51
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Dobersch S, Rubio K, Barreto G. Pioneer Factors and Architectural Proteins Mediating Embryonic Expression Signatures in Cancer. Trends Mol Med 2019; 25:287-302. [PMID: 30795971 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2019.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation of mutations causing aberrant changes in the genome promotes cancer. However, mutations do not occur in every cancer subtype, suggesting additional events that trigger cancer. Chromatin rearrangements initiated by pioneer factors and architectural proteins are key events occurring before cancer-related genes are expressed. Both protein groups are also master regulators of important processes during embryogenesis. Several publications demonstrated that embryonic gene expression signatures are reactivated during cancer. This review article highlights current knowledge on pioneer factors and architectural proteins mediating chromatin rearrangements, which are the backbone of embryonic expression signatures promoting malignant transformation. Understanding chromatin rearrangements inducing embryonic expression signatures in adult cells might be the key to novel therapeutic approaches against cancers subtypes that arise without genomic mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Dobersch
- Lung Cancer Epigenetic, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Karla Rubio
- Lung Cancer Epigenetic, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Guillermo Barreto
- Lung Cancer Epigenetic, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany; Laboratoire Croissance, Réparation et Régénération Tissulaires (CRRET), CNRS ERL 9215, Université Paris Est Créteil, Université Paris Est, F-94000, Créteil, France; Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russian Federation; Member of the Excellence Cluster Cardio Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), 35932 Giessen, Germany; Member of the German Center of Lung Research (Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung, DZL).
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52
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Hosokawa H, Ungerbäck J, Wang X, Matsumoto M, Nakayama KI, Cohen SM, Tanaka T, Rothenberg EV. Transcription Factor PU.1 Represses and Activates Gene Expression in Early T Cells by Redirecting Partner Transcription Factor Binding. Immunity 2019; 48:1119-1134.e7. [PMID: 29924977 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Transcription factors normally regulate gene expression through their action at sites where they bind to DNA. However, the balance of activating and repressive functions that a transcription factor can mediate is not completely understood. Here, we showed that the transcription factor PU.1 regulated gene expression in early T cell development both by recruiting partner transcription factors to its own binding sites and by depleting them from the binding sites that they preferred when PU.1 was absent. The removal of partner factors Satb1 and Runx1 occurred primarily from sites where PU.1 itself did not bind. Genes linked to sites of partner factor "theft" were enriched for genes that PU.1 represses despite lack of binding, both in a model cell line system and in normal T cell development. Thus, system-level competitive recruitment dynamics permit PU.1 to affect gene expression both through its own target sites and through action at a distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Hosokawa
- Division of Biology & Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Jonas Ungerbäck
- Division of Biology & Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA; Division of Molecular Hematology, Lund University, Sweden
| | - Xun Wang
- Division of Biology & Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Masaki Matsumoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Japan
| | - Keiichi I Nakayama
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Japan
| | - Sarah M Cohen
- Division of Biology & Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Tomoaki Tanaka
- Department of Molecular Diagnosis, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Japan; AMED-CREST, AMED, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ellen V Rothenberg
- Division of Biology & Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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53
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Bhattacharya D, Rothstein M, Azambuja AP, Simoes-Costa M. Control of neural crest multipotency by Wnt signaling and the Lin28/ let-7 axis. eLife 2018; 7:40556. [PMID: 30520734 PMCID: PMC6301792 DOI: 10.7554/elife.40556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A crucial step in cell differentiation is the silencing of developmental programs underlying multipotency. While much is known about how lineage-specific genes are activated to generate distinct cell types, the mechanisms driving suppression of stemness are far less understood. To address this, we examined the regulation of the transcriptional network that maintains progenitor identity in avian neural crest cells. Our results show that a regulatory circuit formed by Wnt, Lin28a and let-7 miRNAs controls the deployment and the subsequent silencing of the multipotency program in a position-dependent manner. Transition from multipotency to differentiation is determined by the topological relationship between the migratory cells and the dorsal neural tube, which acts as a Wnt-producing stem cell niche. Our findings highlight a mechanism that rapidly silences complex regulatory programs, and elucidate how transcriptional networks respond to positional information during cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Megan Rothstein
