Surfactant Effects on Lipid-Based Vesicles Properties

Phytochemical Delivery Through Transferosome (Phytosome): An Advanced Transdermal Drug Delivery for Complementary Medicines

Transdermal drug delivery aims to create a safe and effective method of administering drugs through the skin that attracts a lot of attention and investment due to the constant progress in the field. Transferosomes are flexible or malleable vesicles (having almost the same structure as liposomes but with better skin penetration properties) discovered initially in the early 90s. The name transferosomes, which means "carrying bodies," is coined from the Latin phrase "Transferee," which means "to carry through," and the Greek term "soma," meaning "body." In comparison to typical herbal extracts, phytosomes (Transferosomes) are created by attaching specific herbal extracts to phosphatidylcholine, resulting in a formulation with increased solubility and, hence, better absorption, resulting in improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic features of the entrapped drugs. We are using the word phytosomes and transferosomes interchangeably as we have consolidated vesicular delivery of herbal drugs through skin. In this mini-review, we have demonstrated the enormous potential of developing nanotechnology to deliver bioactive phytochemicals, with a special emphasis on phytosomes (Transferosomes) as a unique lipid-based nanocarrier for transdermal drug delivery.

Design, Green Synthesis and Tailoring of Vitamin E TPGS Augmented Niosomal Nano-Carrier of Pyrazolopyrimidines as Potential Anti-Liver and Breast Cancer Agents with Accentuated Oral Bioavailability

VEGF plays a crucial role in cancer development, angiogenesis and progression, principally liver and breast cancer. It is vital to uncover novel chemical candidates of VEGFR inhibitors to develop more potent anti-breast and anti-liver cancer agents than the currently available candidates, sorafenib and regorafenib, that face resistance obstacles and severe side effects. Herein, nine pyrazolopyrimidine derivatives were designed, synthesized as sorafenib and regorafenib analogues and screened for their in vitro cytotoxic and growth inhibition activities against four human cancer cell lines, namely breast cancer (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7 (MCF-7), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) type (HepG2), lung carcinoma (A-549) and human colorectal carcinoma-116 (HCT-116)). Among the tested compounds, compounds 1, 2a, 4b and 7 showed the uppermost cytotoxic activities against all aforementioned cell lines with IC₅₀ estimates varying from 6 to 50 µM, among which compound 7 showed the best inhibitory activity on all tested compounds. Stunningly, compound 7 showed the best significant inhibition of the VEGFR-2 protein expression level (72.3%) as compared to the control and even higher than that produced with sorafenib and regorafenib (70.4% and 55.6%, respectively). Modeling studies provided evidence for the possible interactions of the synthesized compounds with the key residues of the ATP binding sites on the hinge region and the “DFG out” motif of VEGFR-2 kinase. Collectively, our present study suggests that pyrazolopyrimidine derivatives are a novel class of anti-cancer drug candidates to inhibit VEGF-VEGFR function. Aspiring to promote constrained aqueous solubility, hence poor oral bioavailability of the developed lead molecule, 7 and 2a-charged D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) surface-coated niosomes were successfully constructed, adopting a thin film hydration technique striving to overcome these pitfalls. A 2³ full factorial design was involved in order to investigate the influence of formulation variables: type of surfactant, either Span 60 or Span 40; surfactant:cholesterol ratio (8:2 or 5:5) along with the amount of TPGS (25 mg or 50 mg) on the characteristics of the nanosystem. F2 and S2 were picked as the optimum formula for compounds 2a and 7 with desirability values of 0.907 and 0.903, respectively. In addition, a distinguished improvement was observed in the compound’s oral bioavailability and cytotoxic activity after being included in the nano-TPGS-coated niosomal system relative to the unformulated compound. The nano-TPGS-coated niosomal system increased the hepatocellular inhibitory activity four times fold of compound 7a (1.6 µM) and two-fold of 2a (3 µM) relative to the unformulated compounds (6 µM and 6.2 µM, respectively).

Nanosized paclitaxel-loaded niosomes: formulation, in vitro cytotoxicity, and apoptosis gene expression in breast cancer cell lines

BACKGROUND

In this study, the optimized niosomal formulation containing paclitaxel using non-ionic surfactants and cholesterol was designed and its cytotoxic effects against different breast cancer cell lines and apoptosis gene expression analysis were also investigated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Due to enhancing equation variables, the Box-Behnken method has been applied. Lipid/drug molar ratio, the amounts of Span 60, and cholesterol were selected as the target for optimization. The particle size of niosome loaded paclitaxel and entrapment efficiency proportion have been considered in the role of dependent variables. Then the cytotoxic activity of the optimized formulation was evaluated using an MTT assay against different breast cancer cell lines including MCF-7, T-47D, SkBr3, and MDA-MB-231. The expression level of Bax and Bcl-2 apoptosis genes was determined by Real-Time PCR. In this study, the optimized niosomal formulation revealed that the synthesized niosomes had a spherical appearance and had an average size of 192.73 ± 5.50 nm so that the percentage of drug loading was 94.71 ± 1.56%. Moreover, this formulation showed a controlled and slowed release of paclitaxel at different pH (7.4, 6.5, and 5.4). The cytotoxicity results demonstrated that cell viability in all concentrations of niosome loaded paclitaxel had profound cytotoxic effects on all studied breast cancer cell lines compared to the free paclitaxel (p < 0.05). In addition, the expression of apoptosis genes was much higher than that of free paclitaxel indicating the susceptibility of cells to apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

As a result, niosomal formulations containing paclitaxel can be used as a new drug delivery system to increase cytotoxicity and treatment of breast cancer in the upcoming future.

Development and Optimization of Nanolipid-Based Formulation of Diclofenac Sodium: In Vitro Characterization and Preclinical Evaluation

In the present research study, we formulate bilosomes (BMs) of diclofenac (DC) for oral delivery for enhancement of therapeutic efficacy (anti-inflammatory disease). The BMS were prepared by thin film hydration method and optimized by Box−Behnken design (BBD) using cholesterol (A), lipid (B), surfactant (C), and bile salt (D) as formulation factors. Their effects were evaluated on vesicle size (Y1) and entrapment efficacy (Y2). The optimized DC-BMs-opt showed a vesicle size of 270.21 ± 3.76 nm, PDI of 0.265 ± 0.03, and entrapment efficiency of 79.01 ± 2.54%. DSC study result revealed that DC-BMs-opt exhibited complete entrapment of DC in BM matrix. It also depicted significant enhancement (p < 0.05) in release (91.82 ± 4.65%) as compared to pure DC (36.32 ± 4.23%) and DC-liposomes (74.54 ± 4.76%). A higher apparent permeability coefficient (2.08 × 10−3 cm/s) was also achieved compared to pure DC (6.6 × 10−4 cm/s) and DC-liposomes (1.33 × 10−3 cm/s). A 5.21-fold and 1.43-fold enhancement in relative bioavailability was found relative to pure DC and DC liposomes (DC-LP). The anti-inflammatory activity result showed a significant (p < 0.05) reduction of paw edema swelling compared to pure DC and DC-LP. Our findings revealed that encapsulation of DC in BMs matrix is a good alternative for improvement of therapeutic efficacy.

