Proton modulation of functionally distinct GABAA receptors in acutely isolated pyramidal neurons of rat hippocampus

Two new actions of topiramate: inhibition of depolarizing GABA(A)-mediated responses and activation of a potassium conductance

Topiramate (TPM) is an antiepileptic with several proposed mechanisms of action including the inhibition of carbonic anhydrase (CA). Since the activity of this enzyme is essential for the generation of GABA(A)-mediated depolarizing responses, which appears to participate in epileptogenesis, we investigated whether TPM could inhibit such a response in rat hippocampal slices using intracellular recordings. Bath perfusion of TPM (20 and 100 microM) reversibly reduced the GABA(A)-mediated depolarizing responses evoked by either synaptic stimulation (GDPSPs) or by pressure application of GABA, but did not modify the GABA(A)-mediated hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potentials. TPM (20 microM) shifted the reversal potential for the GDPSP by -10 mV. Unexpectedly, TPM also induced a steady membrane hyperpolarization associated with a reduction in the input resistance of the cell. This effect was insensitive to tetrodotoxin, and to GABA(A) and GABA(B) receptor antagonists, but was blocked by barium (1 mM). Notably, when the extracellular concentration of K(+) was varied the reversal potential shifted as predicted by the Nernst potential for K(+). Acetazolamide (20 microM), another CA inhibitor, elicited similar effects to those reported here for TPM and occluded the hyperpolarization evoked by TPM. The results of this study support the concept that inhibition of carbonic anhydrase in neurons contributes to the anticonvulsant activity of TPM.

Chemosensitivity of medullary inspiratory neurones: a role for GABA(A) receptors?

This study tested the hypothesis that during hypercapnia partial removal of a tonic GABA-mediated inhibition contributes to the increase in activity of the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) inspiratory neurones. Extracellular recordings were taken from 22 inspiratory neurones in the VLM of rats anaesthetised with pentobarbitone and artificially ventilated. It was found that during hypercapnia, changes in the discharge pattern (i.e. an increase in the discharge frequency during the neurone's normally active phase) and firing frequency of the VLM inspiratory neurones were similar to those evoked by GABA(A) receptor antagonist bicuculline methiodide (BMI, 10 mM, 20 nA), applied ionophoretically in conditions of normocapnia. During hypercapnia BMI (20 nA) failed to evoke a further increase in firing of these neurones. This suggests that CO2-evoked activation of VLM inspiratory neurones may involve a withdrawal in part of a tonic GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibition. This disinhibition may play a role in the hypercapnia-induced increase in ventilatory activity.

Enhanced temporal stability of cholinergic hippocampal gamma oscillations following respiratory alkalosis in vitro

The decrease in brain CO(2) partial pressure (pCO(2)) that takes place both during voluntary and during pathological hyperventilation is known to induce gross alterations in cortical functions that lead to subjective sensations and altered states of consciousness. The mechanisms that mediate the effects of the decrease in pCO(2) at the neuronal network level are largely unexplored. In the present work, the modulation of gamma oscillations by hypocapnia was studied in rat hippocampal slices. Field potential oscillations were induced by the cholinergic agonist carbachol under an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor blockade and were recorded in the dendritic layer of the CA3 region with parallel measurements of changes in interstitial and intraneuronal pH (pH(o) and pH(i), respectively). Hypocapnia from 5 to 1% CO(2) led to a stable monophasic increase of 0.5 and 0.2 units in pH(o) and pH(i), respectively. The mean oscillation frequency increased slightly but significantly from 32 to 34 Hz and the mean gamma-band amplitude (20 to 80 Hz) decreased by 20%. Hypocapnia induced a dramatic enhancement of the temporal stability of the oscillations, as was indicated by a two-fold increase in the exponential decay time constant fitted to the autocorrelogram. A rise in pH(i) evoked by the weak base trimethylamine (TriMA) was associated with a slight increase in oscillation frequency (37 to 39 Hz) and a decrease in amplitude (30%). Temporal stability, on the other hand, was decreased by TriMA, which suggests that its enhancement in 1% CO(2) was related to the rise in pH(o). In 1% CO(2), the decay-time constant of the evoked monosynaptic pyramidal inhibitory postsynaptic current (IPSC) was unaltered but its amplitude was enhanced. This increase in IPSC amplitude seems to significantly contribute to the enhancement of temporal stability because the enhancement was almost fully reversed by a low concentration of bicuculline. These results suggest that changes in brain pCO(2) can have a strong influence on the temporal modulation of gamma rhythms.