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Ana Paula Azambuja
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
| | - Marcos Simoes-Costa
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, United States
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54
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Festuccia N, Halbritter F, Corsinotti A, Gagliardi A, Colby D, Tomlinson SR, Chambers I. Esrrb extinction triggers dismantling of naïve pluripotency and marks commitment to differentiation. EMBO J 2018; 37:e95476. [PMID: 30275266 PMCID: PMC6213284 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201695476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-renewal of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) cultured in LIF/fetal calf serum (FCS) is incomplete with some cells initiating differentiation. While this is reflected in heterogeneous expression of naive pluripotency transcription factors (TFs), the link between TF heterogeneity and differentiation is not fully understood. Here, we purify ESCs with distinct TF expression levels from LIF/FCS cultures to uncover early events during commitment from naïve pluripotency. ESCs carrying fluorescent Nanog and Esrrb reporters show Esrrb downregulation only in Nanoglow cells. Independent Esrrb reporter lines demonstrate that Esrrbnegative ESCs cannot effectively self-renew. Upon Esrrb loss, pre-implantation pluripotency gene expression collapses. ChIP-Seq identifies different regulatory element classes that bind both OCT4 and NANOG in Esrrbpositive cells. Class I elements lose NANOG and OCT4 binding in Esrrbnegative ESCs and associate with genes expressed preferentially in naïve ESCs. In contrast, Class II elements retain OCT4 but not NANOG binding in ESRRB-negative cells and associate with more broadly expressed genes. Therefore, mechanistic differences in TF function act cumulatively to restrict potency during exit from naïve pluripotency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Festuccia
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Florian Halbritter
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Andrea Corsinotti
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Alessia Gagliardi
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Douglas Colby
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Simon R Tomlinson
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ian Chambers
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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55
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Lai X, Verhage L, Hugouvieux V, Zubieta C. Pioneer Factors in Animals and Plants-Colonizing Chromatin for Gene Regulation. Molecules 2018; 23:E1914. [PMID: 30065231 PMCID: PMC6222629 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23081914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Unlike most transcription factors (TF), pioneer TFs have a specialized role in binding closed regions of chromatin and initiating the subsequent opening of these regions. Thus, pioneer TFs are key factors in gene regulation with critical roles in developmental transitions, including organ biogenesis, tissue development, and cellular differentiation. These developmental events involve some major reprogramming of gene expression patterns, specifically the opening and closing of distinct chromatin regions. Here, we discuss how pioneer TFs are identified using biochemical and genome-wide techniques. What is known about pioneer TFs from animals and plants is reviewed, with a focus on the strategies used by pioneer factors in different organisms. Finally, the different molecular mechanisms pioneer factors used are discussed, highlighting the roles that tertiary and quaternary structures play in nucleosome-compatible DNA-binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelei Lai
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire et Végétale, CNRS, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INRA, BIG, 38000 Grenoble, France.
| | - Leonie Verhage
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire et Végétale, CNRS, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INRA, BIG, 38000 Grenoble, France.
| | - Veronique Hugouvieux
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire et Végétale, CNRS, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INRA, BIG, 38000 Grenoble, France.
| | - Chloe Zubieta
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire et Végétale, CNRS, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INRA, BIG, 38000 Grenoble, France.