Lipid Nanocarriers Overlaid with Chitosan for Brain Delivery of Berberine via the Nasal Route

This research aimed to design, optimize, and evaluate berberine-laden nanostructured lipid carriers overlaid with chitosan (BER-CTS-NLCs) for efficient brain delivery via the intranasal route. The nanostructured lipid carriers containing berberine (BER-NLCs) were formulated via hot homogenization and ultrasonication strategy and optimized for the influence of a variety of causal variables, including the amount of glycerol monostearate (solid lipid), poloxamer 407 (surfactant) concentration, and oleic acid (liquid lipid) amount, on size of the particles, entrapment, and the total drug release after 24 h. The optimal BER-NLCs formulation was then coated with chitosan. Their diameter, in vitro release, surface charge, morphology, ex vivo permeability, pH, histological, and in vivo (pharmacokinetics and brain uptake) parameters were estimated. BER-CTS-NLCs had a size of 180.9 ± 4.3 nm, sustained-release properties, positive surface charge of 36.8 mV, and augmented ex-vivo permeation via nasal mucosa. The histopathological assessment revealed that the BER-CTS-NLCs system is safe for nasal delivery. Pharmacokinetic and brain accumulation experiments showed that animals treated intranasally with BER-CTS-NLCs had substantially greater drug levels in the brain. The ratios of BER brain/blood levels at 30 min, AUC_brain/AUC_blood, drug transport percentage, and drug targeting efficiency for BER-CTS-NLCs (IN) were higher compared to BER solution (IN), suggesting enhanced brain targeting. The optimized nanoparticulate system is speculated to be a successful approach for boosting the effect of BER in treating CNS diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, through intranasal therapy.

Schistosomiasis mansoni: A new therapeutic target for ubiquinol, a natural inhibitor of neutral magnesium-dependent sphingomyelinase in murine model

Constituting the host-parasite interface and playing a censorious role in host immune response modulation and parasite survival, tegument represents a crucial target for many antischistosomal drugs. Sphingomyelin forms a stable outer leaflet of tegumental membrane-lipid bilayer. Neutral magnesium‏-dependent sphingomyelinase (Mg²⁺-nSMase) is a key enzyme in sphingomyelin breakdown was identified in schistosomes. We investigated the in vivo efficacy of ubiquinol, a natural inhibitor of Mg²⁺-nSMase, in free and niosomes-encapsulated forms, through five-day and 15-day regimens on the early and late Schistosoma mansoni parasitic stages, respectively, compared to PZQ. Oral administration of 300 mg/kg/day ubiquinol-encapsulated niosomes (U-N) showed significant deterioration of the parasitic growth and development in the term of reduction of lung schistosomula burden (39.12%), adult worm burden (50.81%), hepatic and intestinal tissue-egg counts (80.89% and 75.54%, respectively). PZQ and free ubiquinol regimens reported reductions in lung schistosomula counts (45.36% and 22.90%, respectively) and total worm burdens of 86.28% and 24.58%, respectively. U-N therapy revealed worms de-pairing and remarkable diminution in female worms' perimeters and fecundity. Scanning electron microscope revealed disruption of tegumental ridges with excessive longitudinal corrugation. Transmission electron microscope showed testicular and ovarian parenchymal degeneration, signs of immaturity and cell apoptosis. Indirect immunofluorescence assay approved parasite's tegumental changes. Remarkable reduction of granulomas size with amelioration of hepatic pathology and fibrosis were assumed to be attributed to the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of ubiquinol. These findings with the drug safety profile suggest that U-N could be a promising candidate for a new antischistosomal drug development.

Scrutinizing the Feasibility of Nonionic Surfactants to Form Isotropic Bicelles of Curcumin: a Potential Antiviral Candidate Against COVID-19

Investigating bicelles as an oral drug delivery system and exploiting their structural benefits can pave the way to formulate hydrophobic drugs and potentiate their activity. Herein, the ability of non-ionic surfactants (labrasol^®, tween 80, cremophore EL and pluronic F127) to form curcumin loaded bicelles with phosphatidylcholine, utilizing a simple method, was investigated. Molecular docking was used to understand the mechanism of bicelles formation. The % transmittance and TEM exhibited bicelles formation with labrasol^® and tween 80, while cremophor EL and pluronic F127 tended to form mixed micelles. The surfactant-based nanostructures significantly improved curcumin dissolution (99.2 ± 2.6% within 10 min in case of tween 80-based bicelles) compared to liposomes and curcumin suspension in non-sink conditions. The prepared formulations improved curcumin ex vivo permeation over liposomes and drug suspension. Further, the therapeutic antiviral activity of the formulated curcumin against SARS-CoV-2 was potentiated over drug suspension. Although both Labrasol^® and tween 80 bicelles could form bicelles and enhance the oral delivery of curcumin when compared to liposomes and drug suspension, the mixed micelles formulations depicted superiority than bicelles formulations. Our findings provide promising formulations that can be utilized for further preclinical and clinical studies of curcumin as an antiviral therapy for COVID-19 patients.

Facile Biofilm Penetration of Cationic Liposomes Loaded with DNase I/Proteinase K to Eradicate Cutibacterium acnes for Treating Cutaneous and Catheter Infections

Background

The biofilm produced by Cutibacterium acnes is a major infection threat for skin and implanted catheters. Nanoparticles provide a new approach to eradicate biofilms. The present study evaluated the capability of cationic liposomes loaded with DNase I (DNS) and proteinase K (PK) to remove preformed C. acnes biofilms.

Methods

DNS and PK were able to target and disassemble the biofilm by degrading extracellular polymer substances (EPS). Soyaethyl morpholinium ethosulfate (SME) was used to render a positive charge and enhance the antibacterial activity of the liposomes.

Results

The cationic liposomes containing enzymes yielded monodisperse nanovesicles ranging between 95 and 150 nm. The entrapment efficiency of the enzymes in the liposomes achieved a value of 67–83%. All liposomal formulations suppressed planktonic C. acnes growth at a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) equal to the free SME in the solution. The enzyme in the liposomal form inhibited biofilm growth much better than that in the free form, with the dual enzyme-loaded liposomes demonstrating the greatest inhibition of 54% based on a crystal violet assay. The biofilm-related virulence genes PA380 and PA1035 were downregulated by the combined enzymes in the liposomes but not the individual DNS or PK. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal microscopy displayed reduced C. acnes aggregates and biofilm thickness by the liposomal system. The liposomes could penetrate through about 85% of the biofilm thickness. The in vitro pig skin permeation also showed a facile delivery of liposomes into the epidermis, deeper skin strata, and hair follicles. The liposomes exhibited potent activity to eliminate C. acnes colonization in mouse skin and catheters in vivo. The colony-forming units (CFUs) in the catheter treated with the liposomes were reduced by 2 logs compared to the untreated control.