Proton sensitivity of rat cerebellar granule cell GABAA receptors: dependence on neuronal development

The effect of GABAA receptor development in culture on the modulation of GABA-induced currents by external H+ was examined in cerebellar granule cells using whole-cell and single-channel recording. Equilibrium concentration-response curves revealed a lower potency for GABA between 11 and 12 days in vitro (DIV) resulting in a shift of the EC50 from 10.7 to 2.4 uM. For granule cells before 11 DIV, the peak GABA-activated current was inhibited at low external pH and enhanced at high pH with a pKa of 6.6. For the steady-state response, low pH was inhibitory with a pKa of 5.56. After 11 DIV, the peak GABA-activated current was largely pH insensitive; however, the steady-state current was potentiated at low pH with a pKa of 6.84. Single GABA-activated ion channels were recorded from outside-out patches of granule cell bodies. At pH 5.4-9.4, single GABA channels exhibited multiple conductance states occurring at 22-26, 16-17 and 12-14 pS. The conductance levels were not significantly altered over the time period of study, nor by changing the external H+ concentration. Two exponential functions were required to fit the open-time frequency histograms at both early (< 11 DIV) and late (> 11 DIV) development times at each H+ concentration. The short and long open time constants were unaffected either by the extracellular H+ concentration or by neuronal development. The distribution of all shut times was fitted by the sum of three exponentials designated as short, intermediate and long. At acidic pH, the long shut time constant decreased with development as did the relative contribution of these components to the overall distribution. This was concurrent with an increase in the mean probability of channel opening. In conclusion, this study demonstrates in cerebellar granule cells that external pH can either reduce, have no effect on, or enhance GABA-activated responses depending on the stage of development, possibly related to the subunit composition of the GABAA receptors. The mode of interaction of H+ at the single-channel level and implications of such interactions at cerebellar granule cell GABAA receptors are discussed.

Single-channel properties of neuronal GABAA receptors from mice lacking the 2 subunit

1. The aim of this study was to define the biophysical properties contributed by the gamma2 subunit to native single GABAA receptors. 2. Single-channel activity was recorded from neurones of wild-type (gamma2+/+) mice and compared with that from mice which were heterozygous (gamma2+/-) or homozygous (gamma2-/-) for a targeted disruption in the gamma2 subunit gene of the GABAA receptor. Unitary currents were evoked by low concentrations of GABA (0.5-5 microM) in membrane patches from acutely isolated dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurones (postnatal day 0) and by 1 microM GABA in patches from embryonic hippocampal neurones which were cultured for up to 3 weeks. 3. GABAA receptors from DRG and hippocampal neurones of gamma2+/+ and gamma2+/- mice displayed predominantly a conductance state of 28 pS and less frequently 18 and 12 pS states. In gamma2-/- mice, conductance states mainly of 12 pS and less frequently of 24 pS were found. 4. The mean open duration of the 28 pS state in gamma2+/+ GABAA receptors (1.5-2.6 ms) was substantially longer than for the 12 pS state of gamma2-/- GABAA receptors (0.9-1.2 ms) at all GABA concentrations. For gamma2+/+ and gamma2-/- channels, the mean open duration was increased at higher GABA concentrations. 5. Open duration frequency distributions of 28 and 12 pS receptors revealed the existence of at least three exponential components. Components with short mean durations declined and components with long mean durations increased in relative frequency at higher GABA concentration indicating at least two binding sites of GABA per 28 and 12 pS receptor. 6. Shut time frequency distributions revealed at least four exponential components of which two were identified as intraburst components in 28 pS and one in 12 pS GABAA receptors. 7. The mean burst duration and the mean number of openings per burst increased in 28 and 12 pS GABAA receptors with increasing GABA concentration. At least two burst types were identified: simple bursts consisting of single openings and complex bursts of five to six openings in 28 pS but only two to three openings in 12 pS GABAA receptors. 8. We conclude that the gamma2 subunit enhances the efficacy of GABA by determining open conformations of high conductance and long lifetime, and by prolonging the time receptors remain in the activated bursting state.

Different sensitivities of human and rat rho(1) GABA receptors to extracellular pH

