Adjuvant effect of ginseng extracts on the immune responses to immunisation against Staphylococcus aureus in dairy cattle

Ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) and mineral oil act synergistically to enhance the immune responses to vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease in mice

Saponins extracted from ginseng stems and leaves (GSLS) as well as the synergistic effect between GSLS and oil emulsion were investigated for their adjuvant effects on the immune responses of mice to vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) serotype Asia 1. In experiment A, ICR mice were subcutaneously immunized twice with FMDV antigen with or without GSLS (0, 1, 5, 10 and 20 microg) at 3 week intervals. Highest FMDV-specific IgG level was observed 2 weeks after the boosting in mice immunized with FMDV antigen plus 10 microg of GSLS. In experiment B, mice were subcutaneously injected with FMDV antigen with or without GSLS (10 microg), or in oil emulsion with or without GSLS (10 microg) on days 1 and 21. Results indicated that when co-administered with a mixture of oil and GSLS, FMDV antigen induced significantly higher IgG titer and IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3 responses, production of IFN-gamma (Th1 cytokine) and IL-5 (Th2 cytokine) by splenocytes, as well as T and B lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A and LPS than when FMDV antigen was used alone or mixed with either GSLS or oil. This suggests that GSLS and oil adjuvant synergistically promote both Th1 and Th2 immune responses. As protection against FMDV requires both cellular and humoral immune responses, the combined effects of GSLS and oil deserve further study in other animals such as cattle and pigs in order to induce effective immunity against FMDV infection.

Management of mastitis on organic and conventional dairy farms

This paper compares management of mastitis on organic dairy farms with that on conventional dairy farms. National standards for organic production vary by country. In the United States, usage of antimicrobials to treat dairy cattle results in permanent loss of organic status of the animal, effectively limiting treatment choices for animals experiencing bacterial diseases. There are no products approved by the US Food and Drug Administration that can be used for treatment of mastitis on organic dairy farms, and usage of unapproved products is contrary to Food and Drug Administration guidelines. In general, organic dairy farms tend to be smaller, produce less, and more likely to be housed and milked in traditional barns as compared with conventionally managed herds. It is difficult to compare disease rates between herds managed conventionally or organically because perception and detection of disease is influenced by management system. To date, no studies have been published with the defined objective of comparing animal health on organic dairy herds with that on conventional dairy herds in the United States. European studies have not documented significant differences in animal health based on adoption of organic management. Few differences in bulk tank somatic cell counts have been identified between organic and conventional herds. Farmers that have adopted organic management consistently report fewer cases of clinical mastitis, but organic farmers do not use the same criteria to detect clinical mastitis. European dairy farmers that adopt organic management report use of a variety of conventional and alternative therapies for treatment and control of mastitis. In the United States, organic farmers treat clinical mastitis using a variety of alternative therapies including whey-based products, botanicals, vitamin supplements, and homeopathy. Organic farmers in the United States use a variety of alternative products to treat cows at dry-off. Virtually no data are available that support the clinical efficacy of any of the alternative veterinary products used for treatment or prevention of mastitis. Some associations between organic management and antimicrobial susceptibility of gram-positive mastitis pathogens have been noted, but overall, few mastitis pathogens from both conventional and organic dairy herds demonstrate resistance to antibiotics commonly used for mastitis control.

A promising balanced Th1 and Th2 directing immunological adjuvant, saponins from the root of Platycodon grandiflorum

The haemolytic activities and adjuvant potentials of Platycodon grandiflorum saponin (PGS) and its fractions on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against ovalbumin (OVA) were evaluated. PGS was subjected to silica gel column chromatography to afford four fractions, and two fractions PGSC and PGSD selected for testing for activities because of containing dominant saponin peaks. PGS, PGSC, and PGSD showed a slight haemolytic effect, with their HD50 value being 37.91+/-2.24, 21.30+/-1.22, 37.58+/-1.86 microg/ml against 0.5% rabbit red blood cell, respectively. ICR mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA 100 microg alone or with OVA 100 microg dissolved in saline containing Alum (200 microg), Quil A (10 microg), PGS (50, 100 or 200 microg), PGSC, or PGSD (25, 50 or 100 microg) on days 1 and 15. Two weeks later (day 28), concanavalin A (Con A)-, pokeweed (PWM)-, and OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation and OVA-specific antibodies in serum were measured. PGS and PGSC significantly enhanced the Con A-, PWM-, and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in OVA-immunized mice at three doses (P<0.01 or P<0.001). However, no significant differences (P>0.05) were observed among the OVA group, OVA/Alum group and OVA/PGSD group. OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b antibody levels in serum were significantly enhanced by PGS, PGSC, and PGSD compared with OVA control group (P<0.05, P<0.01, or P<0.001). Moreover, the adjuvant effects of PGSC (50 or 100 microg) on the OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b antibody responses to OVA in mice were more significant than those of Alum. In conclusion, PGS seem to be a promising balanced Th1 and Th2 directing immunological adjuvants which can enhance the immunogenicity of vaccine.