Conclusion

The data suggested a safe application of the enzyme-loaded cationic liposomes as antibacterial and antibiofilm agents.

Utilization of PEGylated cerosomes for effective topical delivery of fenticonazole nitrate: in-vitro characterization, statistical optimization, and in-vivo assessment

In this investigation, we focused on ceramide IIIB, a skin component whose depletion tends to augment multiple skin disorders and fungal infections. Ceramide IIIB was included into PEGylated surfactant-based vesicular phospholipid system to formulate 'PEGylated cerosomes' (PCs) loaded with fenticonazole nitrate (FTN). FTN is a potent antifungal agent adopted in the treatment of mixed mycotic and bacterial infections. The ceramide content of the vesicles may provide protective and regenerative skin activity whereas Brij®; the PEGylated surfactant, can enhance drug deposition and skin hydration. Both components are expected to augment the topical effect of FTN. PCs were prepared by thin-film hydration technique. A 23 full-factorial design was applied to study the effect of ceramide amount (X1), Brij type (X2) and Brij amount (X3) on the physicochemical properties of the formulated PCs namely; entrapment efficiency (EE%;Y1), particle size (PS;Y2), polydispersity index (PDI;Y3) and zeta potential (ZP;Y4). The optimal formula was selected for further in-vivo dermatokinetic and histopathological study. The optimal FTN-loaded PC (PC6) showed nanosized cerosomes (551.60 nm) with high EE% (83.00%w/w), and an acceptable ZP value of 20.90 mV. Transmission electron micrographs of the optimal formula illustrated intertwined tubulation form deviated from the conventional spherical vesicles. Finally, the dermatokinetic study of PC6 showed higher drug concentration and localization of FTN in skin layers when compared with FTN suspension and the histopathological study confirmed its safety for topical application. The overall findings of our study verified the effectiveness of utilizing PEGylated cerosomes to augment the activity of FTN as a topical antifungal agent.

Improving Dermal Delivery of Rose Bengal by Deformable Lipid Nanovesicles for Topical Treatment of Melanoma

Cutaneous melanoma is one of the most aggressive and metastatic forms of skin cancer. However, current therapeutic options present several limitations, and the annual death rate due to melanoma increases every year. Dermal delivery of nanomedicines can effectively eradicate primary melanoma lesions, avoid the metastatic process, and improve survival. Rose Bengal (RB) is a sono-photosensitizer drug with intrinsic cytotoxicity toward melanoma without external stimuli but the biopharmaceutical profile limits its clinical use. Here, we propose deformable lipid nanovesicles, also known as transfersomes (TF), for the targeted dermal delivery of RB to melanoma lesions to eradicate them in the absence of external stimuli. Considering RB’s poor ability to cross the stratum corneum and its photosensitizer nature, transfersomal carriers were selected simultaneously to enhance RB penetration to the deepest skin layers and protect RB from undesired photodegradation. RB-loaded TF dispersion (RB-TF), prepared by a modified reverse-phase evaporation method, were nanosized with a ζ-potential value below −30 mV. The spectrophotometric and fluorimetric analysis revealed that RB efficiently interacted with the lipid phase. The morphological investigations (transmission electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering) proved that RB intercalated within the phospholipid bilayer of TF originating unilamellar and deformable vesicles, in contrast to the rigid multilamellar unloaded ones. Such outcomes agree with the results of the in vitro permeation study, where the lack of a burst RB permeation peak for RB-TF, observed instead for the free drug, suggests that a significant amount of RB interacted with lipid nanovesicles. Also, RB-TF proved to protect RB from undesired photodegradation over 24 h of direct light exposure. The ex vivo epidermis permeation study proved that RB-TF significantly increased RB’s amount permeating the epidermis compared to the free drug (78.31 vs 38.31%). Finally, the antiproliferative assays on melanoma cells suggested that RB-TF effectively reduced cell growth compared to free RB at the concentrations tested (25 and 50 μM). RB-TF could potentially increase selectivity toward cancer cells. Considering the outcomes of the characterization and cytotoxicity studies performed on RB-TF, we conclude that RB-TF represents a valid potential alternative tool to fight against primary melanoma lesions via dermal delivery in the absence of light.

Transfersomes as alternative topical nanodosage forms for the treatment of skin disorders

Topical drug delivery is a promising approach to treat different skin disorders. However, it remains a challenge mainly due to the nature and rigidity of the nanosystems, which limit deep skin penetration, and the unsuccessful demonstration of clinical benefits; greater penetration by itself, does not ensure pharmacological success. In this context, transfersomes have appeared as promising nanosystems; deformability, their unique characteristic, allows them to pass through the epidermal microenvironment, improving the skin drug delivery. This review focuses on the comparison of transfersomes with other nanosystems (e.g., liposomes), discusses recent therapeutic applications for the topical treatment of different skin disorders and highlights the need for further studies to demonstrate significant clinical benefits of transfersomes compared with conventional therapies.

Formulation development and in vitro-in vivo assessment of protransfersomal gel of anti-resorptive drug in osteoporosis treatment

Osteoporosis is a major cause of morbidity, mortality, and economic burden worldwide. Despite being an effective in combating the bone-deteriorating disorders, bisphosphonates have several shortcomings including poor and variable bioavailability, low permeability, high toxicity, etc. In this study, we developed and optimized protransfersome formulation for the drug risedronate sodium (RIS-Na) with the goal of enhancing its bioavailability and hence patient compliance. Phase separation coacervation technique was utilized for development of optimized formulation. Optimization was achieved by using three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design combined with Response Surface Methodology (RSM). This enabled us to decipher the effect of 3 independent variables (Phospholipid, Tween-80 and Sodium Deoxycholate) on three dependent parameters (entrapment efficiency, vesicle size and transdermal flux). Optimized formulation was further evaluated for pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters. Smooth, spherical protransfersomes with a size of 260 ± 18 nm, having entrapment efficiency and flux of 80.4 ± 4.90% and 8.41 ± 0.148 μg/cm²/h, respectively were prepared. Ex vivo studies revealed a shorter lag time of 1.21 ± 0.18 h and higher flux associated with transdermal formulation. CLSM analysis further revealed better drug penetration (220 μm) through the skin in case of protransfersomes as compared to drug solution (72 μm). Additionally, biomechanical, biochemical, and histo-pathological studies further validated the results. Thus, it was concluded that protransfersome formulation has a great potential in providing better therapeutic efficacy of risedronate than its conventional counterpart.

