51
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Hoffman AF, Lycas MD, Kaczmarzyk JR, Spivak CE, Baumann MH, Lupica CR. Disruption of hippocampal synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation by psychoactive synthetic cannabinoid 'Spice' compounds: comparison with Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol. Addict Biol 2017; 22:390-399. [PMID: 26732435 PMCID: PMC4935655 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
There has been a marked increase in the availability of synthetic drugs designed to mimic the effects of marijuana. These cannabimimetic drugs, sold illicitly as 'Spice' and related products, are associated with serious medical complications in some users. In vitro studies suggest that synthetic cannabinoids in these preparations are potent agonists at central cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs), but few investigations have delineated their cellular effects, particularly in comparison with the psychoactive component of marijuana, Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9 -THC). We compared the ability of three widely abused synthetic cannabinoids and Δ9 -THC to alter glutamate release and long-term potentiation in the mouse hippocampus. JWH-018 was the most potent inhibitor of hippocampal synaptic transmission (EC50 ~15 nM), whereas its fluoropentyl derivative, AM2201, inhibited synaptic transmission with slightly lower potency (EC50 ~60 nM). The newer synthetic cannabinoid, XLR-11, displayed much lower potency (EC50 ~900 nM) that was similar to Δ9 -THC (EC50 ~700 nM). The effects of all compounds occurred via activation of CB1Rs, as demonstrated by reversal with the selective antagonist/inverse agonist AM251 or the neutral CB1R antagonist PIMSR1. Moreover, AM2201 was without effect in the hippocampus of transgenic mice lacking the CB1R. Hippocampal slices exposed to either synthetic cannabinoids or Δ9 -THC exhibited significantly impaired long-term potentiation (LTP). We find that, compared with Δ9 -THC, the first-generation cannabinoids found in Spice preparations display higher potency, whereas a recent synthetic cannabinoid is roughly equipotent with Δ9 -THC. The disruption of synaptic function by these synthetic cannabinoids is likely to lead to profound impairments in cognitive and behavioral function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander F. Hoffman
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology BranchNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Matthew D. Lycas
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology BranchNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Jakub R. Kaczmarzyk
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology BranchNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Charles E. Spivak
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology BranchNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research UnitNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Carl R. Lupica
- Electrophysiology Research Section, Cellular Neurobiology BranchNational Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research ProgramBaltimoreMDUSA
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52
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Ford BM, Tai S, Fantegrossi WE, Prather PL. Synthetic Pot: Not Your Grandfather's Marijuana. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2017; 38:257-276. [PMID: 28162792 PMCID: PMC5329767 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In the early 2000s in Europe and shortly thereafter in the USA, it was reported that 'legal' forms of marijuana were being sold under the name K2 and/or Spice. Active ingredients in K2/Spice products were determined to be synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs), producing psychotropic actions via CB1 cannabinoid receptors, similar to those of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the primary active constituent in marijuana. Often abused by adolescents and military personnel to elude detection in drug tests due to their lack of structural similarity to Δ9-THC, SCBs are falsely marketed as safe marijuana substitutes. Instead, SCBs are a highly structural diverse group of compounds, easily synthesized, which produce very dangerous adverse effects occurring by, as of yet, unknown mechanisms. Therefore, available evidence indicates that K2/Spice products are clearly not safe marijuana alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Ford
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Sherrica Tai
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Paul L Prather
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA.
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53
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Thomas BF, Lefever TW, Cortes RA, Grabenauer M, Kovach AL, Cox AO, Patel PR, Pollard GT, Marusich JA, Kevin RC, Gamage TF, Wiley JL. Thermolytic Degradation of Synthetic Cannabinoids: Chemical Exposures and Pharmacological Consequences. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2017; 361:162-171. [PMID: 28087785 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.238717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are manufactured clandestinely with little quality control and are distributed as herbal "spice" for smoking or as bulk compound for mixing with a solvent and inhalation via electronic vaporizers. Intoxication with synthetic cannabinoids has been associated with seizure, excited delirium, coma, kidney damage, and other disorders. The chemical alterations produced by heating these structurally novel compounds for consumption are largely unknown. Here, we show that heating synthetic cannabinoids containing tetramethylcyclopropyl-ring substituents produced thermal degradants with pharmacological activity that varied considerably from their parent compounds. Moreover, these degradants were formed under conditions simulating smoking. Some products of combustion retained high affinity at the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) and CB2 receptors, were more efficacious than (-)-cis-3-[2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol (CP55,940) in stimulating CB1 receptor-mediated guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPγS) binding, and were potent in producing Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-like effects in laboratory animals, whereas other compounds had low affinity and efficacy and were devoid of cannabimimetic activity. Degradants that retained affinity and efficacy also substituted in drug discrimination tests for the prototypical synthetic cannabinoid 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018), and are likely to produce psychotropic effects in humans. Hence, it is important to take into consideration the actual chemical exposures that occur during use of synthetic cannabinoid formulations to better comprehend the relationships between dose and effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Ricardo A Cortes
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Megan Grabenauer
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Alexander L Kovach
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Anderson O Cox
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Purvi R Patel
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Gerald T Pollard
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Richard C Kevin
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Thomas F Gamage
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (B.F.T., T.W.L., R.A.C., M.G., A.L.K., A.O.C, P.R.P, J.A.M, T.F.G, J.L.W.); Howard Associates, LLC, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (G.T.P.); and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia (R.C.K.)
