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Ding Y, Shi X, Shuai X, Xu Y, Liu Y, Liang X, Wei D, Su D. Luteolin prevents uric acid-induced pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. J Biomed Res 2014; 28:292-8. [PMID: 25050113 PMCID: PMC4102843 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.28.20130170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Revised: 12/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevated uric acid causes direct injury to pancreatic β-cells. In this study, we examined the effects of luteolin, an important antioxidant, on uric acid-induced β-cell dysfunction. We first evaluated the effect of luteolin on nitric oxide (NO) formation in uric acid-stimulated Min6 cells using the Griess method. Next, we performed transient transfection and reporter assays to measure transcriptional activity of nuclear factor (NF)-κB. Western blotting assays were also performed to assess the effect of luteolin on the expression of MafA and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in uric acid-treated cells. Finally, we evaluated the effect of luteolin on uric acid-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in Min6 cells and freshly isolated mouse pancreatic islets. We found that luteolin significantly inhibited uric acid-induced NO production, which was well correlated with reduced expression of iNOS mRNA and protein. Furthermore, decreased activity of NF-κB was implicated in inhibition by luteolin of increased iNOS expression induced by uric acid. Besides, luteolin significantly increased MafA expression in Min6 cells exposed to uric acid, which was reversed by overexpression of iNOS. Moreover, luteolin prevented uric acid-induced inhibition of GSIS in both Min6 cells and mouse islets. In conclusion, luteolin protects pancreatic β-cells from uric acid-induced dysfunction and may confer benefit on the protection of pancreatic β-cells in hyperuricemia-associated diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ding
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Xuhui Shi
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Xuanyu Shuai
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Yuemei Xu
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Yun Liu
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Xiubin Liang
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
| | - Dong Wei
- Department of Endocrinology, the Second People's Hospital of Chengdu, Sichuan 610017, China
| | - Dongming Su
- Center of Metabolic Disease Research, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China. ; Center of Cellular Therapy, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210029, China
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Tsai JY, Lee MJ, Dah-Tsyr Chang M, Huang H. The effect of catalase on migration and invasion of lung cancer cells by regulating the activities of cathepsin S, L, and K. Exp Cell Res 2014; 323:28-40. [PMID: 24583396 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2014.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Abundant clinical evidences indicate that up-regulation of several cathepsins in many human cancers is correlated with malignant progression and poor patient prognosis. In addition, a decrease in catalase activity or accumulation of hydrogen peroxide correlates with cancer metastasis. Recent studies indicate that cathepsin activation and expression can be modulated via H2O2 treatment. However, the actual relationship between catalase and cathepsins is not yet fully understood. In the present study, we found that catalase expression (or activity) was higher, while intracellular and extracellular Cat S, Cat L, and Cat K activities were lower in the non-invasive CL1-0 cells compared to the highly invasive CL1-5 cells. After CL1-0 cells were transfected with catalase-shRNA, the corresponding ROS (H2O2) level and Cat S, Cat L, or Cat K expression (or activity) was up-regulated, accompanied by an increase in cell migration and invasion. On the other hand, ROS (H2O2) level, cathepsin S, L, and K activities, cell migration and invasion were decreased in catalase-overexpressed CL1-5 cells. It is suggested that catalase may regulate cathepsin activity by controlling the production of ROS (H2O2), leading to variation in migration and invasion ability of lung cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Ying Tsai
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Mon-Juan Lee
- Department of Bioscience Technology, Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan 71101, Taiwan
| | - Margaret Dah-Tsyr Chang
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Section 2, Kuang Fu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan.
| | - Haimei Huang
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan.