Evaluation of sonication on stability-indicating properties of optimized pilocarpine hydrochloride-loaded niosomes in ocular drug delivery

Niosomes are increasingly explored for enhancing drug penetration and retention in ocular tissues for both posterior and anterior eye delivery. They have been employed in encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, but their use is still plagued with challenges of stability and poor entrapment efficiency particularly with hydrophilic drugs. As a result, focus is on understanding the parameters that affect their stability and their optimization for improved results. Pilocarpine hydrochloride (HCl), a hydrophilic drug is used in the management of intraocular pressure in glaucoma. We aimed at optimizing pilocarpine HCl niosomes and evaluating the effect of sonication on its stability-indicating properties such as particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential and entrapment efficiency. Pilocarpine niosomes were prepared by ether injection method. Composition concentrations were varied and the effects of these variations on niosomal properties were evaluated. The effects of sonication on niosomes were determined by sonicating optimized drug-loaded formulations for 30 min and 60 min. Tween 60 was confirmed to be more suitable over Span 60 for encapsulating hydrophilic drugs, resulting in the highest entrapment efficiency (EE) and better polydispersity and particle size indices. Optimum sonication duration as a process variable was determined to be 30 min which increased EE from 24.5% to 42% and zeta potential from (-)14.39 ± 8.55 mV to (-)18.92 ± 7.53 mV. In addition to selecting the appropriate surfactants and varying product composition concentrations, optimizing sonication parameters can be used to fine-tune niosomal properties to those most desirable for extended eye retainment and maintenance of long term stability.

Co-delivery of paclitaxel and anti-VEGF siRNA by tripeptide lipid nanoparticle to enhance the anti-tumor activity for lung cancer therapy

The combination of chemotherapeutic drug paclitaxel (PTX) and VEGF siRNA could inhibit cancer development with synergistic efficacy. However, efficient and safe delivery systems with high encapsulation efficiency of PTX and a long-time release of drugs are urgently needed. In this study, novel nanoparticles (PTX/siRNA/FALS) were constructed by using tripeptide lipid (L), sucrose laurate (S), and folate-PEG₂₀₀₀-DSPE (FA) to co-deliver PTX and siRNA. The cancer cell targeting nanoparticle carrier (PTX/siRNA/FALS) showed anticipated PTX encapsulation efficiency, siRNA retardation ability, improved cell uptake and sustained and controlled drug release. It led to significant anti-tumor activity in vitro and in vivo by efficient inhibition of VEGF expression and induction of cancer cell apoptosis. Importantly, the biocompatibility of the carriers and low dosage of PTX required for effective therapy greatly reduced the toxicity to mice. The targeting nanoparticles show potential as an effective co-delivery platform for RNAi and chemotherapy drugs, aiming to improve the efficacy of cancer therapy.

Experimental Design Based Optimization and Ex Vivo Permeation of Desmopressin Acetate Loaded Elastic Liposomes Using Rat Skin

The study aimed to develop elastic-liposome-based transdermal delivery of desmopressin acetate for enhanced permeation to control enuresis, central diabetes insipidus, and traumatic injury. Elastic liposomes (ELs)-loaded desmopressin acetate was prepared, optimized, and evaluated for improved transdermal permeation profiles using rat skin. Full factorial design with independent factors (X₁ for lipid and X₂ for surfactant) at three levels was used against four responses (Y₁, Y₂, Y₃, and Y₄) (dependent variables). Formulations were characterized for vesicle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, % entrapment efficiency (% EE), in vitro drug release, in vitro hemolysis potential, ex vivo drug permeation and drug deposition (DD), and ex vivo vesicle–skin interaction using scanning electron microscopy studies. The optimized formulation ODEL1 based on desirability function was found to have vesicle size, % EE, % DR, and permeation flux values of 118.7 nm, 78.9%, 75.1%, and 5.3 µg/h·cm², respectively, which were close to predicted values. In vitro release profiles indicated slow and sustained delivery. Permeation flux values of ODEL1 and ODEL2 were 5.3 and 3.1 µg/h·cm², respectively, which are 7.5- and 4.4-fold higher as compared to DS (0.71 µg/h·cm²). The obtained flux was relatively higher than the clinical target value of the drug for therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, the DD value of ODEL1 was significantly higher than ODEL2 and DS. Hemocompatibility study confirmed safety concerns. Finally, vesicle–skin interaction corroborated mechanistic views of permeation through rat skin. Conclusively, the transdermal delivery may be a suitable alternative to oral and nasal delivery to treat nocturnal enuresis, central diabetes insipidus, hemophilia A and von Willebrand’s disease, and any traumatic injuries.

Nanocarriers for Biomedicine: From Lipid Formulations to Inorganic and Hybrid Nanoparticles

Encapsulation of cargoes in nanocontainers is widely used in different fields to solve the problems of their solubility, homogeneity, stability, protection from unwanted chemical and biological destructive effects, and functional activity improvement. This approach is of special importance in biomedicine, since this makes it possible to reduce the limitations of drug delivery related to the toxicity and side effects of therapeutics, their low bioavailability and biocompatibility. This review highlights current progress in the use of lipid systems to deliver active substances to the human body. Various lipid compositions modified with amphiphilic open-chain and macrocyclic compounds, peptide molecules and alternative target ligands are discussed. Liposome modification also evolves by creating new hybrid structures consisting of organic and inorganic parts. Such nanohybrid platforms include cerasomes, which are considered as alternative nanocarriers allowing to reduce inherent limitations of lipid nanoparticles. Compositions based on mesoporous silica are beginning to acquire no less relevance due to their unique features, such as advanced porous properties, well-proven drug delivery efficiency and their versatility for creating highly efficient nanomaterials. The types of silica nanoparticles, their efficacy in biomedical applications and hybrid inorganic-polymer platforms are the subject of discussion in this review, with current challenges emphasized.

Statistical optimization of bile salt deployed nanovesicles as a potential platform for oral delivery of piperine: accentuated antiviral and anti-inflammatory activity in MERS-CoV challenged mice

The objective of this paper is to confine piperine, a poor oral bioavailable herbal drug into bile salt based nano vesicles for improving its aqueous solubility, hence, its therapeutic activity. Piperine-loaded bilosomes were fabricated adopting thin film hydration technique according to 3².2¹ full factorial design to investigate the impact of different formulation variables on the characters of bilosomes: entrapment efficiency (EE%), particle size, and % of drug released post 8 h (Q8hr). The selected optimum formula was F2 (enclosing 1% bile salt, brij72 as a surfactant, and ratio of surfactant:cholesterol was 9:1) with desirability value 0.801, exhibiting high EE% (97.2 ± 0.8%) nanosized spherical vesicles (220.2 ± 20.5 nm) and Q8hr (88.2%±5.6). The superiority of the optimized formula (F2) over the drug suspension was revealed via ex vivo permeation study, also pharmacokinetic study denoted to the boosted oral bioavailability of piperine-loaded bilosome compared to piperine suspension. Moreover, antiviral activity and safety margin of F2 was significantly higher than that of the drug suspension. The ability of piperine to interact with the key amino acids in the receptor binding domain 4L3N as indicated by its docking configuration, rationalized its observed activity. Furthermore, F2 significantly reduce oxidant markers, inflammatory cytokines in MERS-CoV-infected mice. Hence, bilosomes can be considered as a carrier of choice for piperine with potential antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities.

