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Sangolkar LN, Maske SS, Chakrabarti T. Methods for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:3485-96. [PMID: 17014889 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 07/27/2006] [Accepted: 08/20/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Episodes of cyanobacterial toxic blooms and fatalities to animals and humans due to cyanobacterial toxins (CBT) are known worldwide. The hepatotoxins and neurotoxins (cyanotoxins) produced by bloom-forming cyanobacteria have been the cause of human and animal health hazards and even death. Prevailing concentration of cell bound endotoxin, exotoxin and the toxin variants depend on developmental stages of the bloom and the cyanobacterial (CB) species involved. Toxic and non-toxic strains do not show any predictable morphological difference. The current instrumental, immunological and molecular methods applied for determining microcystins (peptide hepatotoxins) and microcystin-producing cyanobacteria are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalita N Sangolkar
- Environmental Biotechnology Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440 020, India.
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52
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Yuan M, Carmichael WW, Hilborn ED. Microcystin analysis in human sera and liver from human fatalities in Caruaru, Brazil 1996. Toxicon 2006; 48:627-40. [PMID: 16952386 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2006] [Revised: 07/12/2006] [Accepted: 07/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In 1996, an extensive exposure of Brazilian hemodialysis patients at a dialysis center, using a municipal water supply water contaminated with cyanotoxins, provided the first evidence for acute lethal human poisoning from the cyclic peptide hepatotoxins called microcystins. During this outbreak, 100 of 131 patients developed acute liver failure and 52 of these victims were confirmed to have been exposed to lethal levels of microcystins. Detection and quantitation of microcystins in these biological samples posed some analytical challenges since there were no well-established and routine analytic methods to measure total microcystins in tissue or sera samples. At the time of the 1996 exposure we used analytic methods that combined the use of enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA), analytical high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), electrospray ionization ion-trap mass spectroscopy (ES-ITMS) and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight spectroscopy (MALDI-TOF). In the intervening years these methods have been improved and others developed that allow a more quantitative and critical analysis of microcystin contaminated tissue and sera. For these reasons, and to see how storage with time might effect the detection and stability of microcystins in these matrices, we reanalyzed selected liver tissues and sera from the Caruaru victims in Brazil. We developed and validated a procedure to measure total microcystins in Caruaru human sera and liver tissue using a combination of ELISA, liquid chromatography and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS), GC/MS and MS/MS techniques. GC/MS and LC/MS were followed by MS/MS to obtain a fingerprint fragment spectra for the microcystins. The validity of the extraction procedure for free microcystins was confirmed by recovery experiments with blood sera spiked with microcystin-LR. We removed proteins with the Microcon Centrifugal Filter prior to LC/MS and ELISA analysis. A solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure was used for analysis of protein bound microcystins by conversion of ADDA to erythro-2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid (MMPB) combined with GC/MS. We found that the GC/MS method yielded a higher concentration of microcystin than that obtained by ELISA and LC/MS. We hypothesize that this difference is due to better GC/MS detection of the covalently bound form of microcystins in human liver tissue. We also concluded that microcystins are very stable when stored under these conditions for periods of almost 10 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moucun Yuan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435, USA
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53
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Zeisbergerová M, Kost'ál V, Srámková M, Babica P, Bláha L, Glatz Z, Kahle V. Separation of microcystins by capillary electrochromatography in monolithic columns. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2006; 841:140-4. [PMID: 16781901 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Contribution on microcystin variant analysis by capillary electrochromatography (CEC) with easily affordable spectrophotometric detection is presented. Two types of reversed-phase capillary columns formed by inorganic or organic polymer monoliths were prepared for this purpose. The analyses were performed isocratically by means of tris(hydroxymethyl) aminomethane (TRIS) buffers of mildly alkaline pH containing 30% (v/v) acetonitrile as the mobile phases. The samples were injected electrokinetically and the analyses were done at the same separation field strength of 500 V/cm. Microcystins were detected at 238 nm. Although both column types differ not only in monolith quality (inorganic versus organic) but also in the length of the aliphatic moiety (C8 versus C12) similar results were achieved. The on-column preconcentration as the encouraging prospect of electrochromatographic technique was also tested. Consequently 5% of column volume was injected in contrast with 0.5% at standard injection scheme resulting in the six times enrichment of the low concentrated cyanobacterial extract at the top of the separation column. From these preliminary results can be seen that the CEC method is fully applicable for rapid microcystin screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Zeisbergerová
- Masaryk University, Faculty of Science, Department of Biochemistry, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
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54
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Teixeira MR, Rosa MJ. Neurotoxic and hepatotoxic cyanotoxins removal by nanofiltration. WATER RESEARCH 2006; 40:2837-46. [PMID: 16839584 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2006.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2006] [Revised: 05/10/2006] [Accepted: 05/23/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the influence of chemical feed characteristics on nanofiltration performance for cyanotoxins removal, namely the neurotoxic anatoxin-a (alkaloid of 166 g/mol, positively charged) and the hepatotoxic microcystins (cyclic peptides of approximately 1,000 g/mol, negatively charged). Results indicate that NF membranes are an effective barrier against anatoxin-a and microcystins in drinking water. Anatoxin-a and especially microcystins were almost completely removed, regardless of the variations in feed water quality (natural organic matter and competitive toxin), the water recovery rate and the pH values. Anatoxin-a removal was governed by electrostatic interactions and steric hindrance, whereas for microcystins the latter was the main mechanism. In turn, fluxes were significantly impacted by background organics and, especially, inorganics (pH, calcium).
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Ribau Teixeira
- CIMA, Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Environment, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.