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54
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Järbe TUC, Raghav JG. Tripping with Synthetic Cannabinoids ("Spice"): Anecdotal and Experimental Observations in Animals and Man. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:263-281. [PMID: 27753006 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The phenomenon of consuming synthetic cannabinoids ("Spice") for recreational purposes is a fairly recent trend. However, consumption of cannabis dates back millennia, with numerous accounts written on the experience of its consumption, and thousands of scientific reports published on the effects of its constituents in laboratory animals and humans. Here, we focus on consolidating the scientific literature on the effects of "Spice" compounds in various behavioral assays, including assessing abuse liability, tolerance, dependence, withdrawal, and potential toxicity. In most cases, the behavioral effects of "Spice" compounds are compared with those of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Methodological aspects, such as modes of administration and other logistical issues, are also discussed. As the original "Spice" molecules never were intended for human consumption, scientifically based information about potential toxicity and short- and long-term behavioral effects are very limited. Consequently, preclinical behavioral studies with "Spice" compounds are still in a nascent stage. Research is needed to address the addiction potential and other effects, including propensity for producing tissue/organ toxicity, of these synthetic cannabimimetic "Spice" compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn U C Järbe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery (CDD), Northeastern University, 116 Mugar Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Jimit Girish Raghav
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery (CDD), Northeastern University, 116 Mugar Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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55
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Kaizaki-Mitsumoto A, Hataoka K, Funada M, Odanaka Y, Kumamoto H, Numazawa S. Pyrolysis of UR-144, a synthetic cannabinoid, augments an affinity to human CB 1 receptor and cannabimimetic effects in mice. J Toxicol Sci 2017; 42:335-341. [DOI: 10.2131/jts.42.335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Asuka Kaizaki-Mitsumoto
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Kyoko Hataoka
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Masahiko Funada
- National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry
| | - Yuki Odanaka
- Center for Instrumental Analysis, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Hiroki Kumamoto
- Department of Medicinal and Industrial Chemistry, Showa University School of Pharmacy
| | - Satoshi Numazawa
- Division of Toxicology, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, Showa University School of Pharmacy
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56
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Wiley JL, Marusich JA, Thomas BF. Combination Chemistry: Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel Psychoactive Cannabinoids. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:231-248. [PMID: 27753007 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Originally developed as research tools for use in structure-activity relationship studies, synthetic cannabinoids contributed to significant scientific advances in the cannabinoid field. Unfortunately, a subset of these compounds was diverted for recreational use beginning in the early 2000s. As these compounds were banned, they were replaced with additional synthetic cannabinoids with increasingly diverse chemical structures. This chapter focuses on integration of recent results with those covered in previous reviews. Whereas most of the early compounds were derived from the prototypic naphthoylindole JWH-018, currently popular synthetic cannabinoids include tetramethylcyclopropyl ketones and indazole-derived cannabinoids (e.g., AB-PINACA, AB-CHMINACA). Despite their structural differences, psychoactive synthetic cannabinoids bind with high affinity to CB1 receptors in the brain and, when tested, have been shown to activate these receptors and to produce a characteristic profile of effects, including suppression of locomotor activity, antinociception, hypothermia, and catalepsy, as well as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-like discriminative stimulus effects in mice. When they have been tested, synthetic cannabinoids are often found to be more efficacious at activation of the CB1 receptor and more potent in vivo. Further, their chemical alteration by thermolysis during use and their uncertain stability and purity may result in exposure to degradants that differ from the parent compound contained in the original product. Consequently, while their intoxicant effects may be similar to those of THC, use of synthetic cannabinoids may be accompanied by unpredicted, and sometimes harmful, effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA.
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA
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57
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Peace MR, Krakowiak RI, Wolf CE, Poklis A, Poklis JL. Identification of MDMB-FUBINACA in commercially available e-liquid formulations sold for use in electronic cigarettes. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 271:92-97. [PMID: 28076838 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
MDMB-FUBINACA (aka MDMB(N)-Bz-F), chemical name Methyl (S)-2-(1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido)-3,3-dimethylbutanoate, a designer drug or a new psychoactive substance (NPS), was identified in three commercially available e-liquids formulated for electronic cigarette use. The e-liquids were evaluated using direct analysis in real time ion source attached to a time of flight mass spectrometer (DART-MS) and gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GC-MS) to identify active ingredients/drugs, flavorants, and other possible constituents. The e-liquids were also evaluated for alcohol content by headspace gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (HS-GC-FID). The aerosol produced from the e-liquids by use of an e-cigarette was analyzed by solid phase micro-extraction gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) to ensure delivery of the active ingredient/drug. Propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, MDMB-FUBINACA, alcohol content and a flavor profile were determined for each of the e-liquids. MDMB-FUBINACA was determined to be the major active ingredient in all three e-liquids and was successfully detected by SPME-GC-MS in the aerosol generated by a KangerTech Aerotank clearomizer/electronic cigarette.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle R Peace
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1015 Floyd Avenue, Room 2015, Richmond, VA 23284, USA.
| | - Rose I Krakowiak
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1015 Floyd Avenue, Room 2015, Richmond, VA 23284, USA.
| | - Carl E Wolf
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1015 Floyd Avenue, Room 2015, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1101 E. Marshall Street, P.O. Box 980662, Richmond, VA 23298-0662, USA.
| | - Alphonse Poklis
- Department of Forensic Science, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1015 Floyd Avenue, Room 2015, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; Department of Pathology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1101 E. Marshall Street, P.O. Box 980662, Richmond, VA 23298-0662, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Room 754, 410 North 12th Street, P.O. Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.
| | - Justin L Poklis
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Room 754, 410 North 12th Street, P.O. Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.