Enhanced Antibacterial Activity of Echinacea angustifolia Extract against Multidrug-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae through Niosome Encapsulation

With the increased occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, alternatives to classical antibiotics are urgently needed for treatment of various infectious diseases. Medicinal plant extracts are among the promising candidates due to their bioactive components. The aim of this study was to prepare niosome-encapsulated Echinacea angustifolia extract and study its efficacy against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae strains. Encapsulation was first optimized by Design of Experiments, followed by the empirical study. The obtained niosomes were further characterized for the size and morphology using dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Spherical niosomes had a diameter of 142.3 ± 5.1 nm, as measured by DLS. The entrapment efficiency (EE%) of E. angustifolia extract reached up to 77.1% ± 0.3%. The prepared niosomes showed a controlled drug release within the tested 72 h and a storage stability of at least 2 months at both 4 and 25 °C. The encapsulated E. angustifolia displayed up to 16-fold higher antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant K.pneumoniae strains, compared to the free extract. Additionally, the niosome exhibited negligible cytotoxicity against human foreskin fibroblasts. We anticipate that the results presented herein could contribute to the preparation of other plant extracts with improved stability and antibacterial activity, and will help reduce the overuse of antibiotics by controlled release of natural-derived drugs.

Freeze-Dried Matrices Composed of Degradable Polymers with Surfactant-Loaded Microparticles Based on Pectin and Sodium Alginate

Gelatin/polyvinylpyrrolidone/hydroxyethyl cellulose/glycerol porous matrices with microspheres made of sodium alginate or pectin and sodium alginate were produced. A surfactant was loaded into these microparticles. The microspheres were characterized using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy SEM, and laser diffraction particle size analyzer. For the matrices, the density, porosity, swelling capacity, dissolution in phosphate saline buffer were determined and SEM, mechanical, and thermogravimetric studies were applied. The results showed that the size of the two-component microspheres was slightly larger than that of single-ingredient microparticles. The images confirmed the spherical shape of the microparticles. The prepared matrices had high water uptake ability and porosity due to the presence of hydrophilic polymers. The presence of microparticles in the matrices caused a decrease in these parameters. Degradation of the composites with the microspheres was significantly faster than the matrix without them. The addition of microparticles increased the stiffness and toughness of the prepared materials. The efficiency of the thermal decomposition main stage was reduced in the samples with microspheres, whereas a char residue increased in these composites.

Identifying Underlying Issues Related to the Inactive Excipients of Transfersomes based Drug Delivery System

Transfersomes are bilayer vesicles composed of phospholipid and edge activators, which are mostly surfactant. Transfersomes based drug delivery system has gained a lot of interest of the pharmaceutical researchers for their ability to improve drug penetration and permeation through the skin. Transdermal drug delivery via transfersomes has the potential to overcome the challenge of low systemic availability. However, this complex vesicular system has different issues to consider for developing a successful transdermal delivery system. One of the major ingredients, phospholipid, has versatile sources and variable effect on the vesicle size and drug entrapment in transfersomes. The other one, termed as edge activators or surfactant, has some crucial consideration of skin damage and toxicity depending upon its type and concentration. A complex interaction between type and concentration of phospholipid and surfactant was observed, which affect the physicochemical properties of transfersomes. This review focuses on the practical factors related to these two major ingredients, such as phospholipid and surfactant. The origin, purity, desired concentration, the susceptibility of degradation, etc. are the important factors for selecting phospholipid. Regarding surfactants, the major aspects are type and desired concentration. A successful development of transfersomes based drug delivery system depends on the proper considerations of these factors and practical aspects.

The Effects of Solid and Liquid Lipids on the Physicochemical Properties of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The aim of this work was to identify from a review of current literature the effects of lipids used in the development of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) on the physicochemical properties of the resulting formulation. The size of the solid lipid, affected by the molecular weight and the complexity of the structure, tends to affect the particle size of the final formulation proportionally; the higher the molecular weight and the more complex the molecular structure, the bigger the particle size of the NLCs. However, there is no straight correlation between the size and the structure of the liquid lipid and the particle size. Moreover, there seems to be a correlation of the solid to liquid lipid ratio which affects the particle size; there has been a trend of increasing particle size when more solid lipid was used. Regarding the entrapment efficiency, it is highly affected by the drug and its interaction with the lipids, as its solubility in the lipids needs to be high so the drug can stay entrapped within the lipid core. There was no direct correlation between the type of lipid used or the ratio and the zeta potential, which affects the stability of the NLCs.

Systematic Characterization of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers from Cetyl Palmitate/Caprylic Triglyceride/Tween 80 Mixtures in an Aqueous Environment

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are gaining attention as the new generation of lipid vehicles. These carriers consist of saturated lipids with small drops of liquid oil dispersed into the inner lipid matrix and are stabilized by a surfactant. Conventionally, NLC-based drug delivery systems have been widely studied, and many researchers are looking into the composition of NLC properties to improve the performance of NLCs. The membrane fluidity and polarity of self-assembling lipids are also essential properties that must be affected by membrane compositions; however, such fundamental characteristics have not been studied yet. In this study, NLCs were prepared from cetyl palmitate (CP), caprylic triglyceride (CaTG), and Tween 80 (T80). Structural properties, such as particle size and ζ-potential of the CP/CaTG/T80 ternary mixtures, were investigated. Then, the systematic characterization of self-assembly properties using fluorescence-based analysis was applied for the first time to the NLC system. As a final step, the ternary diagram was developed based on the self-assembly properties to summarize the possible structures formed at different compositions. The results showed four states: micelle-like, oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion-like, solid lipid nanoparticle-like, and intermediate (solid-liquid coexistence). For the purpose of making the lipid matrix more liquified, the heterogeneous state and the disordered state of the O/W emulsion-like structure might fulfill the criteria of NLCs. Finally, the ternary diagram provides new information about the assembly state of NLC constituents that could become an important reference for developing high-performance NLCs.