We have examined the sensitivity of human and rat homo-oligomeric rho(1) GABA receptors to variations in extracellular pH (pH(o)) using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. The GABA-induced conductance mediated by the rat rho(1) receptor (rho(1)-R) decreased with a decrease in pH(o) between 9.0 to 5.4. Below pH(o) 7.4 the effect of protons on the GABA-induced conductance was apparently competitive, but above pH(o) 7.4 the inhibitory effect of extracellular protons was almost independent on the GABA concentration. Titration of the GABA-induced conductance at 3 microM GABA revealed two protonation sites on rat rho(1)-R with pKa 6.4 and pKa 8.2. At 10 microM GABA the low pKa (6.4) was shifted to a clearly lower value (5.6), but the high pKa was only slightly decreased (from 8.2 to 7.9). Zn(2+) ions were capable of relieving the proton inhibition at low pH(o) indicating that Zn(2+) interacts with the low pKa site. Unlike the rat rho(1)-R, the human rho(1)-R was sensitive only to changes in pH(o) at acidic levels. Proton inhibition of human rho(1)-R was apparently competitive, as observed on rat-rho(1) at acidic pH(o). Titration of the human rho(1)-R gave a single H(+) binding site with a pKa of 6.3, similar to the value for the low pKa on rat rho(1)-R. The pKa value of human rho(1)-R was not dependent on the GABA concentration. A chimeric receptor, consisting of the N-terminal part of the rat rho(1)-R and C-terminal part of the human rho(1)-R, displayed pH(o) sensitivity similar to that observed for rat rho(1)-R. This indicates that the high pKa of rat rho(1)-R is attributable to the 11 amino acid differences between the rat and human rho(1)-R extracellular domains.

Effects of a naturally occurring neurosteroid on GABAA IPSCs during development in rat hippocampal or cerebellar slices

1. The effects of the naturally occurring neurosteroid tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone (THDOC) on GABAA receptor-mediated miniature, spontaneous and evoked IPSCs was tested using patch-clamp techniques in slices of hippocampus and cerebellum from rats at two developmental stages ( approximately 10 and approximately 20 days postnatal). The cells studied were hippocampal granule cells and cerebellar Purkinje and granule cells. 2. Most miniature GABAergic currents (mIPSCs) decayed with two exponentials and neurosteroids caused a approximately 4-fold increase in the decay time constant of the second exponential at the highest concentration used (2 microM). Similar effects were seen at high concentrations of THDOC (1-2 microM) in all cell groups tested. No effects were seen on amplitude or rise time of mIPSCs. 3. The effects of THDOC (1 microM) were shown to be stereoselective and rapidly reversible, indicating that the neurosteroid binds to the GABAA receptor, rather than acting genomically. 4. At concentrations of THDOC likely to occur physiologically (50-100 nM), the decay time of IPSCs was also enhanced (25-50 %) in all cerebellar cell groups tested. In contrast, at 100 nM THDOC, seven of 11 hippocampal granule cells were sensitive from the 10 day group but the 20 day hippocampal granule cells showed no significant enhancement in the presence of these lower concentrations of THDOC. 5. The differences in sensitivity of hippocampal and cerebellar cells to THDOC are compared to data reported in the literature on regional development of expression of different receptor subunits in the brain and it is suggested that the progressive relative insensitivity of the 20 day hippocampal cells may depend on increasing expression of the delta subunit of the GABAA receptor and possibly an increase in the alpha4 subunit.

Effect of extracellular pH on GABA-activated current in rat recombinant receptors and thin hypothalamic slices

We studied the effects of extracellular pH (pHo) on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-mediated Cl- current in rat hypothalamic neurons and recombinant type-A GABA (GABA(A)) receptors stably expressed in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293), using whole cell and outside-out patch-clamp recordings. In alpha3beta2gamma2s receptors, acidic pH decreased, whereas alkaline pH increased the response to GABA in a reversible and concentration-dependent manner. Acidification shifted the GABA concentration-response curve to the right, significantly increasing the EC50 for GABA without appreciably changing the slope or maximal current induced by GABA. We obtained similar effects of pH in alpha1beta2gamma2 receptors and in GABA-activated currents recorded from thin hypothalamic brain slices. In outside-out patches recorded from alpha3beta2gamma2 recombinant receptors, membrane patches were exposed to 5 microM GABA at control (7.3), acidic (6.4), or alkaline (8.4) pH. GABA activated main and subconductance states of 24 and 16 pS, respectively, in alpha3beta2gamma2 receptors. Alkaline pH(o) increased channel opening frequency and decreased the duration of the long closed state, resulting in an increase in open probability (from 0.0801 +/- 0.015 in pH 7.3 to 0.138 +/- 0.02 in pH 8.4). Exposure of the channels to acidic pH(o) had the opposite effects on open probability (decreased to 0.006 +/- 0.0001). Taken together, our results indicate that the function of GABA(A) receptors is modulated by extracellular pH. The proton effect is similar in recombinant and native receptors and is dependent on GABA concentration. In addition, the effect appears to be independent of the alpha-subunit isoform, and is due to the ability of H+ to alter the frequency of channel opening. Our findings indicate that GABAergic signaling in the CNS may be significantly altered during conditions that increase or decrease pH.