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58
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Ferk F, Gminski R, Al-Serori H, Mišík M, Nersesyan A, Koller VJ, Angerer V, Auwärter V, Tang T, Arif AT, Knasmüller S. Genotoxic properties of XLR-11, a widely consumed synthetic cannabinoid, and of the benzoyl indole RCS-4. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:3111-3123. [PMID: 26856714 PMCID: PMC5104816 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1664-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Aim of this study was the investigation of the genotoxic properties of XLR-11 [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone, a widely consumed synthetic cannabinoid (SC), and of the benzoyl indole RCS-4 (4-methoxyphenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)methanone). We characterized the DNA-damaging properties of these drugs in different experimental systems. No evidence for induction of gene mutations was detected in bacterial (Salmonella/microsome) tests, but clear dose-dependent effects were found in in vitro single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assays with human lymphocytes and with buccal- and lung-derived human cell lines (TR-146 and A-549). These experiments are based on the determination of DNA migration in an electric field and enable the detection of single- and double-strand breaks and apurinic sites. Furthermore, we found that both drugs induce micronuclei which are formed as a consequence of chromosomal aberrations. The lack of effects in SCGE experiments with lesion-specific enzymes (FPG, Endo III) shows that the DNA damage is not caused by formation of oxidatively damaged bases; experiments with liver enzyme homogenates and bovine serum albumin indicate that the drugs are not converted enzymatically to DNA-reactive intermediates. Furthermore, results with buccal- and lung-derived human cells show that gaseous treatment of the cells under conditions which reflect the exposure situation in drug users may cause damage of the genetic material in epithelia of the respiratory tract. Since DNA instability is involved in the etiology of cancer, these findings can be taken as an indication that consumption of the SCs may cause tumors in the respiratory tract of consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Ferk
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Richard Gminski
- Environmental Health Sciences and Hospital Infection Control, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Halh Al-Serori
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Miroslav Mišík
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Armen Nersesyan
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Verena J Koller
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Verena Angerer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tao Tang
- Environmental Health Sciences and Hospital Infection Control, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ali Talib Arif
- Environmental Health Sciences and Hospital Infection Control, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
- Institute of Earth and Environmental Science - Geochemistry, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Siegfried Knasmüller
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Borschkegasse 8A, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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59
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Cannaert A, Storme J, Franz F, Auwärter V, Stove CP. Detection and Activity Profiling of Synthetic Cannabinoids and Their Metabolites with a Newly Developed Bioassay. Anal Chem 2016; 88:11476-11485. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jolien Storme
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Florian Franz
- Institute
of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center −
University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute
of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center −
University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Albertstr. 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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60
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Wiley JL, Lefever TW, Marusich JA, Grabenauer M, Moore KN, Huffman JW, Thomas BF. Evaluation of first generation synthetic cannabinoids on binding at non-cannabinoid receptors and in a battery of in vivo assays in mice. Neuropharmacology 2016; 110:143-153. [PMID: 27449567 PMCID: PMC5028280 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Anecdotal reports suggest that abused synthetic cannabinoids produce cannabis-like "highs," but some of their effects may also differ from traditional cannabinoids such as Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). This study examined the binding affinities of first-generation indole-derived synthetic cannabinoids at cannabinoid and noncannabinoid receptors and their effects in a functional observational battery (FOB) and drug discrimination in mice. All seven compounds, except JWH-391, had favorable affinity (≤159 nM) for both cannabinoid receptors. In contrast, binding at noncannabinoid receptors was absent or weak. In the FOB, THC and the six active compounds disrupted behaviors in CNS activation and muscle tone/equilibrium domains. Unlike THC, however, synthetic cannabinoids impaired behavior across a wider dose and domain range, producing autonomic effects and signs of CNS excitability and sensorimotor reactivity. In addition, mice acquired JWH-018 discrimination, and THC and JWH-073 produced full substitution whereas the 5-HT2B antagonist mianserin did not substitute in mice trained to discriminate JWH-018 or THC. Urinary metabolite analysis showed that the compounds were extensively metabolized, with metabolites that could contribute to their in vivo effects. Together, these results show that, while first-generation synthetic cannabinoids shared some effects that were similar to those of THC, they also possessed effects that differed from traditional cannabinoids. The high nanomolar (or absent) affinities of these compounds at receptors for most major neurotransmitters suggests that these divergent effects may be related to the greater potencies and/or efficacies at CB1 receptors; however, action(s) at noncannabinoid receptors yet to be assessed or via different signaling pathways cannot be ruled out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA.
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA
| | - Megan Grabenauer
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA
| | - Katherine N Moore
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA
| | - John W Huffman
- Professor Emeritus, Clemson University, PO Box 695, Dillsboro, NC 28725-0695, USA
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, USA
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Banister SD, Longworth M, Kevin R, Sachdev S, Santiago M, Stuart J, Mack JBC, Glass M, McGregor IS, Connor M, Kassiou M. Pharmacology of Valinate and tert-Leucinate Synthetic Cannabinoids 5F-AMBICA, 5F-AMB, 5F-ADB, AMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-CHMICA, and Their Analogues. ACS Chem Neurosci 2016; 7:1241-54. [PMID: 27421060 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Indole and indazole synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) featuring l-valinate or l-tert-leucinate pendant group have recently emerged as prevalent recreational drugs, and their use has been associated with serious adverse health effects. Due to the limited pharmacological data available for these compounds, 5F-AMBICA, 5F-AMB, 5F-ADB, AMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-CHMICA, and their analogues were synthesized and assessed for cannabimimetic activity in vitro and in vivo. All SCs acted as potent, highly efficacious agonists at CB1 (EC50 = 0.45-36 nM) and CB2 (EC50 = 4.6-128 nM) receptors in a fluorometric assay of membrane potential, with a general preference for CB1 activation. The cannabimimetic properties of two prevalent compounds with confirmed toxicity in humans, 5F-AMB and MDMB-FUBINACA, were demonstrated in vivo using biotelemetry in rats. Bradycardia and hypothermia were induced by 5F-AMB and MDMB-FUBINACA doses of 0.1-1 mg/kg (and 3 mg/kg for 5F-AMB), with MDMB-FUBINACA showing the most dramatic hypothermic response recorded in our laboratory for any SC (>3 °C at 0.3 mg/kg). Reversal of hypothermia by pretreatment with a CB1, but not CB2, antagonist was demonstrated for 5F-AMB and MDMB-FUBINACA, consistent with CB1-mediated effects in vivo. The in vitro and in vivo data indicate that these SCs act as highly efficacious CB receptor agonists with greater potency than Δ(9)-THC and earlier generations of SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Banister
- Department
of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | | | | | - Shivani Sachdev
- Department
of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Marina Santiago
- Department
of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Jordyn Stuart
- Department
of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - James B. C. Mack
- Department
of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94304, United States
| | - Michelle Glass
- School
of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | | | - Mark Connor
- Department
of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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Costain WJ, Tauskela JS, Rasquinha I, Comas T, Hewitt M, Marleau V, Soo EC. Pharmacological characterization of emerging synthetic cannabinoids in HEK293T cells and hippocampal neurons. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 786:234-245. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Grim TW, Morales AJ, Gonek MM, Wiley JL, Thomas BF, Endres GW, Sim-Selley LJ, Selley DE, Negus SS, Lichtman AH. Stratification of Cannabinoid 1 Receptor (CB1R) Agonist Efficacy: Manipulation of CB1R Density through Use of Transgenic Mice Reveals Congruence between In Vivo and In Vitro Assays. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 359:329-339. [PMID: 27535976 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.233163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are an emerging class of abused drugs that differ from each other and the phytocannabinoid ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in their safety and cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB1R) pharmacology. As efficacy represents a critical parameter to understanding drug action, the present study investigated this metric by assessing in vivo and in vitro actions of THC, two well-characterized SCs (WIN55,212-2 and CP55,940), and three abused SCs (JWH-073, CP47,497, and A-834,735-D) in CB1 (+/+), (+/-), and (-/-) mice. All drugs produced maximal cannabimimetic in vivo effects (catalepsy, hypothermia, antinociception) in CB1 (+/+) mice, but these actions were essentially eliminated in CB1 (-/-) mice, indicating a CB1R mechanism of action. CB1R efficacy was inferred by comparing potencies between CB1 (+/+) and (+/-) mice [+/+ ED50 /+/- ED50], the latter of which has a 50% reduction of CB1Rs (i.e., decreased receptor reserve). Notably, CB1 (+/-) mice displayed profound rightward and downward shifts in the antinociception and hypothermia dose-response curves of low-efficacy compared with high-efficacy cannabinoids. In vitro efficacy, quantified using agonist-stimulated [35S]GTPγS binding in spinal cord tissue, significantly correlated with the relative efficacies of antinociception (r = 0.87) and hypothermia (r = 0.94) in CB1 (+/-) mice relative to CB1 (+/+) mice. Conversely, drug potencies for cataleptic effects did not differ between these genotypes and did not correlate with the in vitro efficacy measure. These results suggest that evaluation of antinociception and hypothermia in CB1 transgenic mice offers a useful in vivo approach to determine CB1R selectivity and efficacy of emerging SCs, which shows strong congruence with in vitro efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- T W Grim
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - A J Morales
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - M M Gonek
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - J L Wiley
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - B F Thomas
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - G W Endres
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - L J Sim-Selley
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - D E Selley
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - S S Negus
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
| | - A H Lichtman
- Virginia Commonwealth University-Pharmacology and Toxicology, Richmond, Virginia (T.W.G., A.J.M., M.M.G., L.J.S.-S., D.E.S., S.S.N., A.H.L.); RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (J.L.W., B.F.T.); Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, Michigan (G.W.E.)