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56
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Freimer JW, Hu TJ, Blelloch R. Decoupling the impact of microRNAs on translational repression versus RNA degradation in embryonic stem cells. eLife 2018; 7:38014. [PMID: 30044225 PMCID: PMC6086665 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Translation and mRNA degradation are intimately connected, yet the mechanisms that link them are not fully understood. Here, we studied these mechanisms in embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Transcripts showed a wide range of stabilities, which correlated with their relative translation levels and that did not change during early ESC differentiation. The protein DHH1 links translation to mRNA stability in yeast; however, loss of the mammalian homolog, DDX6, in ESCs did not disrupt the correlation across transcripts. Instead, the loss of DDX6 led to upregulated translation of microRNA targets, without concurrent changes in mRNA stability. The Ddx6 knockout cells were phenotypically and molecularly similar to cells lacking all microRNAs (Dgcr8 knockout ESCs). These data show that the loss of DDX6 can separate the two canonical functions of microRNAs: translational repression and transcript destabilization. Furthermore, these data uncover a central role for translational repression independent of transcript destabilization in defining the downstream consequences of microRNA loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob W Freimer
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - T J Hu
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Robert Blelloch
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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57
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Chen AF, Liu AJ, Krishnakumar R, Freimer JW, DeVeale B, Blelloch R. GRHL2-Dependent Enhancer Switching Maintains a Pluripotent Stem Cell Transcriptional Subnetwork after Exit from Naive Pluripotency. Cell Stem Cell 2018; 23:226-238.e4. [PMID: 30017589 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2018.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The enhancer landscape of pluripotent stem cells undergoes extensive reorganization during early mammalian development. The functions and mechanisms behind such reorganization, however, are unclear. Here, we show that the transcription factor GRHL2 is necessary and sufficient to activate an epithelial subset of enhancers as naive embryonic stem cells (ESCs) transition into formative epiblast-like cells (EpiLCs). Surprisingly, many GRHL2 target genes do not change in expression during the ESC-EpiLC transition. Instead, enhancers regulating these genes in ESCs diminish in activity in EpiLCs while GRHL2-dependent alternative enhancers become activated to maintain transcription. GRHL2 therefore assumes control over a subset of the naive network via enhancer switching to maintain expression of epithelial genes upon exit from naive pluripotency. These data evoke a model where the naive pluripotency network becomes partitioned into smaller, independent networks regulated by EpiLC-specific transcription factors, thereby priming cells for lineage specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F Chen
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Arthur J Liu
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Raga Krishnakumar
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jacob W Freimer
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Brian DeVeale
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Robert Blelloch
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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58
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Yamane M, Ohtsuka S, Matsuura K, Nakamura A, Niwa H. Overlapping functions of Krüppel-like factor family members: targeting multiple transcription factors to maintain the naïve pluripotency of mouse embryonic stem cells. Development 2018; 145:dev.162404. [PMID: 29739838 DOI: 10.1242/dev.162404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Krüppel-like factors (Klfs) have a pivotal role in maintaining self-renewal of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). The functions of three Klf family members (Klf2, Klf4 and Klf5) have been identified, and are suggested to largely overlap. For further dissection of their functions, we applied an inducible knockout system for these Klf family members and assessed the effects of combinatorial loss of function. As a result, we confirmed that any one of Klf2, Klf4 and Klf5 was sufficient to support self-renewal, whereas the removal of all three compromised it. The activity of any single transcription factor, except for a Klf family member, was not sufficient to restore self-renewal of triple-knockout mESCs. However, some particular combinations of transcription factors were capable of the restoration. The triple-knockout mESCs were successfully captured at primed state. These data indicate that the pivotal function of a Klf family member is transduced into the activation of multiple transcription factors in a naïve-state-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Yamane
- Laboratory for Pluripotent Stem Cell Studies, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (CDB), 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.,Department of Pluripotent Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ohtsuka
- Laboratory for Pluripotent Stem Cell Studies, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (CDB), 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.,Department of Life Science, Medical Research Institute, Kanazawa Medical University, 1-1 Daigaku, Uchinada kahoku, Ishikawa 920-0293, Japan
| | - Kumi Matsuura
- Laboratory for Pluripotent Stem Cell Studies, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (CDB), 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.,Department of Pluripotent Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Akira Nakamura