Formulation of chitosan coated nanoliposomes for the oral delivery of colistin sulfate: in vitro characterization, 99mTc-radiolabeling and in vivo biodistribution studies

Colistin sulfate is a very important antibiotic for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative infections. Unfortunately, it has low oral bioavailability and several side effects following parenteral administration. The present study aims to develop chitosan-coated colistin nanoliposomes to improve the stability in the gastrointestinal tract and to enhance the oral delivery of colistin. The chitosan-coated colistin nanoliposomes were obtained via thin-film evaporation and electrostatic deposition methods using either Span 60, Tween 65 or Tween 80 as surfactants with different cholesterol: surfactant: soya lecithin ratios. The influence of systems variables was further characterized by vesicle size analysis, zeta potential (ZP), poly dispersibility index (PDI), and also their entrapment efficiency percentage (EE %) was evaluated. Various systems were formed with vesicle sizes in the nano-range, 155.64 ± 12.53 nm to 315.64 ± 15.90 nm, and EE % of 45.2 ± 2.9% to 81.8 ± 2.9%. Moreover, the ZP value of the prepared nanoliposomes switched from a negative to a positive value after chitosan coating. To track the released colistin in vivo, technetium 99m (^99mTc) was incorporated into the optimum system (S-3) system via direct coupling with colistin. Chitosan-coated ^99mTc-colistin nanoliposome, ^99mTc-colistin suspension, and ^99mTc-chitosan-coated nanoliposomes (placebo) were administered orally into bacterial infection (Escherichia coli) bearing mice. The biodistribution results showed that chitosan-coated nanoliposome significantly enhanced the bioavailability of colistin compared to colistin suspension (the commercially available). Moreover, the system effectively improved the localization of colistin at the infected muscle. In conclusion, this approach offers a promising tool for enhanced oral delivery of colistin.

Design, development and in-vitro/in-vivo evaluation of intranasally delivered Rivastigmine and N-Acetyl Cysteine loaded bifunctional niosomes for applications in combinative treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The present investigation explores the potential of novel dual drug-loaded niosomes for nasal delivery of Rivastigmine (RIV) and N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) to the brain. The dual niosomes showed a particle size of 162.4 nm and % entrapment efficiencies of 97.7% for RIV and 85.9% for NAC. The niosomes were statistically validated using Box-Behnken experimental design (BBD) with good significance. Ultrastructural and chemical characterization of the niosomes using various analytical techniques like Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showcased drug-excipient compatibility and robust stability of 6 months in a liquid state at 4-8 °C. The dual drug-loaded niosomes showed a sustained drug release pattern up to 2 days. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl) enzyme inhibition assays showed a better combinative effect than the free drug solutions. A 2-day nasal permeation proved the effectiveness and biocompatibility of the niosomes. In-vivo pharmacokinetic and organ biodistribution studies revealed a better drug profile and greater distribution of the niosomes in the brain compared to other organs, thereby indicating a direct nose-to-brain delivery of the niosomes.

Preparation, Optimization and In-Vitro Evaluation of Curcumin-Loaded Niosome@calcium Alginate Nanocarrier as a New Approach for Breast Cancer Treatment

Cancer is one of the most common causes of mortality, and its various treatment methods can have many challenges for patients. As one of the most widely used cancer treatments, chemotherapy may result in diverse side effects. The lack of targeted drug delivery to tumor tissues can raise the possibility of damage to healthy tissues, with attendant dysfunction. In the present study, an optimum formulation of curcumin-loaded niosomes with a calcium alginate shell (AL-NioC) was developed and optimized by a three-level Box-Behnken design-in terms of dimension and drug loading efficiency. The niosomes were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and dynamic light scattering. The as-formulated niosomes showed excellent stability for up to 1 month at 4 °C. Additionally, the niosomal formulation demonstrated a pH-dependent release; a slow-release profile in physiological pH (7.4), and a more significant release rate at acidic conditions (pH = 3). Cytotoxicity studies showed high compatibility of AL-NioC toward normal MCF10A cells, while significant toxicity was observed in MDA-MB-231 and SKBR3 breast cancer cells. Gene expression studies of the cancer cells showed downregulation of Bcl2, cyclin D, and cyclin E genes, as well as upregulation of P53, Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9 genes expression following the designed treatment. Flow cytometry studies confirmed a significant enhancement in the apoptosis rate in the presence of AL-NioC in both MDA-MB-231 and SKBR3 cells as compared to other samples. In general, the results of this study demonstrated that-thanks to its biocompatibility toward normal cells-the AL-NioC formulation can efficiently deliver hydrophobic drugs to target cancer cells while reducing side effects.

Fabrication, characterization and optimization of nanostructured lipid carrier formulations using Beclomethasone dipropionate for pulmonary drug delivery via medical nebulizers

Aerosolization is a non-invasive approach in drug delivery for localized and systemic effect. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are new generation versatile carriers, which offer protection from degradation and enhance bioavailability of poorly water soluble drugs. The aim of this study was to develop and optimize NLC formulations in combination with optimized airflow rates (i.e. 60 and 15 L/min) and choice of medical nebulizers including Air jet, Vibrating mesh and Ultrasonic nebulizer for superior aerosolization performance, assessed via a next generation impactor (NGI). Novel composition and combination of NLC formulations (F1 - F15) were prepared via ultrasonication method, employing five solid lipids (glycerol trimyristate (GTM), glycerol trilaurate (GTL), cetyl palmitate (CP), glycerol monostearate (GMS) and stearic acid (SA)); and three liquid lipids (glyceryl tributyrate (GTB), propylene glycol dicaprylate/dicaprate (PGD) and isopropyl palmitate (IPP)) in 1:3 w/w ratios (i.e. combination of one solid and one liquid lipid), with Beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) incorporated as the model drug. Out of fifteen BDP-NLC formulations, the physicochemical properties of formulations F7, F8 and F10 exhibited desirable stability (one week at 25 °C), with associated particle size of ~241 nm, and >91% of drug entrapment. Post aerosolization, F10 was observed to deposit notably smaller sized particles (from 198 to 136 nm, 283 to 135 nm and 239 to 157 nm for Air jet, Vibrating mesh and Ultrasonic nebulizers, respectively) in all stages (i.e. from stage 1 to 8) of the NGI, when compared to F7 and F8 formulations. Six week stability studies conducted at 4, 25 and 45 °C, demonstrated F10 formulation stability in terms of particle size, irrespective of temperature conditions. Nebulizer performance study using the NGI for F10 identified the Air jet to be the most efficient nebulizer, depositing lower concentrations of BDP in the earlier stages (1-3) and higher (circa 82 and 85%) in the lateral stages (4-8) using 60 and 15 L/min airflow rates, when compared to the Vibrating mesh and Ultrasonic nebulizers. Moreover, at both airflow rates, the Air jet nebulizer elicited a longer nebulization time of ~42 min, facilitating aerosol inhalation for prophylaxis of asthma with normal tidal breathing. Based on characterization and nebulizer performance employing both 60 and 15 L/min airflow rates, the Air jet nebulizer offered enhanced performance, exhibiting a higher fine particle dose (FPD) (90 and 69 µg), fine particle fraction (FPF) (70 and 54%), respirable fraction (RF) (92 and 69%), and lower mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) (1.15 and 1.62 µm); in addition to demonstrating higher drug deposition in the lateral parts of the NGI, when compared to its counterpart nebulizers. The F10 formulation used with the Air jet nebulizer was identified as being the most suitable combination for delivery of BDP-NLC formulations.