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Gatch MB, Forster MJ. Δ(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol-like effects of novel synthetic cannabinoids in mice and rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:1901-10. [PMID: 26875756 PMCID: PMC4846470 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4237-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Novel cannabinoid compounds continue to be marketed as "legal" marijuana substitutes, even though little is known about their molecular and behavioral effects. OBJECTIVES Six of these compounds (ADBICA, ADB-PINACA, THJ-2201, RCS-4, JWH-122, JWH-210) were tested for in vitro and in vivo cannabinoid-like effects to determine their abuse liability. METHODS Binding to and functional activity at CB1 cannabinoid receptors was tested. Locomotor activity in mice was tested to screen for behavioral activity and to identify behaviorally active dose ranges and times of peak effect. Discriminative stimulus effects of the six compounds were tested in rats trained to discriminate Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC). RESULTS ADBICA, ADB-PINACA, THJ-2201, RCS-4, JWH-122, and JWH-210 showed high affinity binding at the CB1 receptor at nanomolar affinities (0.59 to 22.5 nM), and all acted as full agonists with nanomolar potencies (0.024 to 111 nM) when compared to the CB1 receptor full agonist CP 55940. All compounds depressed locomotor activity below 50 % of vehicle responding, with depressant effects lasting 1.5 to nearly 4 h. All compounds fully substituted (<80 % Δ(9)-THC-appropriate responding) for the discriminative stimulus effects of Δ(9)-THC. 3,4-Methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) was tested as a negative control and did not substitute for Δ(9)-THC (11 % Δ(9)-THC-appropriate responding). CONCLUSIONS All six of the compounds acted at the CB1 receptor and produced behavioral effects common to abused cannabinoid compounds, which suggest that these compounds have substantial abuse liability common to controlled synthetic cannabinoid compounds.
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Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol-like effects of novel synthetic cannabinoids found on the gray market. Behav Pharmacol 2016; 26:460-8. [PMID: 26061356 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
When synthetic cannabinoid compounds became controlled by state and federal governments, different, noncontrolled compounds began to appear as marijuana substitutes. Unlike the scheduled cannabinoids, the newer compounds have not been characterized for potency and efficacy in preclinical studies. The purpose of these experiments was to determine whether some of the more recent synthetic compounds sold as marijuana substitutes have behavioral effects similar to those of Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC), the pharmacologically active compound in marijuana. The compounds UR-144, XLR-11, AKB-48 (APINACA), PB-22 (QUPIC), 5F-PB-22, and AB-FUBINACA were tested for locomotor depressant effects in male Swiss-Webster mice and subsequently for their ability to substitute for Δ-THC (3 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) in drug discrimination experiments with male Sprague-Dawley rats. UR-144, XLR-11, AKB-48, and AB-FUBINACA each decreased locomotor activity for up to 90 min, whereas PB-22 and 5F-PB-22 produced depressant effects lasting 120-150 min. Each of the compounds fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of Δ-THC. These findings confirm the suggestion that these compounds have marijuana-like psychoactive effects and abuse liability.
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The Changing Face of Recreational Drug Use. CEREBRUM : THE DANA FORUM ON BRAIN SCIENCE 2016; 2016:cer-01-16. [PMID: 27408674 PMCID: PMC4938259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Our author writes that recent data from the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime indicate that 540 different drugs classified as new psychoactive substances (NPS) have been identified worldwide as of 2014, and this number is expected to rise. His article describes the complexity of the NPS problem, what is known about the molecular mechanisms of action, and the pharmacological effects of NPS. It also highlights some of the considerable challenges in dealing with this emerging issue.
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Next generation of novel psychoactive substances on the horizon - A complex problem to face. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 157:1-17. [PMID: 26482089 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The last decade has seen a rapid and continuous growth in the availability and use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) across the world. Although various products are labeled with warnings "not for human consumption", they are intended to mimic psychoactive effects of illicit drugs of abuse. Once some compounds become regulated, new analogues appear in order to satisfy consumers' demands and at the same time to avoid criminalization. This review presents updated information on the second generation of NPS, introduced as replacements of the already banned substances from this class, focusing on their pharmacological properties and metabolism, routes of administration, and effects in humans. METHODS Literature search, covering years 2013-2015, was performed using the following keywords alone or in combination: "novel psychoactive substances", "cathinones", "synthetic cannabinoids", "benzofurans", "phenethylamines", "2C-drugs", "NBOMe", "methoxetamine", "opioids", "toxicity", and "metabolism". RESULTS More than 400 NPS have been reported in Europe, with 255 detected in 2012-2014. The most popular are synthetic cannabimimetics and psychostimulant cathinones; use of psychedelics and opioids is less common. Accumulating experimental and clinical data indicate that potential harms associated with the use of second generation NPS could be even more serious than those described for the already banned drugs. CONCLUSIONS NPS are constantly emerging on the illicit drug market and represent an important health problem. A significant amount of research is needed in order to fully quantify both the short and long term effects of the second generation NPS, and their interaction with other drugs of abuse.
