, sedative and pain-alleviating properties. Each of these mechanisms of action would be predicted to have salutary effects in endometriosis. Better understanding of the mechanisms of action, toxicity and herb-herb and herb-drug interactions permits the optimization of design and execution of complementary alternative medicine trials for endometriosis-associated pain. A potential benefit of herbal therapy is the likelihood of synergistic interactions within individual or combinations of plants. In this sense, phytotherapies may be analogous to nutraceuticals or whole food nutrition. We encourage the development of herbal analogues and establishment of special, simplified registration procedures for certain medicinal products, particularly herbal derivates with a long tradition of safe use.

Effects of Salviae Mitiorrhizae and Cortex Moutan extract on the rat heart after myocardial infarction: a proteomic study

In this study, we characterized the therapeutical effects of Salviae Mitiorrhizae (Danshen) and Cortex Moutan (Danpi) extract (SDD) on Sprague-Dawley rats subjected to coronary artery ligation, and applied proteomic approach to investigate its potential mechanism of action. The chemical composition of SDD was investigated by HPLC/MS(n) analysis. Measurement for serum levels of creatine kinase (CK), creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), nitrite and histological study for infarct area of heart were performed. Moreover, protein abundance profiles of myocardium were compared by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and altered proteins were identified by MALDI-TOF-MS. The results showed SDD significantly decreased CK, CK-MB concentration in serum and infarct area of heart, while increased the release of nitrite in rats with coronary occlusion. Increased concentration of ATP and total adenine nucleotide indicated the energy metabolism has been improved in ischemic heart induced by SDD. Proteomic data revealed that 23 proteins associated with energy metabolism, oxidative stress and cytoskeleton were modulated in SDD treated rats.

Cardiovascular effects of Danshen

Danshen is one of the most versatile Chinese herbal drugs that have been used for hundred of years in the treatment of numerous ailments. Because of its properties of improving microcirculation, causing coronary vasodilatation, suppressing the formation of thromboxane, inhibiting platelet adhesion and aggregation, and protecting against myocardial ischemia, it is widely used either alone or in combination with other herbal ingredients for patients with coronary artery disease and other cardiovascular diseases, in both China and other countries including the United States. This article provides an overview of its history, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical applications, side effects, interactions with Western drugs, and future prospects in the management of cardiovascular diseases.

Kinetics and mechanism of degradation of lithospermic acid B in aqueous solution

The degradation of lithospermic acid B (LAB) was investigated as a function of buffer concentration, pH and temperature. Stability tests were performed using a stability-indicating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV-vis detection. The degradation followed pseudo-first-order kinetics under all experimental conditions. The maximum stability of LAB was observed at pH 2.0. The logk(pH)-pH profile described by specific acid-base catalysis and water molecules agreed with the experimental results. The overall degradation rate constant as a function of the temperature under the given conditions obeyed the Arrhenius equation. The chemical fate of LAB in mild acidic solution was investigated, and nine degradation products were detected and tentatively identified by LC-MS analysis. The primary degradation pathway involving the cleavage of ester bond and ring-opened of benzofuran in the LAB are proposed.

New developments in the chemistry and biology of the bioactive constituents of Tanshen

Tanshen, the rhizome of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, has been used in Chinese traditional medicine (TCM) for multiple therapeutic remedies. The major constituents of Tanshen include water-soluble phenolic acids and lipophilic tanshinones. Phenolic acids possess antioxidant and anticoagulant activities, whereas tanshinones show antibacterial, antioxidant, and antineoplastic activities. This review will focus on recent developments concerning the chemical constituents of Tanshen and their biological activities. These chemical and biological studies continue to increase our understanding about a scientific basis for the traditional clinical use of Tanshen and can also contribute to the development of new drug candidates. Recently, in the author's laboratory, a new compound, neo-tanshinlactone, was discovered to have potent selective antibreast cancer activity. This compound might serve as a lead for developing promising antibreast cancer clinical trials candidates.

Protective effect of the Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu against high glucose-induced oxidative stress in LLC-PK1 cells

We investigated the effects of Chinese prescription Kangen-karyu on high glucose-induced oxidative stress using LLC-PK(1) cells, renal tubular cells, which are the most vulnerable renal tissue to oxidative stress. High-concentration glucose (30mM) treatment induced LLC-PK(1) cell death, but Kangen-karyu, at a concentration of 5, 10 or 50 microg/ml, significantly inhibited high glucose-induced cytotoxicity. In addition, the intracellular reactive oxygen species level was increased by 30mM glucose treatment, but it was concentration-dependently inhibited by Kangen-karyu treatment. Moreover, 30mM glucose treatment induced high levels of superoxide anion, nitric oxide and peroxynitrite. However, Kangen-karyu treatment significantly reduced the radical overproduction induced by high glucose, suggesting Kangen-karyu has radical-scavenging activity that would protect against oxidative stress induced by high glucose. Kangen-karyu also reduced the overexpression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 proteins induced by high glucose. Furthermore, treatment with Kangen-karyu, at a concentration of 50mug/ml, inhibited the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B induced by 30mM glucose in LLC-PK(1) cells. These findings indicate that Kangen-karyu is a potential therapeutic agent that will reduce the damage caused by hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress associated with diabetes.