- Department of Germline Development, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Niwa
- Laboratory for Pluripotent Stem Cell Studies, RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (CDB), 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan .,Department of Pluripotent Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan.,JST, CREST, Sanbancho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 1020075, Japan
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59
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Freimer JW, Krishnakumar R, Cook MS, Blelloch R. Expression of Alternative Ago2 Isoform Associated with Loss of microRNA-Driven Translational Repression in Mouse Oocytes. Curr Biol 2018; 28:296-302.e3. [PMID: 29307557 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mouse oocyte maturation, fertilization, and reprogramming occur in the absence of transcription, and thus, changes in mRNA levels and translation rate are regulated through post-transcriptional mechanisms [1]. Surprisingly, microRNA function, which is a major form of post-transcriptional regulation, is absent during this critical period of mammalian development [2, 3]. Here, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the global suppression of microRNA activity. In both mouse and frogs, microRNA function was active in growing oocytes but then absent during oocyte maturation. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of mouse oocytes uncovered that the microRNA effector protein AGO2 is predominantly expressed as an alternative isoform that encodes a truncated protein lacking all of the known essential domains. Full-length Ago2 as well as the related Argonautes (Ago1, Ago3, and Ago4) were lowly expressed in maturing mouse oocytes. Reintroduction of full-length AGO2 together with an exogenous microRNA in either mouse or frog oocytes restored translational repression of a target reporter. However, levels of endogenous transcripts remained unchanged. Consistent with a lack of microRNA activity, analysis of transcripts with alternative polyadenylation sites showed increased stability of transcripts with a longer 3' UTR during oocyte maturation. Redundant mechanisms protecting endogenous transcripts and the conserved loss of microRNA activity suggest a strong selection for suppressing microRNA function in vertebrate oocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob W Freimer
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Raga Krishnakumar
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew S Cook
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Robert Blelloch
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, 35 Medical Center Way, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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60
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Angus SP, Zawistowski JS, Johnson GL. Epigenetic Mechanisms Regulating Adaptive Responses to Targeted Kinase Inhibitors in Cancer. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2017; 58:209-229. [PMID: 28934561 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010617-052954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although targeted inhibition of oncogenic kinase drivers has achieved remarkable patient responses in many cancers, the development of resistance has remained a significant challenge. Numerous mechanisms have been identified, including the acquisition of gatekeeper mutations, activating pathway mutations, and copy number loss or gain of the driver or alternate nodes. These changes have prompted the development of kinase inhibitors with increased selectivity, use of second-line therapeutics to overcome primary resistance, and combination treatment to forestall resistance. In addition to genomic resistance mechanisms, adaptive transcriptional and signaling responses seen in tumors are gaining appreciation as alterations that lead to a phenotypic state change-often observed as an epithelial-to-mesenchymal shift or reversion to a cancer stem cell-like phenotype underpinned by remodeling of the epigenetic landscape. This epigenomic modulation driving cell state change is multifaceted and includes modulation of repressive and activating histone modifications, DNA methylation, enhancer remodeling, and noncoding RNA species. Consequently, the combination of kinase inhibitors with drugs targeting components of the transcriptional machinery and histone-modifying enzymes has shown promise in preclinical and clinical studies. Here, we review mechanisms of resistance to kinase inhibition in cancer, with special emphasis on the rewired kinome and transcriptional signaling networks and the potential vulnerabilities that may be exploited to overcome these adaptive signaling changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P Angus
- Department of Pharmacology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; , ,
| | - Jon S Zawistowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; , ,
| | - Gary L Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; , ,
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61
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Atlasi Y, Stunnenberg HG. The interplay of epigenetic marks during stem cell differentiation and development. Nat Rev Genet 2017; 18:643-658. [PMID: 28804139 DOI: 10.1038/nrg.2017.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Chromatin, the template for epigenetic regulation, is a highly dynamic entity that is constantly reshaped during early development and differentiation. Epigenetic modification of chromatin provides the necessary plasticity for cells to respond to environmental and positional cues, and enables the maintenance of acquired information without changing the DNA sequence. The mechanisms involve, among others, chemical modifications of chromatin, changes in chromatin constituents and reconfiguration of chromatin interactions and 3D structure. New advances in genome-wide technologies have paved the way towards an integrative view of epigenome dynamics during cell state transitions, and recent findings in embryonic stem cells highlight how the interplay between different epigenetic layers reshapes the transcriptional landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaser Atlasi