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55
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Sheng JW, He M, Shi HC, Qian Y. A comprehensive immunoassay for the detection of microcystins in waters based on polyclonal antibodies. Anal Chim Acta 2006; 572:309-15. [PMID: 17723494 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2006] [Revised: 05/11/2006] [Accepted: 05/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are a group of closely related toxic cyclic heptapeptides produced by common cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), and microcystin-leucine-arginine (MC-LR) is among the most frequent and most toxic microcystin congeners. In this study, a free amino group was introduced to MC-LR at its seventh amino acid residue with 2-mercaptoethylamine, and the product aminoethyl-MC-LR was coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA) and horseradish peroxidise (HRP) by glutaraldehyde to be complete antigen (MC-LR-BSA) and labelled hapten (MC-LR-HRP), respectively. Polyclonal antibodies against MC-LR were generated by immunization with MC-LR-BSA. A direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (dc-ELISA) was established to detect the MCs in waters, which showed a good cross-reactivity with MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR, MC-LF, MC-LW and nodularin, and have a detection limit for MC-LR 0.12 microg L(-1), the 50% inhibition concentration (IC50) for MC-LR was 0.63+/-0.06 microg L(-1) and the quantitative detection range was from 0.17 to 2.32 microg L(-1), the analysis result of water samples showed good recovery and reliability. So the comprehensive and reliable dc-ELISA will well potentially suit for sensitive analysis for total MCs in drinking as well as resource water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Wu Sheng
- Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, State Key Joint Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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56
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Frias HV, Mendes MA, Cardozo KHM, Carvalho VM, Tomazela D, Colepicolo P, Pinto E. Use of electrospray tandem mass spectrometry for identification of microcystins during a cyanobacterial bloom event. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 344:741-6. [PMID: 16631112 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.03.199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Drastic environmental conditions such as elevated temperature, abrupt pH variation, low turbulence, and high nutrient inputs can enhance the development of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in lakes and reservoirs. This study describes the occurrence of four microcystin variants (MC) in a bloom in the eutrophic reservoir Billings, in São Paulo City. The bloom sample was collected in October 2003, and Microcystis were the main genus found. The MC were separated and purified by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Their structures were elucidated by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) and four MC variants were determined: MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR, and MC-hRhR. MC-hRhR is described for the first time as a new variant of MC with two homoarginines at positions 2 and 4 in its structure. ESI-MS/MS analysis thus provides a powerful and convenient tool for the determination of variants of MC. These results represent an important contribution to the knowledge of the biochemistry of toxic cyanobacteria and their toxins, specifically in São Paulo State.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Vieira Frias
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, CEP 05508-900, Universidade de São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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57
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Cazenave J, Wunderlin DA, de Los Angeles Bistoni M, Amé MV, Krause E, Pflugmacher S, Wiegand C. Uptake, tissue distribution and accumulation of microcystin-RR in Corydoras paleatus, Jenynsia multidentata and Odontesthes bonariensis. A field and laboratory study. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2005; 75:178-90. [PMID: 16157397 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2005.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2005] [Revised: 07/22/2005] [Accepted: 08/09/2005] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The uptake and accumulation of microcystin-RR (MC-RR) in fish was investigated under laboratory conditions and in wild fish. Jenynsia multidentata and Corydoras paleatus were exposed for 24h to 50mug/L MC-RR dissolved in water. After exposure, liver, gill, brain, intestine, gall bladder, blood and muscle were analyzed for MC-RR by HPLC and analysis confirmed by LC-ESI-TOF-MS spectrometry. Furthermore, wild individuals of Odontesthes bonariensis were sampled from the eutrophic, cyanobacteria-containing San Roque reservoir, and analyzed for the presence of MC-RR in liver, gill, intestine, and muscle. MC-RR was found in liver, gills, and muscle of all exposed and wild fish, while in C. paleatus MC-RR was also present in the intestine. Moreover, we found presence of MC-RR in brain of J. multidentata. Results indicate that MC-RR uptake might occur at two different organs: intestine and gills, through either feeding (including drinking) or respiratory activities. This suggests that MC-RR is taken into the blood stream after absorption, and distributed to different tissues. The liver showed the major bioaccumulation of MC-RR in both experimentally exposed and wild individuals, with muscle of wild fish showing relative high amounts of this toxin in comparison with those exposed in the laboratory; though MC-RR was present in muscle of fish exposed for 24h. The amount of MC-RR in muscle of O. bonariensis exceeded the value suggested by WHO to be safe, thus causing a health risk to persons consuming fish as a result of chronic exposure to microcystin. Gills also showed bioaccumulation of MC-RR, raising questions on the mechanism involved in the possible uptake of MC-RR through gills as well as on its accumulation in this organ. Although MC-LR has been reported in brain of fish, this is the first report confirming the presence of MC-RR in this organ, which means that both toxins are able to cross the blood-brain barrier. These findings also raise questions on the probable neurotoxicity of microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimena Cazenave
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Cátedra Diversidad Animal II, Velez Sarsfield 299, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
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58
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Ernst B, Dietz L, Hoeger SJ, Dietrich DR. Recovery of MC-LR in fish liver tissue. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:449-58. [PMID: 16007663 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Cyanotoxins, particularly microcystins (MCs), have been shown to be a hazard to human health. MCs accumulate in aquatic organisms probably as a result of irreversible binding to liver protein phosphatases. The aim of this study was to describe the recovery of MC from fish liver using various detection methods, with MC-LR as the representative congener. These findings are discussed in conjunction with the current procedures and limit values used for human risk assessment. Following incubation of liver homogenates with various MC-LR concentrations, the homogenates were extracted by a water/methanol/butanol mixture via different treatments and subsequently analyzed via the colorimetric protein phosphatase inhibition assay (cPPA), HPLC, and anti-Adda ELISA. Detection via cPPA appeared to yield the highest recovery of MC-LR, although the presence of unspecific background may have resulted in overestimation of the true recovery. The recoveries determined via HPLC and anti-Adda ELISA were comparable to each other. The limits of detection were 0.01-2.4 microg MC-LR/g liver tissue, depending on the method used. Maximum MC-LR recovery from samples incubated with 10 and 100 microg MC-LR/g ranged between 44% and 101%. Recovery from samples incubated with 1 microg MC-LR/g liver tissue was below 3%. Lower recovery is assumed to result from irreversible, covalent MC protein binding, as confirmed by Western blotting of liver homogenates with anti-Adda immunoprobing. The results demonstrate that further investigation of and improvement in routinely applied MC methods for fish tissue and/or food analyses are needed for a reliable risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Ernst
- Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, P.O. Box X-918, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
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59
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Pérez S, Aga DS. Recent advances in the sample preparation, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric analysis and environmental fate of microcystins in water. Trends Analyt Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2005.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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60
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Karlsson KM, Spoof LEM, Meriluoto JAO. Quantitative LC-ESI-MS analyses of microcystins and nodularin-R in animal tissue--matrix effects and method validation. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:381-9. [PMID: 15892039 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The matrix effects and signal response in LC-MS analysis of six microcystins and nodularin-R were studied in mussels and liver samples from the common eider and rainbow trout. The instrumentation used in the study was a triple quadrupole MS with electrospray ionization. The results from the spiked tissue samples showed that both signal suppression and enhancement occurred. The recorded matrix effects were not severe; all studied toxins could be detected with sufficient limit of detection in all matrices. The results indicate, however, that matrix effects must be monitored for accurate quantification of microcystin and nodularin in tissue samples. Matrix effects can be studied with standard additions in the studied matrix, as was done in this study. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) resulted in a lower limit of detection compared to no cleanup in the sample preparation. SPE also prolonged the chromatographic stability. SPE cleanup is therefore strongly recommeded. Also described in this article are the chromatographic and mass spectrometric details of glutathione and cysteine conjugates, which are the detoxification products of the toxins. LC-MS analysis is suitable for detoxification studies of microcystins and nodularins. Cysteine conjugate was identified as the main detoxification product in a mussel sample that was exposed to toxic cyanobacteria in an aquarium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krister M Karlsson
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Artillerigatan 6, FIN-20521 Turku, Finland.