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Leirós M, Alonso E, Sanchez JA, Rateb ME, Ebel R, Houssen WE, Jaspars M, Alfonso A, Botana LM. Mitigation of ROS insults by Streptomyces secondary metabolites in primary cortical neurons. ACS Chem Neurosci 2014; 5:71-80. [PMID: 24219236 DOI: 10.1021/cn4001878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a common point in neurodegenerative diseases, widely connected with mitochondrial dysfunction. In this study, we screened seven natural products from Streptomyces sources against hydrogen peroxide insult in primary cortical neurons, an oxidative stress in vitro model. We showed the ability of these compounds to inhibit neuronal cytotoxicity and to reduce ROS release after 12 h treatment. Among the tested compounds, the quinone anhydroexfoliamycin and the red pyrrole-type pigment undecylprodigiosin stand out. These two compounds displayed the most complete protection against oxidative stress with mitochondrial function improvement, ROS production inhibition, and increase of antioxidant enzyme levels, glutathione and catalase. Further investigations confirmed that anhydroexfoliamycin acts over the Nrf2-ARE pathway, as a Nrf2 nuclear translocation inductor, and is able to strongly inhibit the effect of the mitochondrial uncoupler FCCP over cytosolic Ca(2+), pointing to mitochondria as a cellular target for this molecule. In addition, both compounds were able to reduce caspase-3 activity induced by the apoptotic enhancer staurosporine, but undecylprodigiosin failed to inhibit FCCP effects and it did not act over the Nrf2 pathway as was the case for anhydroexfoliamycin. These results show that Streptomyces metabolites could be useful for the development of new drugs for prevention of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases and cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Leirós
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27003, Spain
| | - Eva Alonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27003, Spain
| | - Jon A. Sanchez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27003, Spain
| | - Mostafa E. Rateb
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, Department
of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K
- Pharmacognosy
Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 32514, Egypt
| | - Rainer Ebel
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, Department
of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K
| | - Wael E. Houssen
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, Department
of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K
| | - Marcel Jaspars
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, Department
of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27003, Spain
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27003, Spain
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Ansari N, Khodagholi F. Natural products as promising drug candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: molecular mechanism aspect. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 11:414-29. [PMID: 24381531 PMCID: PMC3744904 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x11311040005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder to date, with no curative or preventive therapy. Histopathological hallmarks of AD include deposition of β-amyloid plaques and formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Extent studies on pathology of the disease have made important discoveries regarding mechanism of disease and potential therapeutic targets. Many cellular changes including oxidative stress, disruption of Ca2+ homeostasis, inflammation, metabolic disturbances, and accumulation of unfolded/misfolded proteins can lead to programmed cell death in AD. Despite intensive research, only five approved drugs are available for the management of AD. Hence, there is a need to look at alternative therapies. Use of natural products and culinary herbs in medicine has gained popularity in recent years. Several natural substances with neuroprotective effects have been widely studied. Most of these compounds have remarkable antioxidant properties and act mainly by scavenging free radical species. Some of them increase cell survival and improve cognition by directly affecting amyloidogenesis and programmed cell death pathways. Further studies on these natural products and their mechanism of action, parallel with the use of novel pharmaceutical drug design and delivery techniques, enable us to offer an addition to conventional medicine. This review discussed some natural products with potential neuroprotective properties against Aβ with respect to their mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niloufar Ansari
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Khodagholi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Liu Y, Gou LS, Tian X, Fu XB, Ling X, Sun LY, Lan N, Li S, Yin XX. Protective effects of luteolin on cognitive impairments induced by psychological stress in mice. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2013; 238:418-25. [PMID: 23760008 DOI: 10.1177/1535370213477985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, the protective effects of luteolin were investigated against psychological stress-induced cognitive impairment. To emulate the psychological stress, mice received restraint stress for six hours daily, between 9:00 and 15:00 hours, for 21 consecutive days. The results of step-through test, open-field test and Morris Water Maze test demonstrated that psychological stress treatment could result in cognitive impairments in mice. This cognition dysfunction was improved by treatment with low- and medium-dose luteolin. In addition, psychological stress induced an increased serum corticosterone concentration with a decreased serum norepinephrine and dopamine concentration. These alterations were attenuated by treatment with luteolin. Also, psychological stress significantly decreased the glutathione (GSH) concentrations and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations were enhanced. However, these oxidative alterations in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus induced by psychological stress were significantly reversed by treatment of luteolin. Further, the current study indicated a decline of catalase (CAT) activities in the hippocampus of the ST group, which was significantly prevented by low, medium and high dose of luteolin. On the other hand, there was no significance in CAT activities of the prefrontal cortex among the six groups. Collectively, the present results suggest that luteolin treatment serves as a key role in improving the psychological stress-induced cognitive impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical College, 209 Tongshan Road, Jiangsu 221004, China.