Ginsenoside Rg1 and aluminum hydroxide synergistically promote immune responses to ovalbumin in BALB/c mice

The combined adjuvant effect of ginsenoside Rg1 and aluminum hydroxide (alum) on immune responses to ovalbumin (OVA) in mice was investigated. BALB/c mice were subcutaneously (s.c.) inoculated twice with OVA alone or in combination with Rg1, alum, or Rg1 plus alum. Samples were collected 2 weeks after the boosting for the measurement of anti-OVA immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotypes in sera and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-5 (IL-5) produced in singular splenocyte cultures. Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) responses were measured in mice immunized as described above. After 10 days, the mice were injected s.c. with OVA at the footpads. Thereafter, the thickness of the footpads was measured once daily for 5 days. The results indicated that alum enhanced mainly Th2 (IgG1 and IL-5) responses (P < 0.05), while Rg1 enhanced both Th1 (IgG1 and IL-5) and Th2 (IgG2a, IFN-gamma, and DTH) responses (P < 0.05). The highest immune responses were found in the mice injected with OVA solution containing both alum and Rg1. In addition, the hemolytic activity of Rg1 was much lower than that of Quil A. Therefore, Rg1 deserves further studies in order to tailor desired immune responses when a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response is needed.

Improvement of a commercial foot-and-mouth disease vaccine by supplement of Quil A

In model animal experiment A, ICR mice were immunized with ovalbumin (OVA) adjuvanted with Quil A or mineral oil or their combination (Quil A+oil). In model animal experiment B, ICR mice were immunized with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) antigens or with a commercially available oil adjuvanted foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccine (type O) alone or mixed with Quil A. After that, serum samples were collected to analyze specific IgG and IgG subclasses IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, and IgG3. In experiment C, pigs were immunized with FMD (type O) vaccine alone or together with Quil A. Serum samples were collected before and 4 weeks after immunization to analyze indirect haemagglutination (IHA) titers. Results from experiment A indicated a synergistic effect of Quil A and oil on IgG and the subclass responses. Experiment B revealed that supplement of Quil A in FMD vaccine significantly increased IgG and the subclass responses in mice. Experiment C demonstrated that supplement of Quil A in the FMD vaccine significantly enhanced humeral immune responses (as determined by IHA test) in pigs. It is concluded that supplement of Quil A in FMD vaccine can significantly enhanced immune responses and could be an alternative way to improve FMD vaccination in pigs.

Adjuvant effects of protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol saponins from ginseng roots on the immune responses to ovalbumin in mice

Protopanaxadiol saponins (Rg3, Rd, Rc, Rb1 and Rb2) and protopanaxatriol saponins (Rg1, Re and Rg2) isolated from the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer were evaluated for their adjuvant effects on the immune responses to ovalbumin (OVA) in mice. BALB/c mice were subcutaneously injected twice at a 3-week interval with 10 microg of ovalbumin or 10 microg of OVA plus 50 microg of ginsenosides Rg3, Rd, Rc, Rb1, Rb2, Rg1, Re or Rg2 or Quil A (n=5). Blood samples were collected for measuring specific total-IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a, and splenocytes were harvested for determining lymphocyte proliferation as well as IFN-gamma and IL-5 production 2 weeks after the boosting. The results indicated that OVA-specific antibody responses were significantly higher in mice immunized with OVA co-administered with Rg1, Re, Rg2, Rg3 and Rb1 but not with Rd, Rc and Rb2 when compared with the control (immunized with OVA only). Significantly enhanced splenocyte proliferative responses to Con A, LPS and OVA as well as the production of both IL-5 and IFN-gamma stimulated by OVA were also detected in mice immunized with OVA co-administered with Rg1 but not with Rb1, Re and Rg3. Of the ginsenosides studied, Rg1, Re, Rg2, Rg3 and Rb1 have more potent adjuvant properties than the others, indicating that they are the major constituents contributing to the adjuvant activities of total ginseng saponins. Varieties of ginsenosides in adjuvant activity might be attributed to the varieties of molecular conformations determined by the side sugar chains attaching to their dammarane skeleton.