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61
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Aranda-Rodriguez R, Tillmanns A, Benoit FM, Pick FR, Harvie J, Solenaia L. Pressurized liquid extraction of toxins from cyanobacterial cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:390-6. [PMID: 15892041 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The suitability of pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) of cyanotoxins from cells was investigated. The stability of cyanotoxins (MCYST-RR, MCYST-LR, and anatoxin-a) was evaluated at nine combinations of pressure and temperature (7, 10, and 14 MPa and 60 degrees C, 80 degrees C and 100 degrees C) using 75% (v/v) methanol in water (MeOH) as solvent. Additional experiments investigated the stability of cyanotoxins when water was used as solvent (at a pressure of 14 MPa and a temperature of 40 degrees C, 50 degrees C, 60 degrees C, 80 degrees C, or 100 degrees C). Results using 75% MeOH showed that the MCYST-RR and MCYST-LR were stable under the tested pressures up to 80 degrees C. At 100 degrees C MCYST recovery decreased by 10% to 17%. When water was used as the solvent, no differences in recovery were observed for MCYST-LR, whereas for MCYST-RR, maximum recovery was obtained at 60 degrees C, and degradation occurred at 100 degrees C. In contrast, anatoxin-a was labile under all experimental conditions; the best recoveries (ca. 50%) were obtained at 60 degrees C at the three pressures using 75% MeOH. However, only 17%-23% recovery was obtained with water extraction at all temperatures. The extraction of MCYST-LR and variants from cells (Microcystis aeruginosa, UTCC299) was studied using two solvents, 75% MeOH and 100% water, at 14 MPa and 60 degrees C and 100 degrees C. PLE extracts were compared with extracts obtained with 75% MeOH and ultrasonication. Complete extraction was achieved in both solvents in one 5-min cycle (at 100 degrees C). Although lower recovery was obtained using PLE (79%-105%), shorter extraction time and automation are advantageous over ultrasonication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Aranda-Rodriguez
- Chemistry Research Division, Health Canada, Tunney's Pasture, 0800C, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0L2, Canada.
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62
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Ndetei R, Muhandiki VS. Mortalities of lesser flamingos in Kenyan Rift Valley saline lakes and the implications for sustainable management of the lakes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1770.2005.00255.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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63
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Teneva I, Dzhambazov B, Koleva L, Mladenov R, Schirmer K. Toxic potential of five freshwater Phormidium species (Cyanoprokaryota). Toxicon 2005; 45:711-25. [PMID: 15804520 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2004] [Revised: 01/16/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Among the Cyanoprokaryota (blue-green algae), the genus Phormidium has thus far rarely been studied with respect to toxin production and potentially resulting human and environmental health effects. We here show that five previously unexplored freshwater species of this genus (Ph. bijugatum, Ph. molle, Ph. papyraceum, Ph. uncinatum, Ph. autumnale) are indeed capable of producing bioactive compounds. Phormidium extracts caused weight loss as well as neuro/hepatotoxic symptoms in mice, and in the case of Ph. bijugatum even death. Very low levels of saxitoxins and microcystins, as confirmed by ELISA, were insufficient to explain this toxicity and the differing toxic potencies of the Phormidium species. Qualitative HPLC analyses confirmed different substance patterns and in the future could aid in the separation of fractions for more detailed substance characterisation. The results in vivo were confirmed in vitro using cells of human, mouse and fish. The fish cells responded least sensitive but proved useful in studying the temperature dependence of the toxicity by the Phormidium samples. Further, the human cells were more sensitive than the mouse cells thus suggesting that the former may be a more appropriate choice for studying the impact of Phormidium to man. Among the human cells, two cancer cell lines were more responsive to one of the samples than a normal cell line, thereby indicating a potential anti-tumour activity. Thus, the five freshwater Phormidium species should be considered in environmental risk assessment but as well, as a source of therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanka Teneva
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ Centre for Environmental Research in the Helmholtz Association, Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
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64
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McElhiney J, Lawton LA. Detection of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxins microcystins. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005; 203:219-30. [PMID: 15737676 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2004.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2003] [Accepted: 06/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Concern regarding the presence of microcystins in drinking water and their possible contamination in food (e.g., salad vegetables, fish, shellfish) has resulted in the need for reliable methods for the detection and accurate quantification of this class of toxins. Currently, routine analysis of microcystins is most commonly carried out using high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (HPLC-PDA), although more sensitive biological assays such as antibody-based ELISAs and protein phosphatase inhibition assays have also proven useful. However, many of these methods have been hindered by the availability of a wide range of purified microcystins. Although over 60 variants have now been reported, only a very small number are commercially available and calibrated standards are not yet obtainable. This has led to the common practice of reporting microcystin-LR equivalence regardless of which variant is present. The increased availability of HPLC with online mass spectral analysis (HPLC-MS) may facilitate more accurate detection of toxin variants but as several microcystins share the same molecular mass, definitive identification can be difficult. A further difficulty in analyzing microcystins is the requirement for sample processing before analysis. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is typically used to enrich environmental concentrations of microcystins, or to eliminate contaminants from complex samples such as animal and plant tissues. Recently, new technologies employing recombinant antibodies and molecularly imprinted polymers have been exploited to develop assays and biosensors for microcystins. These novel detection systems are highly sensitive, often do not require sample processing, and offer a simpler, less expensive alternative to analytical techniques. They have also been successfully employed in solid phase extraction formats for the concentration and clean up of environmental samples before HPLC analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui McElhiney
- School of Life Sciences, The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland AB25 1HG, UK.