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Nazari QA, Kume T, Takada-Takatori Y, Izumi Y, Akaike A. Protective effect of luteolin on an oxidative-stress model induced by microinjection of sodium nitroprusside in mice. J Pharmacol Sci 2013; 122:109-17. [PMID: 23707972 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.13019fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating lines of evidence showed that luteolin, a polyphenolic compound, has potent neuroprotective effects. The purpose of this study was to examine whether luteolin can protect against sodium nitroprusside (SNP)-induced oxidative damage in mouse brain. Intrastriatal co-injection of luteolin (3 - 30 nmol) with SNP (10 nmol) dose-dependently protected against brain damage and motor dysfunction. Oral administrations of luteolin (600 - 1200 mg/kg) dose-dependently protected against brain damage and motor dysfunction induced by striatal injection of SNP. Furthermore, luteolin (30 - 100 μM) concentration dependently protected against Fe(2+)-induced lipid peroxidation in mouse brain homogenate. Luteolin (1 - 100 μg/ml) showed potent DPPH radical scavenging ability, when compared with ascorbic acid and glutathione. Finally, a ferrozine assay showed that luteolin (30 - 100 μg/ml) has Fe(2+)-chelating ability, but this was weaker than that of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. These results suggest that intrastriatal or oral administration of luteolin protected mice brain from SNP-induced oxidative damage by scavenging and chelating effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qand Agha Nazari
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Inoue K, Baba E, Hino T, Oka H. A strategy for high-speed countercurrent chromatography purification of specific antioxidants from natural products based on on-line HPLC method with radical scavenging assay. Food Chem 2012; 134:2276-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.02.219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2011] [Revised: 10/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Recent advances on the neuroprotective potential of antioxidants in experimental models of Parkinson's disease. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:10608-10629. [PMID: 22949883 PMCID: PMC3431881 DOI: 10.3390/ijms130810608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD), a neurodegenerative movement disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) is characterized by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta region of the midbrain. Although the etiology of PD is not completely understood and is believed to be multifactorial, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are widely considered major consequences, which provide important clues to the disease mechanisms. Studies have explored the role of free radicals and oxidative stress that contributes to the cascade of events leading to dopamine cell degeneration in PD. In general, in-built protective mechanisms consisting of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants in the CNS play decisive roles in preventing neuronal cell loss due to free radicals. But the ability to produce these antioxidants decreases with aging. Therefore, antioxidant therapy alone or in combination with current treatment methods may represent an attractive strategy for treating or preventing the neurodegeneration seen in PD. Here we summarize the recent discoveries of potential antioxidant compounds for modulating free radical mediated oxidative stress leading to neurotoxicity in PD.
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Ghosh S, Samanta A, Mandal NB, Bannerjee S, Chattopadhyay D. Evaluation of the wound healing activity of methanol extract of Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit leaf and its isolated active constituents in topical formulation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2012; 142:714-722. [PMID: 22683906 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.05.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Pedilanthus tithymaloides leaves are widely used in Indian medicine to heal wounds, burn, mouth ulcers. However, systematic evaluation of these activities is lacking. Thus, the present study aimed to assesses the wound healing activity of Pedilanthus leaves and its isolated constituents in topical ointment formulation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Bioassay-guided chromatographic fractionation of the methanol extract of leaves resulted in the isolation of 2-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-chromen-4-one and 1, 2-tetradecanediol, 1-(hydrogen sulfate), sodium salt. The ointment formulation of methanol extract (2.5%, 5% w/w) and isolated compounds (0.25% w/w) was prepared and evaluated on excision, incision and dead space wound models in rats. The effects of formulations on wound healing were assessed by the rate of wound closure, period of epithelialization, tensile strength, granulation tissue weight, hydroxyproline content and histopathology. RESULTS Significant wound healing activity was observed with methanol extract and isolated constituents. Topical application of isolated compound ointments caused faster epithelialization, significant wound contraction (95.41%), and better tensile strength (565.33 g) on 16 post-wounding day, while 5% extract showed wound epithelialization with 95.55% contraction on 18th post-wounding day, better than the control group (76.39% on 22 day). The tensile strength of incision wound was significantly increased in extract and compound treated animals. Moreover, in dead space model the extract significantly increased granuloma tissue weight, tensile strength and hydroxyproline content. The tissue histology of ointment treated groups showed complete epithelialization with increased collagenation, compared to the povidone-iodine group. CONCLUSIONS The results validated the traditional use of Pedilanthus tithymaloides for cutaneous wound management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Ghosh