Fluticasone propionate-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles with augmented anti-inflammatory activity: optimisation, characterisation and pharmacodynamic evaluation on rats

This work aimed to elaborate an optimised fluticasone propionate (FP)-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) to enhance FP effectiveness for topical inflammatory remediation. The influences of drug amount, lipid, and surfactant ratios, on drug release pattern and stability were investigated utilising Box-Behnken design. Elaboration, characterisation, and pharmacodynamic evaluation in comparison with the marketed formulation (Cutivate® cream, 0.05%w/w FP), were conducted for the optimised SLNs. The optimised SLNs with a size of 248.3 ± 1.89 nm (PDI = 0.275) and -32.4 ± 2.85 mV zeta potential were evidenced good stability physiognomies. The optimised SLNs pre-treated rats exhibited non-significant difference in paw volume from that of the control group and showed a significant reduction in both PGE₂ and TNF-α levels by 51.5 and 61%, respectively, in comparison with the Carrageenan group. The optimised FP-loaded SLNs maximised the efficacy of FP towards inflammation alleviation that increase its potential as efficient implement in inflammatory skin diseases remediation.

Design strategies and evolving role of biomaterial assisted treatment of osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is the most commonly diagnosed form of bone cancer. It is characterized by a high risk of developing lung metastasis as the disease progresses. Standard treatment includes combination of surgical intervention, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. However, the non-specificity of potent chemotherapeutic agents often leads to major side effects. In this review, we discuss the role of various classes of biomaterials, including both organic as well as inorganic in realizing the local and systemic delivery of therapeutic agents like drugs, radioisotopes and even gene silencing agents to treat osteosarcoma. Biomaterial assisted unconventional therapies such as targeted therapy, nanotherapy, magnetic hyperthermia, gene therapy, photothermal and photodynamic therapies are also being explored. A wide variety of biomaterials including lipids, carbon-based materials, polymers, silica, bioactive glass, hydroxyapatite and metals are designed as delivery systems with the desired loading efficiency, release profile, and on-demand delivery. Among others, liposomal carriers have attracted a great deal of attention due to their capability to encapsulate both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs. Polymeric systems have high drug loading efficiency and stability and can even be tailored to achieve desired size and physiochemical properties. Carbon-based systems can also be seen as an upcoming class of therapeutics with great potential in treating different types of cancer. Inorganic materials like silica nanoparticles have high drug payload owing to their mesoporous structure. On the other hand, ceramic materials like bioactive glass and hydroxyapatite not only act as excellent delivery vectors but also participate in osteo-regeneration activity. These multifunctional biomaterials are also being investigated for their theranostic abilities to monitor cancer ablation. This review systematically discusses the vast landscape of biomaterials along with their challenges and respective opportunities for osteosarcoma therapy.

Surfactants: physicochemical interactions with biological macromolecules

Macromolecules are essential cellular components in biological systems responsible for performing a large number of functions that are necessary for growth and perseverance of living organisms. Proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are three major classes of biological macromolecules. To predict the structure, function, and behaviour of any cluster of macromolecules, it is necessary to understand the interaction between them and other components through basic principles of chemistry and physics. An important number of macromolecules are present in mixtures with surfactants, where a combination of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions is responsible for the specific properties of any solution. It has been demonstrated that surfactants can help the formation of helices in some proteins thereby promoting protein structure formation. On the other hand, there is extensive research towards the use of surfactants to solubilize drugs and pharmaceuticals; therefore, it is evident that the interaction between surfactants with macromolecules is important for many applications which includes environmental processes and the pharmaceutical industry. In this review, we describe the properties of different types of surfactants that are relevant for their physicochemical interactions with biological macromolecules, from macromolecules–surfactant complexes to hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions.

Response Surface Optimization of Ultra-Elastic Nanovesicles Loaded with Deflazacort Tailored for Transdermal Delivery: Accentuated Bioavailability and Anti-Inflammatory Efficacy

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to develop deflazacort (DFZ) ultra-elastic nanovesicles (UENVs) loaded gel for topical administration to evade gastrointestinal adverse impacts accompanying DFZ oral therapy.

METHODS

UENVs were elaborated according to D-optimal mixture design employing different edge activators as Span-60, Tween-85 and sodium cholate which were incorporated into the nanovesicles to improve the deformability of vesicles bilayer. DFZ-UENVs were formulated by thin-film hydration technique followed by characterization for different parameters including entrapment efficiency (%EE), particle size, in vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies. The composition of the optimized DFZ-UENV formulation was found to be DFZ (10 mg), Span-60 (30 mg), Tween-85 (30 mg), sodium cholate (3.93 mg), L-α phosphatidylcholine (60 mg) and cholesterol (30 mg). The optimum formulation was incorporated into hydrogel base then characterized in terms of physical parameters, in vitro drug release, ex vivo permeation study and pharmacodynamics evaluation. Finally, pharmacokinetic study in rabbits was performed via transdermal application of UENVs gel in comparison to oral drug.

RESULTS

The optimum UENVs formulation exhibited %EE of 74.77±1.33, vesicle diameter of 219.64±2.52 nm, 68.88±1.64% of DFZ released after 12 h and zeta potential of -55.57±1.04 mV. The current work divulged successful augmentation of the bioavailability of DFZ optimum formulation by about 1.37-fold and drug release retardation compared to oral drug tablets besides significant depression of edema, cellular inflammation and capillary congestion in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model.

CONCLUSION

The transdermal DFZ-UENVs can achieve boosted bioavailability and may be suggested as an auspicious non-invasive alternative platform for oral route.

Aerosolized Niosome Formulation Containing Gemcitabine and Cisplatin for Lung Cancer Treatment: Optimization, Characterization and In Vitro Evaluation

Gemcitabine (Gem) and cisplatin (Cis) are currently being used for lung cancer treatment, but they are highly toxic in high dosages. This research aimed to develop a niosome formulation containing a low-dosage Gem and Cis (NGC), as an alternative formulation for lung cancer treatment. NGC was prepared using a very simple heating method and was further optimized by D-optimal mixture design. The optimum NGC formulation with particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of 166.45 nm, 0.16, and −15.28 mV, respectively, was obtained and remained stable at 27 °C with no phase separation for up to 90 days. The aerosol output was 96.22%, which indicates its suitability as aerosolized formulation. An in vitro drug release study using the dialysis bag diffusion technique showed controlled release for both drugs up to 24 h penetration. A cytotoxicity study against normal lung (MRC5) and lung cancer (A549) cell lines was investigated. The results showed that the optimized NGC had reduced cytotoxicity effects against both MRC5 and A549 when compared with the control (Gem + Cis alone) from very toxic (IC₅₀ < 1.56 µg/mL) to weakly toxic (IC₅₀ 280.00 µg/mL) and moderately toxic (IC₅₀ = 46.00 µg/mL), respectively, after 72 h of treatment. These findings revealed that the optimized NGC has excellent potential and is a promising prospect in aerosolized delivery systems to treat lung cancer that warrants further investigation.