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65
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Colyer CL, Kinkade CS, Viskari PJ, Landers JP. Analysis of cyanobacterial pigments and proteins by electrophoretic and chromatographic methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 382:559-69. [PMID: 15714301 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-004-3020-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2004] [Revised: 12/08/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are a diverse and ubiquitous group of prokaryotes with several unifying features. Amongst these is the macromolecular structure known as the phycobilisome, which is composed of water-soluble phycobiliproteins covalently bound by linker peptides or proteins in a configuration designed to optimize energy transfer to the photosynthetic reaction center of the organism. Phycobiliproteins are highly fluorescent by virtue of their covalently bound, linear tetrapyrrole chromophores known as bilins. Analysis of these prosthetic pigments, along with other non-water soluble pigments, such as the chlorophylls and carotenoids, can provide insight into microbial diversity. The effects of environmental growth conditions and stresses can also be probed by measuring pigment and protein concentrations. This review will focus, therefore, on applications of various chromatographic and electrophoretic methods for the analysis of cyanobacterial pigment and protein constituents. Although the greatest emphasis will be placed on the measurement of bilins and phycobiliproteins, this review will also consider other pigments and proteins important to cyanobacterial growth and survival, such as chlorophyll a, carotenoids, ectoenzymes, linker and membrane proteins, and extracellular proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa L Colyer
- Department of Chemistry, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA.
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66
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Chen T, Shen P, Zhang J, Hua Z. Effects of microcystin-LR on patterns of iNOS and cytokine mRNA expression in macrophages in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2005; 20:85-91. [PMID: 15712326 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The presence of cyanobacterial toxins in drinking and recreational waters represent a potential health hazard to the public. Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) is the most commonly encountered toxin and is a potent cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxin produced by cyanobacteria. In this study, the immunomodulation by MC-LR of BALB/c mice peritoneal macrophages was investigated in vitro on mRNA levels of induced nitric oxide synthase and multiple cytokines by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Lavaged peritoneal macrophages were incubated for 6 h with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at a concentration of 100 microg/L and MC-LR at doses of 1, 10, 100, and 1000 nmol/L. Total RNA was extracted from the incubated macrophages, and then the levels of mRNA for induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, and IFN-gamma were detected. The results showed that expression of mRNA for iNOS, IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, and IFN-gamma decreased significantly compared to the positive control (LPS only). These results have led us to propose the need for the establishment of a survey of the immunotoxicity of microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, People's Republic of China
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67
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Mountfort DO, Holland P, Sprosen J. Method for detecting classes of microcystins by combination of protein phosphatase inhibition assay and ELISA: comparison with LC-MS. Toxicon 2005; 45:199-206. [PMID: 15626369 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2004] [Accepted: 10/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Depending on the class of microcystin the protein phosphatase inhibition assay shows different sensitivities to different classes of toxin. We have determined that the IC50 values obtained from dose-response curves for the inhibition of the enzyme by micro-cystin LR, nodularin, YR, and RR were 2.2, 1.8, 9 and 175 nM, respectively. When equimolar amounts of these toxins were determined by the ELISA assay with microcystin LR as the standard, the assay showed equivalence in toxin responses. However, when the toxins were determined by the protein phosphatase inhibition assay using microcystin LR as the standard, the ratios of the values determined by PP-2A to ELISA decreased in the order: nodularin (2.23) microcystin LR (1.1)> microcystin YR (0.63)> microcystin RR (0.06). When the ratios for each standard were plotted against the IC50 values, the log-log plot was negative linear, and the lowest value for the IC50 corresponded with the lowest ratio. The differential sensitivity of the PP-2A assay to the various standards was used to establish an indicative toxicity ranking (ITR) where a ranking of 1 (the highest) was assigned to ratios of > or = 0.8 or greater, and 3 (the lowest) to values < or = 0.2. The three ranking classes corresponded to toxin equivalence represented by the four standards. The new method allows not only the determination of microcystin toxins in terms of stoichiometry (ELISA) but also in terms of indicative toxicity. The method can be performed using the same instrument (e.g. multiwell fluorimeter with absorbance capability) and offers an advantage to methods presently used to determine microcystins (e.g. ELISA or LC-MS). The former has the propensity to overestimate toxicity because it measures equivalence to microcystin LR and is a stoichiometric measurement and the latter has the disadvantage in that relatively few of the microcystins that occur naturally are available as standards. The new method was applied to the analysis of sample from lakes and streams from temperate locations and to extracts of cyanobacterial mats from ponds and streams in cold temperature locations.
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68
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Yuan M, Carmichael WW. Detection and analysis of the cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins microcystin and nodularin using SELDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2004; 44:561-70. [PMID: 15450932 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2004] [Accepted: 07/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOFMS) was used to develop a new and useful method for determination and identification of the cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) toxins: microcystin and nodularin. The technique, combining chromatography and MS, enables microcystin/nodularin capture, purification, analysis, and processing from complex biological mixtures directly onto a hydrophobic chip. Factors affecting ion intensities, including matrix concentration and laser intensity, were investigated to optimize sensitivity of the method. Microcystins and nodularin were analyzed for femtomolar sensitivity (about 2.5 pg microcystin-LR in 2 microl water). Samples of blood sera and liver tissue were spiked with microcystin-LR and analyzed. The detection limit was 1 ng in 2 microl blood sera solution. Reactions of microcystins by compounds containing mercaptan groups, such as dithiothreitol, aminoethanethiol and protein phosphatase 1, were examined on the chip by mass spectrometry. Formation of the microcystin-dithiothreitol conjugate was used to confirm the target compounds. The MS/MS data obtained showed the presence of the microcystin conjugate. The reaction position of the toxin with target compound was confirmed by a series of MS/MS fragment ions. The protein profile of microcystins reacting with protein phosphatase 1 was also obtained from the SELDI-TOF mass spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moucun Yuan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, 025A Fawcett Hall, 3640 Colonel Glen Highway, Dayton, OH 45435-0001, USA
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69
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Moreno IM, Maraver J, Aguete EC, Leao M, Gago-Martínez A, Cameán AM. Decomposition of microcystin-LR, microcystin-RR, and microcystin-YR in water samples submitted to in vitro dissolution tests. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2004; 52:5933-5938. [PMID: 15366845 DOI: 10.1021/jf0489668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The presence of cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) in waters and food increases the risk of toxicity to animal and human health. These toxins can degrade in the human gastrointestinal tract before they are absorbed. To evaluate this possible degradation, water samples spiked with known concentrations of microcystins MC-LR, MC-RR, and MC-YR, which are the toxins most commonly produced by such toxic cyanobacteria as Microcystis aeruginosa, Oscillatoria spp., and Nostoc spp., were submitted to a dissolution test that used gastric and intestinal fluids according to U.S. Pharmacopeia conditions. HPLC with UV detection was used to determine the toxins before and after treatments. This study revealed enzymatic alterations in gastric conditions for all the toxins assayed. MC-RR was the toxin most affected: its range of inactivation was 49-64%. The percentage of degradation for MC-YR and MC-LR was around 30%. However, none was degraded by intestinal digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel M Moreno