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hendrik G Stunnenberg
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud University, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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62
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Ye J, Jin H, Pankov A, Song JS, Blelloch R. NF45 and NF90/NF110 coordinately regulate ESC pluripotency and differentiation. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2017; 23:1270-1284. [PMID: 28487382 PMCID: PMC5513071 DOI: 10.1261/rna.061499.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
While years of investigation have elucidated many aspects of embryonic stem cell (ESC) regulation, the contributions of post-transcriptional and translational mechanisms to the pluripotency network remain largely unexplored. In particular, little is known in ESCs about the function of RNA binding proteins (RBPs), the protein agents of post-transcriptional regulation. We performed an unbiased RNAi screen of RBPs in an ESC differentiation assay and identified two related genes, NF45 (Ilf2) and NF90/NF110 (Ilf3), whose knockdown promoted differentiation to an epiblast-like state. Characterization of NF45 KO, NF90 + NF110 KO, and NF110 KO ESCs showed that loss of NF45 or NF90 + NF110 impaired ESC proliferation and led to dysregulated differentiation down embryonic lineages. Additionally, we found that NF45 and NF90/NF110 physically interact and influence the expression of each other at different levels of regulation. Globally across the transcriptome, NF45 KO ESCs and NF90 + NF110 KO ESCs show similar expression changes. Moreover, NF90 + NF110 RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP)-seq in ESCs suggested that NF90/NF110 directly regulate proliferation, differentiation, and RNA-processing genes. Our data support a model in which NF45, NF90, and NF110 operate in feedback loops that enable them, through both overlapping and independent targets, to help balance the push and pull of pluripotency and differentiation cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Ye
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
| | - Hu Jin
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Aleksandr Pankov
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - Jun S Song
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Robert Blelloch
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
- Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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63
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Liu K, Sun Y, Liu D, Ye S. Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling by IWR1 induces expression of Foxd3 to promote mouse epiblast stem cell self-renewal. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.06.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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64
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Ke Y, Xu Y, Chen X, Feng S, Liu Z, Sun Y, Yao X, Li F, Zhu W, Gao L, Chen H, Du Z, Xie W, Xu X, Huang X, Liu J. 3D Chromatin Structures of Mature Gametes and Structural Reprogramming during Mammalian Embryogenesis. Cell 2017; 170:367-381.e20. [PMID: 28709003 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
High-order chromatin structure plays important roles in gene expression regulation. Knowledge of the dynamics of 3D chromatin structures during mammalian embryo development remains limited. We report the 3D chromatin architecture of mouse gametes and early embryos using an optimized Hi-C method with low-cell samples. We find that mature oocytes at the metaphase II stage do not have topologically associated domains (TADs). In sperm, extra-long-range interactions (>4 Mb) and interchromosomal interactions occur frequently. The high-order structures of both the paternal and maternal genomes in zygotes and two-cell embryos are obscure but are gradually re-established through development. The establishment of the TAD structure requires DNA replication but not zygotic genome activation. Furthermore, unmethylated CpGs are enriched in A compartment, and methylation levels are decreased to a greater extent in A compartment than in B compartment in embryos. In summary, the global reprogramming of chromatin architecture occurs during early mammalian development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwen Ke
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanan Xu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuepeng Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Songjie Feng
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenbo Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yaoyu Sun
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xuelong Yao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fangzhen Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haojie Chen
- Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenhai Du
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, THU-PKU Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, THU-PKU Center for Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaocui Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xingxu Huang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jiang Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genome Sciences and Information, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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Huang J, Chen L. IL-1β inhibits osteogenesis of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells by activating FoxD3/microRNA-496 to repress wnt signaling. Genesis 2017; 55. [PMID: 28509407 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Huang