Lactobacillus crispatus BC1 Biosurfactant Delivered by Hyalurosomes: An Advanced Strategy to Counteract Candida Biofilm

The emergence of resistance to antifungal drugs has made the treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) very challenging. Among natural substances, biosurfactants (BS) produced by Lactobacillus have gained increasing interest in counteracting Candida infections for their proven anti-adhesive properties and safety profile. In the present study, liposomes (LP-BS) or liposomes coated with hyaluronic acid (HY-LP-BS) were prepared in the presence of the BS isolated from the vaginal strain Lactobacillus crispatus BC1 and characterized in terms of size, ζ potential, stability and mucoadhesion. The anti-biofilm activity of free BS, LP-BS and HY-LP-BS was investigated against different Candida albicans and non-albicans strains (C. glabrata, C. lusitaniae, C. tropicalis, C. krusei and C. parapsilosis), clinically isolated from patients affected by VVC. The inhibition of biofilm formation and the dispersal of pre-formed biofilm were evaluated. The obtained phospholipid vesicles showed suitable size for vaginal application and good stability over the storage period. HY-LP-BS exhibited good mucoadhesive properties and the best anti-biofilm profile, both in preventing or limiting the surface colonization by a broad spectrum of Candida species. In conclusion, the formulation of a novel antifungal agent derived from the vaginal microbiota into mucoadhesive nanocarriers appears to be a promising biotherapeutic strategy to counteract vulvovaginal candidiasis.

Tetracycline Water Soluble Formulations with Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity

The negligible water solubility of tetracycline (TC), a well-known antibiotic of clinical use, is the major disadvantage for its oral administration. With the aim to improve the water solubility of TC, the micelles of formulae SLS@TC and CTAB@TC (SLS = sodium lauryl sulphate and CTAB = cetrimonium bromide) were synthesized. The micelles SLS@TC and CTAB@TC were characterized by melting point (m.p.), thermogravimetric differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA), differential scanning calorimetry (DTG/DSC), attenuated total reflection spectroscopy (FT-IR-ATR), ultra-violet visible (UV/vis) spectroscopy, proton nucleus magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy, and the ultrasonically-induced biregringence technique. The antimicrobial activity of SLS@TC and CTAB@TC was evaluated, by means of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and inhibition zone (IZ), against the Gram negative bacterial strains Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) and the Gram positive ones of the genus of Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Generally, both micelles show better activity than that of TC against the microbial strains tested. Thus, the MIC value of CTAB@TC is 550-fold higher than that of free TC against S. epidermidis. Despite the stronger activity of CTAB@TC than SLS@TC against both Gram negative and Gram positive microbes, SLS@TC is classified as a bactericidal agent (in that it eliminates 99.9% of the microbes), in contrast to CTAB@TC, which is bacteriostatic one (inhibits, but does not kill the organisms). The toxicity of SLS@TC and CTAB@TC was evaluated against human corneal eukaryotic cells (HCECs). Moreover, SLS@TC and CTAB@TC exhibit low in vivo toxicity against Artemia salina, even at concentrations up to threefold higher than those of their MICmax. Therefore, SLS@TC and CTAB@TC can be candidates for the development of new antibiotics.

Formulation and In Vitro Penetration Study of Recombinant Human Epidermal Growth Factor-Loaded Transfersomal Emulgel

Purpose: Recombinant human epidermal growth factor (rhEGF) is a 6045-Da peptide that promotes the cell growth process, and it is also used for cosmetic purposes as an anti-aging compound. However, its penetration into skin is limited by its large molecular size. This study aimed to prepare rhEGF-loaded transfersomal emulgel with enhanced skin penetration compared with that of non-transfersomal rhEGF emulgel. Methods: Three transfersome formulations were prepared with different ratios between the lipid vesicle (phospholipid and surfactant) and rhEGF (200:1, 133:1, and 100:1) using a thin-film hydration-extrusion method. The physicochemical properties of these transfersomes and the percutaneous delivery of the transfersomal emulgel were evaluated. Long-term and accelerated stability studies were also conducted. Results: The 200:1 ratio of lipid to drug was optimal for rhEGF-loaded transfersomes, which had a particle size of 128.1 ± 0.66 nm, polydispersity index of 0.109 ± 0.004, zeta potential of -43.1 ± 1.07 mV, deformability index of 1.254 ± 0.02, and entrapment efficiency of 97.77% ± 0.09%. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the transfersomes had spherical and unilamellar vesicles. The skin penetration of rhEGF was enhanced by as much as 5.56 fold by transfersomal emulgel compared with that of non-transfersomal emulgel. The stability study illustrated that the rhEGF levels after 3 months were 84.96-105.73 and 54.45%-66.13% at storage conditions of 2°C-8°C and 25°C ± 2°C/RH 60% ± 5%, respectively. Conclusion: The emulgel preparation containing transfersomes enhanced rhEGF penetration into the skin, and skin penetration was improved by increasing the lipid content.

Ocular Inserts of Voriconazole-Loaded Proniosomal Gels: Formulation, Evaluation and Microbiological Studies

BACKGROUND

Voriconazole (VRC) is a triazole broad spectrum antifungal drug, used in the management of versatile fungal infections, particularly fungal keratitis. The obligatory use of niosomal delivery of VRC may reduce the frequency of dosing intervals resulting from its short biological half time and consequently improve patient compliance.

METHODS

VRC loaded proniosomes (VRC-PNs) were set by the coacervation technique and completely characterized. The developed formula was comprehensively assessed concerning in- vitro release behavior, kinetic investigation, and its conflict against refrigerated and room temperature conditions. A selected noisomal formula was incorporated into ocusert (VRC-PNs Ocu) formulated by 1% w/w hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose HPMC and 0.1% w/w carbopol 940. Eventually, in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Aspergillus nidulans was assessed by the cup diffusion method.

RESULTS

The optimized VRC-PNs (Pluronic F127: cholesterol weight ratio 1:1 w/w) exhibited the highest entrapment efficiency (87.4±2.55%) with a spherical shape, proper size in nano range and a suitable Zeta potential of 209.7±8.13 nm and -33.5±1.85 mV, respectively. Assurance of drug encapsulation in nanovesicles was accomplished by several means such as attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry in addition to powder X-ray diffraction investigations. It displayed a biphasic in vitro release pattern and after 6 months of storage at a refrigerated temperature, the optimized formula preserved its stability. VRC-PNs Ocu proved a very highly significant antifungal activity matched with the free drug or nanosuspension which was extra assured by comparing its mean inhibition zone with that of 5% natamycin market eye drops.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, VRC-PNs Ocu could be considered as a promising stable sustained release topical ocular nanoparticulate system for the management of fungal infections.