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
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Park SW, Cho CS, Ryu NH, Kim JH, Kim JS, Kim JH. Luteolin extracted from Platycodon grandiflorum protects retinal pigment epithelial cells from oxidative stress-induced caspase-3 dependent apoptosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bionut.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Mehla R, Bivalkar-Mehla S, Chauhan A. A flavonoid, luteolin, cripples HIV-1 by abrogation of tat function. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27915. [PMID: 22140483 PMCID: PMC3227592 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the effectiveness of combination antiretroviral treatment (cART) against HIV-1, evidence indicates that residual infection persists in different cell types. Intensification of cART does not decrease the residual viral load or immune activation. cART restricts the synthesis of infectious virus but does not curtail HIV-1 transcription and translation from either the integrated or unintegrated viral genomes in infected cells. All treated patients with full viral suppression actually have low-level viremia. More than 60% of treated individuals also develop minor HIV-1 -associated neurocognitive deficits (HAND) due to residual virus and immune activation. Thus, new therapeutic agents are needed to curtail HIV-1 transcription and residual virus. In this study, luteolin, a dietary supplement, profoundly reduced HIV-1 infection in reporter cells and primary lymphocytes. HIV-1inhibition by luteolin was independent of viral entry, as shown by the fact that wild-type and VSV-pseudotyped HIV-1 infections were similarly inhibited. Luteolin was unable to inhibit viral reverse transcription. Luteolin had antiviral activity in a latent HIV-1 reactivation model and effectively ablated both clade-B- and -C -Tat-driven LTR transactivation in reporter assays but had no effect on Tat expression and its sub-cellular localization. We conclude that luteolin confers anti-HIV-1 activity at the Tat functional level. Given its biosafety profile and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, luteolin may serve as a base flavonoid to develop potent anti-HIV-1 derivatives to complement cART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Mehla
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Shalmali Bivalkar-Mehla
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ashok Chauhan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Liu R, Meng F, Zhang L, Liu A, Qin H, Lan X, Li L, Du G. Luteolin isolated from the medicinal plant Elsholtzia rugulosa (Labiatae) prevents copper-mediated toxicity in β-amyloid precursor protein Swedish mutation overexpressing SH-SY5Y cells. Molecules 2011; 16:2084-96. [PMID: 21368720 PMCID: PMC6259644 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16032084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Revised: 02/22/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Luteolin, a 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone, is a plant flavonoid and pharmacologically active agent that has been isolated from several plant species. In the present study, the effects of luteolin obtained from the medicinal plant Elsholtzia rugulosa and the related mechanisms were examined in an Alzheimer's disease (AD) cell model. In this model, copper was used to exacerbate the neurotoxicity in β-amyloid precursor protein Swedish mutation stably overexpressed SH-SY5Y cells (named "APPsw cells" for short). Based on this model, we demonstrated that luteolin increased cell viability, reduced intracellular ROS generation, enhanced the activity of SOD and reversed mitochondrial membrane potential dissipation. Inhibition of caspase-related apoptosis was consistently involved in the neuroprotection afforded by luteolin. Furthermore, it down-regulated the expression of AβPP and lowered the secretion of Aβ₁₋₄₂. These results indicated that luteolin from the Elsholtzia rugulosa exerted neroprotective effects through mechanisms that decrease AβPP expression, lower Aβ secretion, regulate the redox imbalance, preserve mitochondrial function, and depress the caspase family-related apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Fanrui Meng
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Li Zhang
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Ailin Liu
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Hailin Qin
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Xi Lan
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
| | - Lin Li
- Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Guanhua Du
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China ; E-Mail: (R.L.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: 86-10-63165184; Fax: 86-10-63165184
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