- Nutrition, Food Chemistry, and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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70
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Cameán A, Moreno IM, Ruiz MJ, Picó Y. Determination of microcystins in natural blooms and cyanobacterial strain cultures by matrix solid-phase dispersion and liquid chromatography?mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2004; 380:537-44. [PMID: 15365676 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-004-2755-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2004] [Revised: 07/05/2004] [Accepted: 07/06/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
An analytical procedure based on matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was developed for determining three microcystins (MCs) in natural water blooms and cyanobacteria strain cultures. The procedure involves sample homogenization with C(18), washed with dichloromethane to eliminate interfering compounds, and elution with acidic methanol. Results were compared to those achieved by using an organic solvent standard method. Mean recoveries of MCs with MSPD were 85-92% with intra-day relative standard deviation (RSDs) of 9-19%, whereas organic solvent extraction resulted in recovery rates of 92-105% with intra-day RSDs ranging from 8 to 18%. Limits of quantification (LOQs) were 1 microg g(-1) dry weight for the MCs either by MSPD or organic solvent extraction. The two analytical methods tested were specific and sensitive to the extraction of MCs and were applied to the detection of MCs in water blooms and culture strains. The concentration of MCs varied from 7 to 3,330 microg g(-1) of lyophilized cells with MC-LR always showing the highest concentration. MCs levels were higher in culture strains than in water blooms, except for MC-LR, whose concentration in blooms was slightly superior to that determined in culture strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cameán
- Area de Toxicología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/ Profesor García González s/n, 41012, Sevilla, Spain
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71
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Dell'Aversano C, Eaglesham GK, Quilliam MA. Analysis of cyanobacterial toxins by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2004; 1028:155-64. [PMID: 14969289 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2003.11.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The combination of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography with electrospray mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS) has been investigated as a tool for the analysis of assorted toxins produced by cyanobacteria. Toxins examined included saxitoxin and its various analogues (1-18), anatoxin-a (ATX-a, 19), cylindrospermopsin (CYN, 20), deoxycylindrospermopsin (doCYN, 21), and microcystins-LR (22) and -RR (23). The saxitoxins could be unequivocally detected in one isocratic analysis using a TSK gel Amide-80 column eluted with 65% B, where eluent A is water and B is a 95% acetonitrile/water solution, both containing 2.0 mM ammonium formate and 3.6 mM formic acid. The analysis of ATX-a, CYN and doCYN required 75% B isocratic. Simultaneous determination of 1-21 was also possible by using gradient elution. HILIC proved to be suitable for the analysis of microcystins, but peak shape was not symmetric and it was concluded that these compounds are best analysed using existing reversed-phase methods. The HILIC-MS method was applied to the analysis of field and cultured samples of Anabaena circinalis and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. In general, the method proved quite robust with similar results obtained in two different laboratories using different instrumentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Dell'Aversano
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS, Canada B3H 3Z1.
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72
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Lindner P, Molz R, Yacoub-George E, Dürkop A, Wolf H. Development of a highly sensitive inhibition immunoassay for microcystin-LR. Anal Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2004.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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73
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Robillot C, Hennion MC. Issues arising when interpreting the results of the protein phosphatase 2A inhibition assay for the monitoring of microcystins. Anal Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2004.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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74
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Yu H, Man BKW, Chan LLN, Lam MHW, Lam PK, Wang L, Jin H, Wu RS. Cloud-point extraction of nodularin-R from natural waters. Anal Chim Acta 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2003.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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75
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Ruangyuttikarn W, Miksik I, Pekkoh J, Peerapornpisal Y, Deyl Z. Reversed-phase liquid chromatographic–mass spectrometric determination of microcystin-LR in cyanobacteria blooms under alkaline conditions. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2004; 800:315-9. [PMID: 14698272 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(03)00595-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Reversed-phase HPLC coupled to the atmospheric pressure ionization-electrospray ionization (API-ESI) MS was used for microcystin-LR detection and quantitation in samples of dried Microcystis aeruginosa cells. An alkaline linear gradient (20 mmol/l ammonium hydroxide-acetonitrile, pH 9.7) was used for elution of the toxic peptides. Limit of detection was 1 microg/ml (20 ng per injection) in the scan mode of MS and 0.1 microg/ml (2 ng per injection) in the case of selective ion monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werawan Ruangyuttikarn
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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76
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Determination of microcystin-LR in surface water using high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem electrospray ionization mass detector. Talanta 2004; 62:191-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2003.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2003] [Revised: 07/11/2003] [Accepted: 07/14/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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77
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Aranda-Rodriguez R, Kubwabo C, Benoit FM. Extraction of 15 microcystins and nodularin using immunoaffinity columns. Toxicon 2003; 42:587-99. [PMID: 14602114 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCYSTs) were isolated from surface water using reusable immunoaffinity columns. Individual MCYST were determined by high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photo-diode array detector (HPLC-PDA, 200-300 nm). Subsequent analysis of the samples by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESMS) provided molecular weight information, which was used to tentatively identify individual MCYST variants for which standards were not available. Results obtained using immunoaffinity columns (IAC)-HPLC-PDA were compared to those obtained using solid phase extraction (SPE) Oasis HLB-HPLC-PDA. This is the first report of the extraction of 15 microcystins and nodularin using immunoaffinity columns. Whereas previous reports demonstrates the use of IAC for four microcystins, we found that IAC selectively extracted the following microcystins: MCYST-RR, [D-Asp3]MCYST-RR, MCYST-YR, MCYST-LR, 3 MCYST-LR variants, MCYST-AR, MCYST-FR, MCYST-WR, MCYST-LA, MCYST-LA variant, the less polar microcystins such as MCYST-LF, MCYST-LW and nodularin. The IAC extracts were free of interferences which enabled better detection and identification of MCYSTs. Based on the amount loaded to the cartridges, the method detection limit was 10-14 ng when using IAC and 25 ng for SPE of each MCYST-RR, MCYST-YR and MCYST-LR. Reproducibilities expressed as relative standard deviation were 6-10% for SPE and 4-17% for IAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Aranda-Rodriguez
- Health Canada, Health Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Safe Environments Programme, Chemistry Research Division, Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa, Ont. KIA OL2, Canada.