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Determination of urinary metabolites of XLR-11 by liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 408:503-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9116-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Tian L, Zeng K, Shao W, Yang BB, Fantus IG, Weng J, Jin T. Short-Term Curcumin Gavage Sensitizes Insulin Signaling in Dexamethasone-Treated C57BL/6 Mice. J Nutr 2015; 145:2300-7. [PMID: 26338887 DOI: 10.3945/jn.115.216853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term dietary curcumin (>12 wk) improves metabolic homeostasis in obese mice by sensitizing insulin signaling and reducing hepatic gluconeogenesis. Whether these occur only secondary to its chronic anti-inflammatory and antioxidative functions is unknown. OBJECTIVE In this study, we assessed the insulin sensitization effect of short-term curcumin gavage in a rapid dexamethasone-induced insulin resistance mouse model, in which the chronic anti-inflammatory function is eliminated. METHODS Six-week-old male C57BL/6 mice received an intraperitoneal injection of dexamethasone (100 mg/kg body weight) or phosphate-buffered saline every day for 5 d, with or without simultaneous curcumin gavage (500 mg/kg body weight). On day 7, insulin tolerance tests were performed. After a booster dexamethasone injection and curcumin gavage on day 8, blood glucose and insulin concentrations were measured. Liver tissues were collected on day 10 for quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting to assess gluconeogenic gene expression, insulin signaling, and the expression of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21). Primary hepatocytes from separate, untreated C57BL/6 mice were used for testing the in vitro effect of curcumin treatment. RESULTS Dexamethasone injection impaired insulin tolerance (P < 0.05) and elevated ambient plasma insulin concentrations by ~2.7-fold (P < 0.01). Concomitant curcumin administration improved insulin sensitivity and reduced hepatic gluconeogenic gene expression. The insulin sensitization effect of curcumin was demonstrated by increased stimulation of S473 phosphorylation of protein kinase B (P < 0.01) in the dexamethasone-treated mouse liver, as well as the repression of glucose production in primary hepatocytes (P < 0.001). Finally, curcumin gavage increased FGF21 expression by 2.1-fold in the mouse liver (P < 0.05) and curcumin treatment increased FGF21 expression in primary hepatocytes. CONCLUSION These observations suggest that the early beneficial effect of curcumin intervention in dexamethasone-treated mice is the sensitization of insulin signaling, involving the stimulation of FGF21 production, a known insulin sensitizer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Tian
- Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada; Department of Medicine and Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kejing Zeng
- Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada; Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diabetology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weijuan Shao
- Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - I George Fantus
- Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada; Department of Medicine and Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Canada; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Jianping Weng
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diabetology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tianru Jin
- Division of Advanced Diagnostics, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada; Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Banister SD, Moir M, Stuart J, Kevin RC, Wood KE, Longworth M, Wilkinson SM, Beinat C, Buchanan AS, Glass M, Connor M, McGregor IS, Kassiou M. Pharmacology of Indole and Indazole Synthetic Cannabinoid Designer Drugs AB-FUBINACA, ADB-FUBINACA, AB-PINACA, ADB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA, 5F-ADB-PINACA, ADBICA, and 5F-ADBICA. ACS Chem Neurosci 2015; 6:1546-59. [PMID: 26134475 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid (SC) designer drugs based on indole and indazole scaffolds and featuring l-valinamide or l-tert-leucinamide side chains are encountered with increasing frequency by forensic researchers and law enforcement agencies and are associated with serious adverse health effects. However, many of these novel SCs are unprecedented in the scientific literature at the time of their discovery, and little is known of their pharmacology. Here, we report the synthesis and pharmacological characterization of AB-FUBINACA, ADB-FUBINACA, AB-PINACA, ADB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA, 5F-ADB-PINACA, ADBICA, 5F-ADBICA, and several analogues. All synthesized SCs acted as high potency agonists of CB1 (EC50 = 0.24-21 nM) and CB2 (EC50 = 0.88-15 nM) receptors in a fluorometric assay of membrane potential, with 5F-ADB-PINACA showing the greatest potency at CB1 receptors. The cannabimimetic activities of AB-FUBINACA and AB-PINACA in vivo were evaluated in rats using biotelemetry. AB-FUBINACA and AB-PINACA dose-dependently induced hypothermia and bradycardia at doses of 0.3-3 mg/kg, and hypothermia was reversed by pretreatment with a CB1 (but not CB2) antagonist, indicating that these SCs are cannabimimetic in vivo, consistent with anecdotal reports of psychoactivity in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jordyn Stuart
- Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Michelle Glass
- School
of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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Nielsen LM, Holm NB, Olsen L, Linnet K. Cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of the synthetic cannabinoids UR-144 and XLR-11. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:792-800. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Line Marie Nielsen
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
- Biostructural Research, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Jagtvej 162 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Niels Bjerre Holm
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Lars Olsen
- Biostructural Research, Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Jagtvej 162 DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Frederik V's Vej 11, 3 DK-2100 Denmark
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Banister SD, Stuart J, Kevin RC, Edington A, Longworth M, Wilkinson SM, Beinat C, Buchanan AS, Hibbs DE, Glass M, Connor M, McGregor IS, Kassiou M. Effects of bioisosteric fluorine in synthetic cannabinoid designer drugs JWH-018, AM-2201, UR-144, XLR-11, PB-22, 5F-PB-22, APICA, and STS-135. ACS Chem Neurosci 2015; 6:1445-58. [PMID: 25921407 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid (SC) designer drugs featuring bioisosteric fluorine substitution are identified by forensic chemists and toxicologists with increasing frequency. Although terminal fluorination of N-pentyl indole SCs is sometimes known to improve cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor binding affinity, little is known of the effects of fluorination on functional activity of SCs. This study explores the in vitro functional activities of SC designer drugs JWH-018, UR-144, PB-22, and APICA, and their respective terminally fluorinated analogues AM-2201, XLR-11, 5F-PB-22, and STS-135 at human CB1 and CB2 receptors using a FLIPR membrane potential assay. All compounds demonstrated agonist activity at CB1 (EC50 = 2.8-1959 nM) and CB2 (EC50 = 6.5-206 nM) receptors, with the fluorinated analogues generally showing increased CB1 receptor potency (∼2-5 times). Additionally, the cannabimimetic activities and relative potencies of JWH-018, AM-2201, UR-144, XLR-11, PB-22, 5F-PB-22, APICA, and STS-135 in vivo were evaluated in rats using biotelemetry. All SCs dose-dependently induced hypothermia and reduced heart rate at doses of 0.3-10 mg/kg. There was no consistent trend for increased potency of fluorinated SCs over the corresponding des-fluoro SCs in vivo. Based on magnitude and duration of hypothermia, the SCs were ranked for potency (PB-22 > 5F-PB-22 = JWH-018 > AM-2201 > APICA = STS-135 = XLR-11 > UR-144).