- Department of Orthopaedics; Liaocheng People's Hospital and Liaocheng Clinical School of Taishan Medical University; 67 Dongchang west Road Liaocheng Shandong 252000 People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics; Liaocheng People's Hospital and Liaocheng Clinical School of Taishan Medical University; 67 Dongchang west Road Liaocheng Shandong 252000 People's Republic of China
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66
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Gambardella G, Carissimo A, Chen A, Cutillo L, Nowakowski TJ, di Bernardo D, Blelloch R. The impact of microRNAs on transcriptional heterogeneity and gene co-expression across single embryonic stem cells. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14126. [PMID: 28102192 PMCID: PMC5253645 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs act posttranscriptionally to suppress multiple target genes within a cell population. To what extent this multi-target suppression occurs in individual cells and how it impacts transcriptional heterogeneity and gene co-expression remains unknown. Here we used single-cell sequencing combined with introduction of individual microRNAs. miR-294 and let-7c were introduced into otherwise microRNA-deficient Dgcr8 knockout mouse embryonic stem cells. Both microRNAs induce suppression and correlated expression of their respective gene targets. The two microRNAs had opposing effects on transcriptional heterogeneity within the cell population, with let-7c increasing and miR-294 decreasing the heterogeneity between cells. Furthermore, let-7c promotes, whereas miR-294 suppresses, the phasing of cell cycle genes. These results show at the individual cell level how a microRNA simultaneously has impacts on its many targets and how that in turn can influence a population of cells. The findings have important implications in the understanding of how microRNAs influence the co-expression of genes and pathways, and thus ultimately cell fate. MicroRNAs can posttranscriptionally repress multiple targets in a cell population. Here the authors use single-cell sequencing to investigate the effects of an individual miRNA on transcriptional heterogeneity and gene co-expression
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amy Chen
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
| | - Luisa Cutillo
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine, Pozzuoli, 80078 Naples, Italy
| | - Tomasz J Nowakowski
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
| | - Diego di Bernardo
- Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine, Pozzuoli, 80078 Naples, Italy.,Department of Chemical, Materials and Industrial Engineering, University of Naples 'Federico II', 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Robert Blelloch
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA.,Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143, USA
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67
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Betschinger J. Charting Developmental Dissolution of Pluripotency. J Mol Biol 2016; 429:1441-1458. [PMID: 28013029 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2016.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The formation of tissues and organs during metazoan development begs fundamental questions of cellular plasticity: How can the very same genome program have diverse cell types? How do cell identity programs unfold during development in space and time? How can defects in these mechanisms cause disease and also provide opportunities for therapeutic intervention? And ultimately, can developmental programs be exploited for bioengineering tissues and organs? Understanding principle designs of cellular identity and developmental progression is crucial for providing answers. Here, I will discuss how the capture of embryonic pluripotency in murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in vitro has allowed fundamental insights into the molecular underpinnings of a developmental cell state and how its ordered disassembly during differentiation prepares for lineage specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joerg Betschinger
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, 4058 Basel, Switzerland.
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68
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Bayarsaihan D. Deciphering the Epigenetic Code in Embryonic and Dental Pulp Stem Cells. THE YALE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2016; 89:539-563. [PMID: 28018144 PMCID: PMC5168831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A close cooperation between chromatin states, transcriptional modulation, and epigenetic modifications is required for establishing appropriate regulatory circuits underlying self-renewal and differentiation of adult and embryonic stem cells. A growing body of research has established that the epigenome topology provides a structural framework for engaging genes in the non-random chromosomal interactions to orchestrate complex processes such as cell-matrix interactions, cell adhesion and cell migration during lineage commitment. Over the past few years, the functional dissection of the epigenetic landscape has become increasingly important for understanding gene expression dynamics in stem cells naturally found in most tissues. Adult stem cells of the human dental pulp hold great promise for tissue engineering, particularly in the skeletal and tooth regenerative medicine. It is therefore likely that progress towards pulp regeneration will have a substantial impact on the clinical research. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding epigenetic cues that have evolved to regulate the pluripotent differentiation potential of embryonic stem cells and the lineage determination of developing dental pulp progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dashzeveg Bayarsaihan
- Institute for System Genomics and Center for Regenerative Medicine and Skeletal Development, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, USA
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69