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78
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Kankaanpää H, Vuorinen PJ, Sipiä V, Keinänen M. Acute effects and bioaccumulation of nodularin in sea trout (Salmo trutta m. trutta L.) exposed orally to Nodularia spumigena under laboratory conditions. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2002; 61:155-168. [PMID: 12359387 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-445x(02)00054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Nodularin (NODLN) is a cyclic pentapeptide hepatotoxin that is regularly produced in high amounts by the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea, and can bioaccumulate in Baltic biota. Baltic sea trout (Salmo trutta m. trutta L.) were exposed orally to a single dose of food containing NODLN (125 mg/kg ww) from N. spumigena (strain AV1, from the Baltic Sea). The level of exposure was 210-620 (average 440) microg NODLN per kg bw. Based on an 8-day survey under laboratory conditions, NODLN-like compounds accumulated in trout liver, with increasing liver concentrations (from 19 microg/kg on day 1 up to 1200 microg/kg on day 8 as measured with the EnviroLogix ELISA kit) during the experiment. Thus, accumulation of NODLN-like compounds in liver increased from 0.05% of the total NODLN dose administered on day 1 to 0.53% on day 8. However, the ELISA test kit is also sensitive to metabolites of algal hepatotoxins. In the HPLC chromatograms, no NODLN peak was detected after 24 h that also suggested NODLN absorbed in trout was metabolized or bound rapidly. According to ELISA, NODLN-like compounds also accumulated in trout muscle in lower quantities (from 125 to 34 microg/kg dw). Histopathology revealed complete loss of liver architecture after 1-2 days of the single oral dose. From day 4 to 8, there was partial recovery of liver cells. NODLN did not affect thiamine levels or water content of trout liver. The results showed that NODLN rapidly induces severe but reversible liver damage. Apparently NODLN accumulated in trout liver from cyanobacteria in the intestine, but was detoxified rapidly. On the basis of discrepancies between the histopathology and ELISA, and on the other hand, between the HPLC and ELISA methods, analysis of NODLN and its metabolites in biological tissue needs to be improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harri Kankaanpää
- Finnish Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 33, FIN-00931 Helsinki, Finland.
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79
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Man BKW, Lam MHW, Lam PKS, Wu RSS, Shaw G. Cloud-point extraction and preconcentration of cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) from natural waters using a cationic surfactant. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2002; 36:3985-3990. [PMID: 12269752 DOI: 10.1021/es020620v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A new cloud-point extraction and preconcentration method using a cationic surfactant, Aliquat-336 (tricaprylylmethylammonium chloride), has been developed for the determination of cyanobacterial toxins, microcystins, in natural waters. Sodium sulfate was used to induce phase separation at 25 degrees C. The phase behavior of Aliquat-336 with respect to concentration of Na2SO4 was studied. The cloud-point system revealed a very high phase volume ratio compared to other established systems of nonionic, anionic, and cationic surfactants. At pH 6-7, it showed an outstanding selectivity in analyte extraction for anionic species. Only MC-LR and MC-YR, which are known to be predominantly anionic, were extracted (with averaged recoveries of 113.9 +/- 9% and 87.1 +/- 7%, respectively). MC-RR, which is likely to be amphoteric at the above pH range, was not detectable in the extract. Coupled to HPLC/UV separation and detection, the cloud-point extraction method (with 2.5 mM Aliquat-336 and 75 mM Na2SO4 at 25 degrees C) offered detection limits of 150 +/- 7 and 470 +/- 72 pg/mL for MC-LR and MC-YR, respectively, in 25 mL of deionized water. Repeatability of the method was 7.6% for MC-LR and 7.3% for MC-YR. The cloud-point extraction process can be completed within 10-15 min with no cleanup steps required. Applicability of the new method to the determination of microcystins in real samples was demonstrated using natural surface waters collected from a local river and a local duck pond spiked with realistic concentrations of microcystins. Effects of salinity and organic matter (TOC) content in the water sample on the extraction efficiency were also studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Kwok-Wai Man
- Centre for Coastal Pollution and Conservation, Department of Biology & Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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80
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81
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Rapala J, Erkomaa K, Kukkonen J, Sivonen K, Lahti K. Detection of microcystins with protein phosphatase inhibition assay, high-performance liquid chromatography–UV detection and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Anal Chim Acta 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(02)00588-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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82
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Kondo F, Ito Y, Oka H, Yamada S, Tsuji K, Imokawa M, Niimi Y, Harada KI, Ueno Y, Miyazaki Y. Determination of microcystins in lake water using reusable immunoaffinity column. Toxicon 2002; 40:893-9. [PMID: 12076642 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00287-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A reusable immunoaffinity column for purification of microcystins in lake water was prepared by coupling anti-microcystin-LR monoclonal antibodies to immunoaffinity support. Thanks to spherical shape of the immunoaffinity support Formyl-Cellulofine used in this study, applied solutions passed the column smoothly even when used repeatedly. Reusability of the column was examined by determining the recoveries of spiked microcystins-RR, -YR and -LR (100ng each) from lake water. After extraction with a Sep-Pak PS2 cartridge containing styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer, the extract was purified with the immunoaffinity column. The immunoaffinity column was regenerated by washing with Tris-HCl buffer containing bovine serum albumin for repeated uses. Recoveries of spiked microcystins from the first use of the column were 87-88%, and 83-88% from the second and third uses, and the recoveries gradually dropped to 63-77% from the 4-5th uses, the results of which indicated that the column could be used repeatedly for three times. The present method was applied to determine microcystins in water collected from three different lakes in Japan in 1999. In a sample from Lake Suwa, microcystins-RR and -LR were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection and electrospray ionization-liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumio Kondo
- Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public Health, Tsuji-machi, Kita-ku, Nagoya 462-8576, Japan.