The K+/Cl- co-transporter KCC2 renders GABA hyperpolarizing during neuronal maturation

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the main inhibitory transmitter in the adult brain, and it exerts its fast hyperpolarizing effect through activation of anion (predominantly Cl-)-permeant GABA(A) receptors. However, during early neuronal development, GABA(A)-receptor-mediated responses are often depolarizing, which may be a key factor in the control of several Ca2+-dependent developmental phenomena, including neuronal proliferation, migration and targeting. To date, however, the molecular mechanism underlying this shift in neuronal electrophysiological phenotype is unknown. Here we show that, in pyramidal neurons of the rat hippocampus, the ontogenetic change in GABA(A)-mediated responses from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing is coupled to a developmental induction of the expression of the neuronal (Cl-)-extruding K+/Cl- co-transporter, KCC2. Antisense oligonucleotide inhibition of KCC2 expression produces a marked positive shift in the reversal potential of GABAA responses in functionally mature hippocampal pyramidal neurons. These data support the conclusion that KCC2 is the main Cl- extruder to promote fast hyperpolarizing postsynaptic inhibition in the brain.

Phenylethanolamines inhibit NMDA receptors by enhancing proton inhibition

The phenylethanolamines, ifenprodil and CP-101,606, are NMDA receptor antagonists with promising neuroprotective properties. In recombinant NMDA receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes, we found that these drugs inhibit NMDA receptors through a unique mechanism, making the receptor more sensitive to inhibition by protons, an endogenous negative modulator. These findings support a critical role for the proton sensor in gating the NMDA receptor and point the way to identifying a context-dependent NMDA receptor antagonist that is inactive at physiological pH, but is a potent inhibitor during the acidic conditions that arise during epilepsy, ischemia and brain trauma.

Interaction of H+ and Zn2+ on recombinant and native rat neuronal GABAA receptors

1. The interaction of Zn2+ and H+ ions with GABAA receptors was examined using Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing recombinant GABAA receptors composed of subunits selected from alpha1, beta1, gamma2S and delta types, and by using cultured rat cerebellar granule neurones. 2. The potency of Zn2+ as a non-competitive antagonist of GABA-activated responses on alpha1beta1 receptors was reduced by lowering the external pH from 7.4 to 5.4, increasing the Zn2+ IC50 value from 1.2 to 58.3 microM. Zinc-induced inhibition was largely unaffected by alkaline pH up to pH 9.4. 3. For alpha1beta1delta subunits, concentration-response curves for GABA were displaced laterally by Zn2+ in accordance with a novel mixed/competitive-type inhibition. The Zn2+ IC50 at pH 7.4 was 16.3 microM. Acidification of Ringer solution resulted in a reduced antagonism by Zn2+ (IC50, 49.0 microM) without affecting the type of inhibition. At pH 9.4, Zn2+ inhibition remained unaffected. 4. The addition of the gamma2S subunit to the alpha1beta1delta construct caused a marked reduction in the potency of Zn2+ (IC50, 615 microM), comparable to that observed with alpha1beta1gamma2S receptors (IC50 639 microM). GABA concentration-response curves were depressed in a mixed/non-competitive fashion. 5. In cultured cerebellar granule neurones, Zn2+ inhibited responses to GABA in a concentration-dependent manner. Lowering external pH from 7.4 to 6.4 increased the IC50 from 139 to 253 microM. 6. The type of inhibition exhibited by Zn2+ on cerebellar granule neurones, previously grown in high K+-containing culture media, was complex, with the GABA concentration-response curves shifting laterally with reduced slopes and similar maxima. The Zn2+-induced shift in the GABA EC50 values was reduced by lowering the external pH from 7.4 to 6.4. 7. The interaction of H+ and Zn2+ ions on GABAA receptors suggests that they share either a common regulatory pathway or coincident binding sites on the receptor protein. The apparent competitive mode of block induced by Zn2+ on alpha1beta1delta receptors is shared by GABAA receptors on cerebellar granule neurones, which are known to express delta-subunit-containing receptors. This novel mechanism is masked when a gamma2 subunit is incorporated into the receptor complex, revealing further diversity in the response of native GABAA receptors to endogenous cations.

Sodium/hydrogen exchanger gene defect in slow-wave epilepsy mutant mice

The "housekeeping" sodium/hydrogen exchanger, NHE1, mediates the electroneutral 1:1 exchange of Na+ and H+ across the plasma membrane. NHE1 is ubiquitous and is studied extensively for regulation of pHi, cell volume, and response to growth factors. We describe a spontaneous mouse mutant, slow-wave epilepsy, (swe), with a neurological syndrome including ataxia and a unique epilepsy phenotype consisting of 3/sec absence and tonic-clonic seizures. swe was fine-mapped on Chromosome 4 and identified as a null allele of Nhe1. Mutants show selective neuronal death in the cerebellum and brainstem but otherwise are healthy. This first example of a disease-causing mutation in an Nhe gene provides a new tool for studying the delicate balance of neuroexcitability and cell survival within the CNS.