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Vecchi JT, Wakatsuki T. The Stagnant Adaptation of Defined and Xeno-Free Culture of iPSCs in Academia. ARCHIVES OF STEM CELL RESEARCH 2016; 3:1016. [PMID: 29333534 PMCID: PMC5766037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Pluripotent Stem Cells were originally derived and cultured using a feeder layer of cells. Movements have been undertaken to transition from this method to one more defined, high-throughput, and without xenogenic factors. Tremendous research has been done in this area and many products have been developed, however, based on our analysis of recent publications in stem cell related journals many in academia are still using older methods like a feeder layer. In this short communication, we discuss the feasibility of transitioning to defined, xeno-free methods, how a standardized method could improve the field and industry, and that a study bringing together multiple institutions comparing culture methods could be done to evaluate the efficacy of these new methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tetsuro Wakatsuki
- Corresponding author, Tetsuro Wakatsuki, 510 Charmany Dr. Suite 265, Madison, WI, USA, Tel: 608-713-0149; Fax: 888-958-2042;
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70
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Plank-Bazinet JL, Mundell NA. The paradox of Foxd3: how does it function in pluripotency and differentiation of embryonic stem cells? Stem Cell Investig 2016; 3:73. [PMID: 27868055 DOI: 10.21037/sci.2016.09.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Uncommitted cells of the early mammalian embryo transition through distinct stages of pluripotency, including establishment of ground state "naïve" pluripotency in the early epiblast, transition to a post-implantation "primed" state, and subsequent lineage commitment of the gastrulating epiblast. Previous transcriptional profiling of in vitro models to recapitulate early to late epiblast transition and differentiation suggest that distinct gene regulatory networks are likely to function in each of these states. While the mechanisms underlying transition between pluripotent states are poorly understood, the forkhead family transcription factor Foxd3 has emerged as a key regulatory factor. Foxd3 is required to maintain pluripotent cells of the murine epiblast and for survival, self-renewal and pluripotency of embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Two recent, simultaneous studies have shed light on how Foxd3 regulates gene expression in early cell fate transitions of progenitor cells. While the two publications shared some common findings, they also presented some conflicting results and suggest different models for the mechanisms underlying Foxd3 function. Here, we discuss the key similarities and differences between the publications, highlight data from the literature relevant to their findings, and hypothesize a potential mechanism of Foxd3 action.
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71
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Swinstead EE, Paakinaho V, Presman DM, Hager GL. Pioneer factors and ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors interact dynamically: A new perspective: Multiple transcription factors can effect chromatin pioneer functions through dynamic interactions with ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors. Bioessays 2016; 38:1150-1157. [PMID: 27633730 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201600137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Transcription factor (TF) signaling regulates gene transcription and requires a complex network of proteins. This network includes co-activators, co-repressors, multiple TFs, histone-modifying complexes, and the basal transcription machinery. It has been widely appreciated that pioneer factors, such as FoxA1 and GATA1, play an important role in opening closed chromatin regions, thereby allowing binding of a secondary factor. In this review we will focus on a newly proposed model wherein multiple TFs, such as steroid receptors (SRs), can function in a pioneering role. This model, termed dynamic assisted loading, integrates data from widely divergent methodologies, including genome wide ChIP-Seq, digital genomic footprinting, DHS-Seq, live cell protein dynamics, and biochemical studies of ATP-dependent remodeling complexes, to present a real time view of TF chromatin interactions. Under this view, many TFs can act as initiating factors for chromatin landscape programming. Furthermore, enhancer and promoter states are more accurately described as energy-dependent, non-equilibrium steady states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E Swinstead
- Laboratory of Receptor Biology and Gene Expression, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ville Paakinaho
- Laboratory of Receptor Biology and Gene Expression, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Diego M Presman
- Laboratory of Receptor Biology and Gene Expression, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gordon L Hager
- Laboratory of Receptor Biology and Gene Expression, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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72
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Respuela P, Rada-Iglesias A. Enhancer Remodeling During Early Mammalian Embryogenesis: Lessons for Somatic Reprogramming, Rejuvenation, and Aging. CURRENT STEM CELL REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40778-016-0050-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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73
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Yong JS, Intriago-Baldeón DP, Lam EWF. FOXD3 controls pluripotency through modulating enhancer activity. Stem Cell Investig 2016; 3:17. [PMID: 27488581 DOI: 10.21037/sci.2016.05.03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jay-Sze Yong
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | | | - Eric W-F Lam
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
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