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83
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Spoof L, Meriluoto J. Rapid separation of microcystins and nodularin using a monolithic silica C18 column. J Chromatogr A 2002; 947:237-45. [PMID: 11883657 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)01605-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A monolithic C18-bonded silica rod column (Merck Chromolith) was compared to particle-based C18 and amide C16 sorbents in the HPLC separation of eight microcystins and nodularin-R. Two gradient mobile phases of aqueous trifluoroacetic acid modified with acetonitrile or methanol, different flow-rates and different gradient lengths were tested. The performance of the Chromolith column measured as the resolution of some microcystin pairs, the selectivity, efficiency (peak width) and peak asymmetry equalled, or exceeded, the performance of traditional particle-based columns. The Chromolith column allowed a shortening of the total analysis time to 4.3 min with a flow-rate 4 ml min(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Spoof
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
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84
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Kankaanpää HT, Vuorensola KM, Sipiä VO, Meriluoto JAO. Chromatographic and spectral behaviour and detection of hepatotoxic nodularin in fish, clam, mussel and mouse tissues using HPLC analysis. Chromatographia 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02492136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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85
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Saito K, Ishii H, Nishida F, Saito H, Abe T, Toyota Y. Purification of microcystins by DEAE and C(18) cartridge chromatography. Toxicon 2002; 40:97-101. [PMID: 11602285 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(01)00201-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) were purified by DEAE and C(18) cartridge chromatography. Addition of EtOH to the eluents (20%) in DEAE chromatography gave higher resolution than no addition of EtOH. The chromatogram showed three peaks: MC-LR; MC-LY and MC-LF; MC-LW. MC-LR and MC-LW were obtained by one step chromatography with purity of 96 and 88%, respectively. The separation of MC-LF and MC-LW with DEAE chromatography was better than that with reversed-phase chromatography. MC-LY and MC-LF were separated with C(18) cartridge. On the chromatogram, there were three peaks consisting of MC-LY (81% purity), MC-LF (86%), and an unknown compound which was considered as a MC variant judging from the results in HPLC/PDA, FAB-MS, and 1H NMR analyses, but the structure could not be determined. It is concluded that the combination of DEAE and C(18) cartridge chromatography would be a practical approach for the purification of various MCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazunori Saito
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University, 3-20-1 Orido, Shimizu, 424-8610, Shizuoka, Japan
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86
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Fischer WJ, Garthwaite I, Miles CO, Ross KM, Aggen JB, Chamberlin AR, Towers NR, Dietrich DR. Congener-independent immunoassay for microcystins and nodularins. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2001; 35:4849-4856. [PMID: 11775161 DOI: 10.1021/es011182f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) (e.g., Microcystis and Nodularia spp.) capable of producing toxic peptides are found in fresh and brackish water worldwide. These toxins include the microcystin (MC) heptapeptides (>60 congeners) and the nodularin pentapeptides (ca. 5 congeners). Cyanobacterial cyclic peptide toxins are harmful to man, other mammals, birds, and fish. Acute exposure to high concentrations of these toxins causes liver damage, while subchronic or chronic exposure may promote liver tumor formation. The detection of cyclic peptide cyanobacterial toxins in surface and drinking waters has been hampered by the low limits of detection required and that the present routine detection is restricted to a few of the congeners. The unusual beta-amino acid ADDA (4E,6E-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid) is present in most (>80%) of the known toxic penta- and heptapeptide toxin congeners. Here, we report the synthesis of two ADDA-haptens, the raising of antibodies to ADDA, and the development of a competitive indirect ELISA for the detection of microcystins and nodularins utilizing these antibodies. The assay has a limit of quantitation of 0.02-0.07 ng/mL (depending on which congeners are present), lower than the WHO-proposed guideline (1 ng/mL) for drinking water, irrespective of the sample matrix (raw water, drinking water, or pure toxin in PBS). This new ELISA is robust, can be performed without sample preconcentration, detects toxins in freshwater samples at lower concentrations than does the protein phosphatase inhibition assay, and shows very good cross-reactivity with all cyanobacterial cyclic peptide toxin congeners tested to date (MC-LR, -RR, -YR, -LW, -LF, 3-desmethyl-MC-LR, 3-desmethyl-MC-RR, and nodularin).
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Affiliation(s)
- W J Fischer
- Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd., Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Lausanne, Switzerland
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87
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Weller MG, Zeck A, Eikenberg A, Nagata S, Ueno Y, Niessner R. Development of a direct competitive microcystin immunoassay of broad specificity. ANAL SCI 2001; 17:1445-8. [PMID: 11783797 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.17.1445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M G Weller
- Institute of Hydrochemistry, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany.
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88
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Dahlmann J, Rühl A, Hummert C, Liebezeit G, Carlsson P, Granéli E. Different methods for toxin analysis in the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena (Cyanophyceae). Toxicon 2001; 39:1183-90. [PMID: 11306128 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(00)00256-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The brackish water cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena produce the hepatotoxic cyclic pentapeptide nodularin. Intoxications for both human as well as animal may arise when water reservoirs are contaminated with potentially toxic Nodularia species. Here, results of three independent methods for the determination of nodularin in different strains of N. spumigena are presented. The results obtained with a protein phosphatase assay and a HPLC/UV/MS method are compared with the results obtained with a bioluminescence assay, which is successfully introduced here for nodularin determination. Statistical evaluation of the three applied methods revealed a good comparability towards the detected toxin content. The methods were evaluated taking into consideration the parameters: handling, efficiency, sensitivity and selectivity. The detection limit in the protein phosphatase assay is highest (0.05ng nodularin) and lowest (250ng nodularin) in the bioluminescence assay- it was determined with 5ng (MS) and 25ng (UV) for the HPLC/UV/MS methods. The different selectivities and sensitivities are critically discussed and an analytical pathway for the determination of the biotoxin nodularin from Nodularia samples is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Dahlmann
- University of Jena, Institute for Nutrition, Dornburger Str. 25, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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89
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Zeck A, Eikenberg A, Weller MG, Niessner R. Highly sensitive immunoassay based on a monoclonal antibody specific for [4-arginine]microcystins. Anal Chim Acta 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(01)01092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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90
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Mehto P, Ankelo M, Hinkkanen A, Mikhailov A, Eriksson JE, Spoof L, Meriluoto J. A time-resolved fluoroimmunometric assay for the detection of microcystins, cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins. Toxicon 2001; 39:831-6. [PMID: 11137543 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(00)00215-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
An immunoassay based on the time-resolved fluorometry (TR-FIA) was developed for microcystins, cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins. The assay was performed in a competitive mode and it utilised the monoclonal antibodies raised against microcystin-LR, and a europium chelate of microcystin-LR as a competitive antigen. The sensitivity of the assay was 0.1microg/l. The detection method of TR-FIA was compared to a commercially available kit based on the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The same level of sensitivity could be obtained with TR-FIA (in a non-optimised system). The simplified method of TR-FIA leads to a shorter analysis time.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Mehto
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, P.O. Box 66, 20521 Turku, Finland
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91
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Abstract
Microcystins are an increasingly important group of bioactive compounds produced by a number of mainly planktonic cyanobacteria. They are a family of cyclic heptapeptides that cause both acute and chronic toxicity. Purified microcystins are utilised in a range of research applications including toxicological and biochemical studies, development of detection systems and the investigation of water treatment strategies. The commercial availability of purified microcystins is still relatively limited and for many projects the cost of their purchase prohibitive. The purification of microcystins from both bloom material and laboratory cultures is reviewed including a discussion on extraction, separation, and the determination of purity and yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Lawton
- School of Applied Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK.