Hydrolytic kinetics of lithospermic acid B extracted from roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza

The hydrolytic kinetics of lithospermic acid B (LAB) extracted from the roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Chinese herb: danshen) was investigated by using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV-vis detection. The influences of initial drug concentration, pH and temperature on hydrolysis of LAB were studied in aqueous solutions. The results showed that initial concentration of LAB has no effect on the degradation rate at pH 2.0. The hydrolysis followed pseudo-first-order kinetics at 90 degrees C. The log k(obs)-pH profile indicated that the optimal stability range was at pH 2.0-5.0. The rate constant of overall hydrolysis as a function of temperature under the given conditions obeyed the Arrhenius equation. Analysis of the acid-induced degraded solution of LAB by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) revealed at least four degradation products [M-H](-) ion at m/z 197, 137, 537 and 537, respectively. Three of these degradation products, i.e. danshensu (DSU), protocatechuic aldehyde (PRO), and lithospermic acid, were further identified by comparing the retention times with standard samples. According to the structure of LAB and its hydrolysis behavior in solution, the other product was proposed to be the isomer of lithospermic acid.

Antiproliferative effect of salvianolic acid A on rat hepatic stellate cells

Suppression of activation or proliferation, or induction of apoptosis in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) have been proposed as therapeutic strategies against liver fibrosis. Salvia miltiorrhiza has been reported to exert antifibrotic effects in rats with hepatic fibrosis, but its mechanisms of action remain to be clarified. We have investigated the effects of salvianolic acid A (Sal A), an active principle from S. miltiorrhiza, on the proliferation-related biomarkers in a cell line of rat HSCs (HSC-T6) stimulated with platelet-derived growth factor-BB homodimer (PDGF-BB). DNA synthesis (bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation), cell cycle related proteins and apoptosis markers were determined to evaluate the inhibitory effects of Sal A. The results showed that Sal A (1-10 microM) concentration-dependently attenuated PDGF-BB-stimulated proliferation (BrdU incorporation) in HSC-T6 cells. Sal A at 10 microM induced cell apoptosis in PDGF-BB-incubated HSCs, together with a reduction of Bcl-2 protein expression, induction of cell cycle inhibitory proteins p21 and p27, and down-regulation of cyclins D1 and E, suppression of Akt phosphorylation, reduction in PDGF receptor phosphorylation, and an increase in caspase-3 activity. Sal A exerted no direct cytotoxicity on primary hepatocytes and HSC-T6 cells under experimental concentrations. Our results suggested that Sal A inhibited PDGF-BB-activated HSC proliferation, partially through apoptosis induction.

Natural compounds from danshen suppress the activity of hepatic stellate cells

Danshen is an herbal medication frequently used in oriental medicine to treat liver or kidney malfunction. In the course of our studies, we observed that compounds purified from Danshen exhibit an inhibitory activity against Discoidin Domain Receptor 2 (DDR2) tyrosine kinase. Through this inhibition, these compounds also inhibited the growth of HSC T6 cells and suppressed the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin and MMP2, as well as collagen synthesis, all of which are increased in activated liver stellate cells. Given that activation of liver stellate cells is the hallmark of liver fibrosis and that DDR2 plays a critical role in this activation, these results suggest that one of the pharmacological activities of Danshen extract that protects the liver is the inhibition of key cell-signaling kinases, such as DDR2, in liver stellate cells.

Activation of the iberiotoxin-sensitive BKCa channels by salvianolic acid B of the porcine coronary artery smooth muscle cells

In this study, we examined the effects of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen) crude extract, some of its lipid-soluble components (tanshinone I, tanshinone II(A), cryptotanshinone, dihydroisotanshinone I) and the water-soluble compounds (danshensu and salvianolic acid B) on the K(+) channels such as the iberiotoxin-sensitive Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channels and the glibenclamide-sensitive ATP-dependent K(+) (IK(ATP)) channels of the porcine left anterior descending coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Cumulative application of salvianolic acid B (30-300 microM) caused a l-NNA (100 microM)-insensitive, potentiation of the outward BK(Ca) current amplitude with no apparent effect on the IK(ATP) channels opening. Salvianolic acid B (300 microM) caused an ODQ (10 microM, a guanylate cyclase inhibitor)-sensitive enhancement of the outward BK(Ca) current amplitude. In contrast, none of the other isolated chemical constituents of S. miltiorrhiza modified the openings of the two types of K(+) channels studied. In conclusion, our results suggest that salvianolic acid B, a major hydrophilic constituent found in Radix S. miltiorrhiza, activated the opening of the BK(Ca) channels of the porcine coronary artery smooth muscle cells through the activation of guanylate cyclase without the involvement of the nitric oxide synthase activation.