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Banister
- Department
of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- School
of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Jordyn Stuart
- Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Richard C. Kevin
- School
of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Amelia Edington
- Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Mitchell Longworth
- School
of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Shane M. Wilkinson
- School
of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Corinne Beinat
- Department
of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- School
of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Alexandra S. Buchanan
- Center
for Immersive and Simulation-based Learning, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department
of Anaesthesia, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, New South Wales 2031, Australia
| | - David E. Hibbs
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- School
of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty
of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- School
of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Michael Kassiou
- School
of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
- Discipline
of Medical Radiation Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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Wiley JL, Marusich JA, Lefever TW, Antonazzo KR, Wallgren MT, Cortes RA, Patel PR, Grabenauer M, Moore KN, Thomas BF. AB-CHMINACA, AB-PINACA, and FUBIMINA: Affinity and Potency of Novel Synthetic Cannabinoids in Producing Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol-Like Effects in Mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015; 354:328-39. [PMID: 26105953 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.225326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Diversion of synthetic cannabinoids for abuse began in the early 2000s. Despite legislation banning compounds currently on the drug market, illicit manufacturers continue to release new compounds for recreational use. This study examined new synthetic cannabinoids, AB-CHMINACA (N-[1-amino-3-methyl-oxobutan-2-yl]-1-[cyclohexylmethyl]-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide), AB-PINACA [N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide], and FUBIMINA [(1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-benzo[d]imadazol-2-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)methanone], with the hypothesis that these compounds, like those before them, would be highly susceptible to abuse. Cannabinoids were examined in vitro for binding and activation of CB1 receptors, and in vivo for pharmacological effects in mice and in Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) discrimination. AB-CHMINACA, AB-PINACA, and FUBIMINA bound to and activated CB1 and CB2 receptors, and produced locomotor suppression, antinociception, hypothermia, and catalepsy. Furthermore, these compounds, along with JWH-018 [1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole], CP47,497 [rel-5-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-2-[(1R,3S)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-phenol], and WIN55,212-2 ([(3R)-2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-(4-morpholinylmethyl)pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-1-naphthalenyl-methanone, monomethanesulfonate), substituted for Δ(9)-THC in Δ(9)-THC discrimination. Rank order of potency correlated with CB1 receptor-binding affinity, and all three compounds were full agonists in [(35)S]GTPγS binding, as compared with the partial agonist Δ(9)-THC. Indeed, AB-CHMINACA and AB-PINACA exhibited higher efficacy than most known full agonists of the CB1 receptor. Preliminary analysis of urinary metabolites of the compounds revealed the expected hydroxylation. AB-PINACA and AB-CHMINACA are of potential interest as research tools due to their unique chemical structures and high CB1 receptor efficacies. Further studies on these chemicals are likely to include research on understanding cannabinoid receptors and other components of the endocannabinoid system that underlie the abuse of synthetic cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Purvi R Patel
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | | | | | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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Case reports of synthetic cannabinoid XLR-11 associated fatalities. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 252:e6-9. [PMID: 25979131 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids have been available in herbal incense and potpourri products over the Internet and in smoke shops for the last several years. We report the deaths of two individuals that were associated with XLR-11. Specimens were extracted via a liquid-liquid extraction at basic pH into hexane:ethyl acetate and analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. For these two case reports, we describe the instrumental analysis and extraction methods for XLR-11, toxicological results for postmortem blood specimens, relevant case information and autopsy findings. We also briefly review any previously published peer-reviewed reports in which XLR-11 was analytically confirmed and determined to be an intoxicating agent.
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Adamowicz P, Lechowicz W. The Influence of Synthetic Cannabinoid UR-144 on Human Psychomotor Performance--A Case Report Demonstrating Road Traffic Risks. TRAFFIC INJURY PREVENTION 2015; 16:754-759. [PMID: 25794331 DOI: 10.1080/15389588.2015.1018990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE UR-144 [(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)-methanone] is a synthetic cannabinoid, which has been detected in many "legal highs" seized from the global drug market since the beginning of 2012. It gained popularity as a "legal" alternative to classic cannabis in countries where it was not controlled. The popularity of UR-144 means that this substance is also abused by individuals driving motor vehicles. This article describes a case of driving under the influence (DUI) of UR-144. The aim of the undertaken case analysis and presenting description of pharmacological similarity of THC and UR-144 is to answer the question whether UR-144 can produce effects incompatible with safe driving. METHODS Blood from the driver was obtained by a physician approximately 2 h after the collision and 4.5 h after self-reported dosing. Police from the crash site provided behavioral observations, and the physician performed medical examination. Blood was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The developed method was described in detail. The method was linear in the range of 0.5-50 ng/mL; the precision and accuracy values obtained were less than 15%. The symptoms observed by police and physician who collected the blood sample were described. RESULTS In the blood sample collected from the driver, UR-144 and its major pyrolysis product [1-(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-3-methyl-2-(propan-2-yl)but-3-en-1-one] were detected. Whole-blood concentration of UR-144 was 14.6 ng/mL. The result of blood analysis and observed symptoms clearly indicated that the driver was under the influence of UR-144. CONCLUSIONS UR-144 produces effects and impairment similar to or even more dangerous than delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC), making it unsafe for driving. Therefore, UR-144 should be treated as a potentially dangerous substance in traffic safety.