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92
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Spoof L, Karlsson K, Meriluoto J. High-performance liquid chromatographic separation of microcystins and nodularin, cyanobacterial peptide toxins, on C18 and amide C16 sorbents. J Chromatogr A 2001; 909:225-36. [PMID: 11269522 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)01099-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Four C18 columns and a novel amide C16 column were assessed in the HPLC separation of eight microcystins and nodularin-R. Gradient mobile phases of acetonitrile combined with trifluoroacetic acid, formic acid or ammonium acetate were compared. Special attention was paid to the resolution of four possible coeluting microcystin pairs. Generally speaking, the acidic mobile phases were superior to the ammonium acetate-based mobile phase in terms of resolution and selectivity. The amide C16 column had the best overall performance and unique selectivity properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Spoof
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
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93
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Tsutsumi T, Nagata S, Hasegawa A, Ueno Y. Immunoaffinity column as clean-up tool for determination of trace amounts of microcystins in tap water. Food Chem Toxicol 2000; 38:593-7. [PMID: 10942320 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(00)00044-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trace amounts of microcystins (MCs) in drinking water should be monitored because of their potential hazard for human health as an environmental tumor promoter. We describe here a new clean-up tool with immunoaffinity column (IAC) for determination of trace amounts of MCs (from pg to microg/litre) in tap water. The water samples were concentrated with IAC clean-up and MCs levels were determined by HPLC with UV detection or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In the combination with HPLC analysis, mean recovery of microcystin-LR (MCLR),-RR and-YR spiked to tap water were 91.8%, 77.3% and 86.4%, respectively, in the range 2.5-100 microg/litre. The chromatogram of MCs-spiked tap water sample cleaned up with IAC showed effective elimination of the impurities compared to that with octadecyl silanized cartridge, which had been cleaned up with a conventional method. Also, in the combination with highly sensitive ELISA, mean recovery of MCLR spiked to tap water was 80% in the range 0.1-1000 ng/litre. The combined methods developed here can detect pg to microg/litre of MCs in tap water. The overall results indicated that IAC will be suitable as a clean-up tool for trace amounts of MCs in tap water.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Tsutsumi
- Research Institute for Biosciences and Department of Toxicology and Microbial Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science University of Tokyo, Ichigaya, Japan.
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94
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Kondo F, Matsumoto H, Yamada S, Tsuji K, Ueno Y, Harada K. Immunoaffinity purification method for detection and quantification of microcystins in lake water. Toxicon 2000; 38:813-23. [PMID: 10695967 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(99)00194-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a new clean-up method, which consisted of solid-phase extraction on a Sep-Pak PS-2 (styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer) or Excelpak SPE-GLF (polymethacrylate) cartridge instead of conventional ODS silica gel and silica gel together with following immunoaffinity purification using anti-microcystin-LR monoclonal antibodies. This newly developed method was demonstrated to eliminate co-existing substances and to concentrate microcystins in the lake water. The recoveries from lake water (1 liter) spiked with 100 ng each of microcystins-RR, -YR and -LR were 85.5, 89.2 and 92.2%, respectively, with coefficients of variation of 3.3-7.6%. Only 3 h were required to complete the total procedures starting from the microcystin extraction, the immunoaffinity purification, and the quantification using HPLC. The detection limits for all of the 3 microcystins in lake water were 0.005 microg/l. Applicability of this method has been demonstrated by measuring the concentrations of microcystins in water samples collected from lakes where water blooms occurred, which turned out to be 0.012-0.177 microg/l of total microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Kondo
- Aichi Prefectural Institute of Public health, Kita, Nagoya, Japan.
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95
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Chapter 11B Toxins of freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7192(00)80063-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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96
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Ells B, Froese K, Hrudey SE, Purves RW, Guevremont R, Barnett DA. Detection of microcystins using electrospray ionization high-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2000; 14:1538-1542. [PMID: 10931550 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0231(20000830)14:16<1538::aid-rcm61>3.0.co;2-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A combination of electrospray ionization, high-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry, and mass spectrometry (ESI-FAIMS/MS) was used to analyze standard solutions of microcystins-LR, -RR, and -YR. The ability of FAIMS to separate ions in the gas phase reduced the amount of background in the mass spectrum without compromising the absolute signal for these microcystins. This reduction in background resulted in a ten-fold improvement in the signal-to-background ratio over conventional ESI-MS. Detection limits, using direct infusion, were determined to be 4, 2, and 1 nM for microcystins-LR, -RR, and -YR, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ells
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2G3
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97
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Lee HS, Jeong CK, Lee HM, Choi SJ, Do KS, Kim K, Kim YH. On-line trace enrichment for the simultaneous determination of microcystins in aqueous samples using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. J Chromatogr A 1999; 848:179-84. [PMID: 10427757 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(99)00499-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The need for a rapid, sensitive and reliable analytical method for cyanobacterial toxins, microcystins, has been emphasized by the awareness of toxic cyanobacteria as a human-health risk through drinking water. A new high-performance liquid chromatographic method with column switching was developed for the determination of microcystin-LR, -RR and -YR from water samples without pre-purification. The filtered water sample was passed through a Zorbax CN precolumn at a flow-rate of 3 ml/min for on-line trace enrichment. After valve switching, concentrated analytes were eluted in back-flush mode and separated on a Luna C18 column with a gradient of acetonitrile -20 mM phosphate buffer (pH 2.5). The method showed excellent precision, accuracy and speed with detection limits of 0.02 microgram/ml from 100 ml of surface water. The total analysis time per sample was about 90 min. This method improves reliability, sensitivity and sample throughput, and shortens the analysis time compared to analysis methods using off-line solid-phase extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- H S Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, Iksan, South Korea.
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98
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Ohio 44115, USA
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99
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Meriluoto J, Kincaid B, Smyth MR, Wasberg W. Electrochemical detection of microcystins, cyanobacterial peptide hepatotoxins, following high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1998; 810:226-30. [PMID: 9691298 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(98)00203-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A novel amperometric HPLC detection method for the cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) peptide toxins microcystin-LR, -YR and -RR was developed. Purified microcystins and cyanobacterial extracts were chromatographed using an internal surface reversed-phase column with acetate- and phosphate-based mobile phase systems. Electrochemical oxidation reactions at 1.20 V vs. Ag/AgCl (glassy carbon working electrode) were show to originate in arginine and tyrosine residues of microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Meriluoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
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