Herbs or natural substances as complementary therapies for chronic kidney disease: ideas for future studies

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an increasingly common condition with limited treatment options that is placing a major financial and emotional burden on the community. The use of complementary and alternative medicines (CAMS) has increased many-fold over the past decade. Although several compelling studies show renal toxicities and an adverse outcome from use of some CAMS, there is also emerging evidence in the literature that some may be renoprotective. Many nephrologists are unaware of these potential therapeutic benefits in treating CKD, or they are reluctant to consider them in research trials for fear of adverse effects (including nephrotoxicity) or deleterious interaction with co-prescribed, conventional medicines. The increased use of self-prescribed CAMS by their patients suggests that practitioners and researchers should keep abreast of the current information on these agents. A primary goal of this article was to review the available scientific evidence for the use of herbs or natural substances as a complementary treatment for patients with CKD. A further goal was to report the literature on herbs that have been reported to cause kidney failure.

Danshen: an overview of its chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and clinical use

Danshen, the dried root of Salvia miltiorrhiza, has been widely used in China and, to a lesser extent, in Japan, the United States, and other European countries for the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. In China, the specific clinical use is angina pectoris, hyperlipidemia, and acute ischemic stroke. The current review covers its traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, clinical applications, and potential herb-drug interactions based on information obtained in both the English and Chinese literature. Although numerous clinical trials have demonstrated that certain Danshen products in China are effective and safe for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, most of these lack sufficient quality. Therefore, large randomized clinical trials and further scientific research to determine its mechanism of actions will be necessary to ensure the safety, effectiveness, and better understanding of its action.

Protection of lethal toxicity of endotoxin by Salvia miltiorrhiza BUNGE is via reduction in tumor necrosis factor alpha release and liver injury

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been implicated as one of the major cause of Gram-negative bacteria-induced sepsis that are life-threatening syndromes occurring in intensive care unit patients. Many natural products derived from medicinal plants may contain therapeutic values on protecting endotoxemia-induced sepsis by virtue their ability to modulate multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines. In the present study, we show that Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM) BUNGE or Danshen, used in treatment of various systemic and surgical infections in the hospitals of China, was able to block the lethal toxicity of LPS in mice via suppression of TNF-alpha release and protection on liver injury. The ability of SM to suppress LPS-induced TNF-alpha release is further confirmed by in vitro experiments conducted on human peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) and the RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. Immunophenotyping by flow cytometry shows improved T-helper cell (CD4) and T-suppressor cells (CD8) ratio in SM-treated PBL and splenocytes of LPS-challenged mice. The drop in plasma glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT) induced by LPS provides evidence that SM can protect hepatic damage. The present study explains some known biological activities of SM, and supports the clinical application of SM in the prevention of inflammatory diseases induced by Gram-negative bacteria.

Rehmannia glutinose Ameliorates Renal Function in the Ischemia/Reperfusion-Induced Acute Renal Failure Rats

The present study was designed to examine whether aqueous extract of steamed root of Rehmannia glutinose (ARR) has an ameliorative effect on renal functional parameters in association with the expressions of aquaporin 2 (AQP 2), Na,K-ATPase, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in the ischemia-reperfusion induced acute renal failure (ARF) rats. Polyuria caused by down-regulation of renal AQP 2 in the ischemia-induced ARF rats was markedly restored by administration of ARR (200 mg/kg, p.o.) with restoring expression of AQP 2 in the kidney. The expressions of Na,K-ATPase alpha1 and beta1 subunits in the renal medullar and cortex of the ARF rats were also restored in the ARF rats by administration of ARR. On the other hand, administration of ARR lowered the renal expression of HO-1 up-regulated in rats with ischemia-induced ARF. The renal functional parameters including creatinine clearance, urinary sodium excretion, urinary osmolality, and solute-free reabsorption were also markedly restored in ischemia-ARF rats by administration of ARR. Taken together, these data indicate that RSR ameliorates renal defects in rats with ischemia-induced ARF.

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of lithospermic acid B in rat serum

A rapid, sensitive and selective liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/ MS) method for the determination of lithospermic acid B (LSB) in rat serum was developed. LSB and internal standard, 7-hydroxy-3-phenyl-chromen-4-one (HPC) were extracted from rat serum with methyl-tert-butyl ether at acidic pH and analyzed on a Luna C8 column with the mobile phase of acetonitrile-ammonium formate (10 mM, pH 6.5) (50:50, v/v). The analytes were detected using a negative electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in the multiple-reaction-monitoring mode. The standard curve was linear (r2= 0.997) over the concentration range of 10.0-500 ng/mL. The coefficient of variation and relative error for intra- and interassay at three QC levels were 1.1 approximately 6.2% and -10.3 approximately -2.7%, respectively. The recovery of LSB from serum sample ranged from 73.2 to 79.5%, with that of HPC (internal standard) being 75.1 %. The lower limit of quantification for LSB was 10 ng/mL using 50 microL of serum sample.