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76
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Walentiny DM, Vann RE, Wiley JL. Phenotypic assessment of THC discriminative stimulus properties in fatty acid amide hydrolase knockout and wildtype mice. Neuropharmacology 2015; 93:237-42. [PMID: 25698527 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
A number of studies have examined the ability of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide to elicit Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-like subjective effects, as modeled through the THC discrimination paradigm. In the present study, we compared transgenic mice lacking fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme primarily responsible for anandamide catabolism, to wildtype counterparts in a THC discrimination procedure. THC (5.6 mg/kg) served as a discriminative stimulus in both genotypes, with similar THC dose-response curves between groups. Anandamide fully substituted for THC in FAAH knockout, but not wildtype, mice. Conversely, the metabolically stable anandamide analog O-1812 fully substituted in both groups, but was more potent in knockouts. The CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant dose-dependently attenuated THC generalization in both groups and anandamide substitution in FAAH knockouts. Pharmacological inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the primary catabolic enzyme for the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), with JZL184 resulted in full substitution for THC in FAAH knockout mice and nearly full substitution in wildtypes. Quantification of brain endocannabinoid levels revealed expected elevations in anandamide in FAAH knockout mice compared to wildtypes and equipotent dose-dependent elevations in 2-AG following JZL184 administration. Dual inhibition of FAAH and MAGL with JZL195 resulted in roughly equipotent increases in THC-appropriate responding in both groups. While the notable similarity in THC's discriminative stimulus effects across genotype suggests that the increased baseline brain anandamide levels (as seen in FAAH knockout mice) do not alter THC's subjective effects, FAAH knockout mice are more sensitive to the THC-like effects of pharmacologically induced increases in anandamide and MAGL inhibition (e.g., JZL184).
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Affiliation(s)
- D Matthew Walentiny
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
| | - Robert E Vann
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA; Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Abstract
The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as "designer drugs," or "new psychoactive substances" (NPS), is increasing at an alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e., "bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., "spice") are two types of NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low recreational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desirable effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS, there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we provide a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action and neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoids.
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78
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Kanamori T, Kanda K, Yamamuro T, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Detection of main metabolites of XLR-11 and its thermal degradation product in human hepatoma HepaRG cells and human urine. Drug Test Anal 2015; 7:341-5. [PMID: 25600155 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone (XLR-11), a novel synthetic cannabinoid, was studied using a HepaRG cell culture. The HepaRG cells were incubated with the drug for 48 hours and the metabolites were extracted from the culture medium by liquid-liquid extraction. The extract was analyzed by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry to detect the metabolites. N-(5-Hydroxypentyl) metabolite and N-pentanoic acid metabolite were identified in the culture medium of XLR-11, and several other metabolites, presumably formed by oxidation of the first two metabolites and XLR-11, were detected. The extract of an XLR-11 user's urine was also analyzed; however, the metabolites detected in the urine were different from XLR-11 metabolites in the medium. A metabolic experiment with the thermal degradation product of XLR-11, XLR-11 degradant, using HepaRG cells revealed that the urinary metabolites were almost identical to the XLR-11 degradant metabolites. These findings suggest that most of the XLR-11 was degraded by heating when the user smoked the herbal product containing XLR-11.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuyuki Kanamori
- National Research Institute of Police Science, First Chemistry Section, 6-3-1, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
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79
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Castaneto MS, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Hartman RL, Pirard S, Huestis MA. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 144:12-41. [PMID: 25220897 PMCID: PMC4253059 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 425] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cannabinoids (SC) are a heterogeneous group of compounds developed to probe the endogenous cannabinoid system or as potential therapeutics. Clandestine laboratories subsequently utilized published data to develop SC variations marketed as abusable designer drugs. In the early 2000s, SC became popular as "legal highs" under brand names such as Spice and K2, in part due to their ability to escape detection by standard cannabinoid screening tests. The majority of SC detected in herbal products have greater binding affinity to the cannabinoid CB1 receptor than does Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive compound in the cannabis plant, and greater affinity at the CB1 than the CB2 receptor. In vitro and animal in vivo studies show SC pharmacological effects 2-100 times more potent than THC, including analgesic, anti-seizure, weight-loss, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer growth effects. SC produce physiological and psychoactive effects similar to THC, but with greater intensity, resulting in medical and psychiatric emergencies. Human adverse effects include nausea and vomiting, shortness of breath or depressed breathing, hypertension, tachycardia, chest pain, muscle twitches, acute renal failure, anxiety, agitation, psychosis, suicidal ideation, and cognitive impairment. Long-term or residual effects are unknown. Due to these public health consequences, many SC are classified as controlled substances. However, frequent structural modification by clandestine laboratories results in a stream of novel SC that may not be legally controlled or detectable by routine laboratory tests. METHODS We present here a comprehensive review, based on a systematic electronic literature search, of SC epidemiology and pharmacology and their clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisol S Castaneto
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, United States; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David A Gorelick
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Nathalie A Desrosiers
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, United States; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Rebecca L Hartman
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, United States; Program in Toxicology, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Sandrine Pirard
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD, United States.
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80
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Moosmann B, Angerer V, Auwärter V. Inhomogeneities in herbal mixtures: a serious risk for consumers. Forensic Toxicol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-014-0247-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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81
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Recent developments in urinalysis of metabolites of new psychoactive substances using LC–MS. Bioanalysis 2014; 6:2083-107. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, an ever-increasing number of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) have appeared on the recreational drug market. To account for this development, analytical toxicologists have to continuously adapt their methods to encompass the latest NPSs. Urine is the preferred biological matrix for screening analysis in different areas of analytical toxicology. However, the development of urinalysis procedures for NPSs is complicated by the fact that generally little or no information on urinary excretion patterns of such drugs exists when they first appear on the market. Metabolism studies are therefore a prerequisite in the development of urinalysis methods for NPSs. In this article, the literature on the urinalysis of NPS metabolites will be reviewed, focusing on articles published after 2008.
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82
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Mohr AL, Ofsa B, Keil AM, Simon JR, McMullin M, Logan BK. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for the Detection of Use of the Synthetic Cannabinoid Agonists UR-144 and XLR-11 in Human Urine. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 38:427-31. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bku049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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83
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Wiley JL, Lefever TW, Cortes RA, Marusich JA. Cross-substitution of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and JWH-018 in drug discrimination in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:123-8. [PMID: 24887450 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic indole-derived cannabinoids, originally developed to probe cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, have become widely abused for their marijuana-like intoxicating properties. The present study examined the effects of indole-derived cannabinoids in rats trained to discriminate Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) from vehicle. In addition, the effects of Δ(9)-THC in rats trained to discriminate JWH-018 from vehicle were assessed. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate 3mg/kg Δ(9)-THC or 0.3mg/kg JWH-018 from vehicle. JWH-018, JWH-073, and JWH-210 fully substituted in Δ(9)-THC-trained rats and Δ(9)-THC substituted in JWH-018-trained rats. In contrast, JWH-320, an indole-derived cannabinoid without affinity for CB1 receptors, failed to substitute for Δ(9)-THC. Pre-treatment with 1mg/kg rimonabant significantly reduced responding on the JWH-018-associated lever in JWH-018-trained rats. These results support the conclusion that the interoceptive effects of Δ(9)-THC and synthetic indole-derived cannabinoids show a large degree of overlap, which is predictive of their use for their marijuana-like intoxicating properties. Characterization of the extent of pharmacological differences among structural classes of cannabinoids, and determination of their mechanisms remain important goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ricardo A Cortes
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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84
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Gandhi AS, Wohlfarth A, Zhu M, Pang S, Castaneto M, Scheidweiler KB, Huestis MA. High-resolution mass spectrometric metabolite profiling of a novel synthetic designer drug, N-(adamantan-1-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamide (STS-135), using cryopreserved human hepatocytes and assessment of metabolic stability with human liver microsomes. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:187-98. [PMID: 24827428 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
N-(Adamantan-1-yl)-1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxamide (STS-135) is a new synthetic cannabinoid in herbal incense products discussed on Internet drug user forums and identified in police seizures. To date, there are no STS-135 clinical or in vitro studies identifying STS-135 metabolites. However, characterizing STS-135 metabolism is critical because synthetic cannabinoid metabolites can possess pharmacological activity and parent compounds are rarely detectable in urine. To characterize the metabolite profile, human hepatocytes were incubated with 10 µmol/L STS-135 for up to 3 h. High-resolution mass spectrometry with software-assisted data mining identified 29 STS-135 metabolites. Less than 25% of STS-135 parent compound remained after 3 h incubation. Primary metabolites were generated by mono-, di- or trihydroxylation with and without ketone formation, dealkylation, and oxidative defluorination of N-fluoropentyl side chain or possible oxidation to carboxylic acid, some of them further glucuronidated. Hydroxylations occurred mainly on the aliphatic adamantane ring and less commonly on the N-pentyl side chain. At 1 h, phase I metabolites predominated, while at 3 h, phase II metabolites were present in higher amounts. The major metabolites were monohydroxy STS-135 (M25) and dihydroxy STS-135 (M21), both hydroxylated on the adamantane system. Moreover, metabolic stability of STS-135 (1 µmol/L) was assessed in human liver microsomes experiments. The in vitro half-life of STS-135 was 3.1 ± 0.2 min and intrinsic clearance (CLint ) was 208.8 mL · min(-1) · kg(-1) . This is the first report characterizing STS-135 hepatic metabolic pathways. These data provide potential urinary targets to document STS-135 intake in clinical and forensic settings and potential candidates for pharmacological testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adarsh S Gandhi
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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85
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Tai S, Fantegrossi WE. Synthetic Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Behavioral Effects, and Abuse Potential. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2014; 1:129-136. [PMID: 26413452 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-014-0014-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis has been used throughout the world for centuries. The psychoactive effects of cannabis are largely attributable to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the prototypical cannabinoid that occurs naturally in the plant. More recently, chemically- and pharmacologically-distinct synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs) have emerged as drugs of abuse. As compared to Δ9-THC, the distinct structures of these compounds allow them to avoid legal restrictions (at least initially) and detection in standard drug screens. This has contributed to the popularity of SCBs among drug users who seek to avoid positive drug screens. Importantly, the distinct structures of the SCBs also typically result in increased affinity for and efficacy at cannabinoid CB1 receptors, which are thought to be responsible for the psychoactive effects of Δ9-THC and its analogues. Accordingly, it seems likely that these more powerful cannabimimetic effects could result in increased adverse reactions and toxicities not elicited by Δ9-THC in cannabis. Animal models useful for the study of emerging SCBs include the cannabinoid tetrad, drug discrimination, and assays of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal. However, these in vivo procedures have not been particularly informative with regards to drug efficacy, where the majority of SCB effects are comparable to those of Δ9-THC. In contrast, essentially all in vitro measures of drug efficacy confirm Δ9-THC as a relatively weak CB1 partial agonist, while the majority of the SCBs detected in commercial preparations are full agonists at the CB1 receptor. As use of these emerging SCBs continues to rise, there is an urgent need to better understand the pharmacology and toxicology of these novel compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherrica Tai
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Little Rock, AR
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Little Rock, AR
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87
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Moving around the molecule: relationship between chemical structure and in vivo activity of synthetic cannabinoids. Life Sci 2013; 97:55-63. [PMID: 24071522 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Originally synthesized for research purposes, indole- and pyrrole-derived synthetic cannabinoids are the most common psychoactive compounds contained in abused products marketed as "spice" or "herbal incense." While CB1 and CB2 receptor affinities are available for most of these research chemicals, in vivo pharmacological data are sparse. In mice, cannabinoids produce a characteristic profile of dose-dependent effects: antinociception, hypothermia, catalepsy and suppression of locomotion. In combination with receptor binding data, this tetrad battery has been useful in evaluation of the relationship between the structural features of synthetic cannabinoids and their in vivo cannabimimetic activity. Here, published tetrad studies are reviewed and additional in vivo data on synthetic cannabinoids are presented. Overall, the best predictor of likely cannabimimetic effects in the tetrad tests was good CB1 receptor affinity. Further, retention of good CB1 affinity and in vivo activity was observed across a wide array of structural manipulations of substituents of the prototypic aminoalkylindole molecule WIN55,212-2, including substitution of an alkyl for the morpholino group, replacement of an indole core with a pyrrole or phenylpyrrole, substitution of a phenylacetyl or tetramethylcyclopropyl group for JWH-018's naphthoyl, and halogenation of the naphthoyl group. This flexibility of cannabinoid ligand-receptor interactions has been a particular challenge for forensic scientists who have struggled to identify and regulate each new compound as it has appeared on the drug market. One of the most pressing future research needs is determination of the extent to which the pharmacology of these synthetic cannabinoids may differ from those of classical cannabinoids.
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