Ginseng and Salviae herbs play a role as immune activators and modulate immune responses during influenza virus infection

We have investigated the adjuvant roles of common herbal medicines (ginseng, Salviae) and their effects on early immune responses during influenza virus infection in a mouse model. Intranasal co-administration with inactivated influenza virus A (PR8) and ginseng or Salviae extract increased the levels of influenza virus specific antibodies and neutralizing activities compared to immunization with PR8 alone, and provided protective immunity. Salviae co-administration significantly enhanced IFN-gamma and IL-2 cytokine producing splenocytes while ginseng induced high levels of IL-4 and IL-5 cytokine producing cells after challenge infection. Cells expressing an early activation marker CD69 and levels of a pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 were highly elevated in lungs from naïve mice during challenge virus infection, which might be a mechanism in lung inflammation leading to death. In contrast, immunized mice that were co-administered ginseng or Salviae modulated CD69 expressing immune cells, did not produce IL-6, and showed significant enhancement of influenza virus specific IgA antibody in lungs after challenge virus infection. Therefore, these results indicate that both ginseng and Salviae play a role as mucosal adjuvants against influenza virus as well as immuno-modulators during influenza virus infection.

Ginsenoside Rd elicits Th1 and Th2 immune responses to ovalbumin in mice

Ginsenoside Rd (Rd), a saponin isolated from the roots of panax notoginseng, was evaluated for inducing Th1 or Th2 immune responses in mice against ovalbumin (OVA). ICR mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA 100 microg alone or with OVA 100 microg dissolved in saline containing alum (200 microg), or Rd (10, 25 or 50 microg) on days 1 and 15. Two weeks later (day 28), concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation was determined using MTT assay, and OVA-specific antibody titers and levels of cytokines in serum were measured by ELISA and microparticle-based flow cytometric immunoassay, as well as peripheral blood T-lymphocyte subsets analyzed using flow cytometer. Rd significantly enhanced the Con A-, LPS-, and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA-immunized mice. OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2b antibody titers in serum were significantly enhanced by Rd compared with OVA control group. Meanwhile, Rd also significantly promoted the production of the Th1 and Th2 cytokines in OVA-immunized mice. Further, the effects of Rd on expression of cytokine mRNA in Con A-stimulated mice splenocytes were evaluated by RT-PCR analysis. Rd significantly enhanced the interleukin-2 (IL-2), interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), IL-4, and IL-10 mRNA expression in mice splenocyte induced by Con A. These results suggested that Rd had immunological adjuvant activity, and elicited a Th1 and Th2 immune response by regulating production and gene expression of Th1 cytokines and Th2 cytokines.

Immunomodulatory activity of a chymotrypsin inhibitor from Momordica cochinchinensis seeds

Serine protease inhibitors are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. Many of them have been purified and characterized from different species. While the physicochemical properties of these protease inhibitors have been extensively investigated, their biological effects, e.g. immunomodulatory effect, remain relatively unexplored. Recently, we isolated a chymotrypsin-specific inhibitor (MCoCI) from the seeds of Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour) Spreng (Family Cucurbitaceae), the traditional Chinese medicine known as Mubiezhi, which has been used as an antiinflammatory agent. In the present study, the effects of MCoCI on different types of cells of the immune system, including splenocytes, splenic lymphocytes, neutrophils, bone marrow cells and macrophages, were investigated. MCoCI was shown to possess immuno-enhancing and antiinflammatory effects. MCoCI could stimulate the proliferation of different cells of the immune system, e.g. splenocytes, splenic lymphocytes and bone marrow cells, in a manner comparable to that of Concanavalin A. Moreover, MCoCI could also suppress the formation of hydrogen peroxide in neutrophils and macrophages. These immunomodulatory effects may explain some of the therapeutic actions of Mubiezhi.

Haemolytic activities and adjuvant effect of Astragalus membranaceus saponins (AMS) on the immune responses to ovalbumin in mice

In this study, the haemolytic activities of Astragalus membranaceus saponins (AMS) and its adjuvant potentials on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against OVA were evaluated. We determined the haemolytic activity of AMS using 0.5% rabbit red blood cell. AMS showed a slight haemolytic effect, with its haemolytic percent being 0.66% at the concentration of 500 microg/ml. Furthermore, the adjuvant potentials of AMS at three dose levels on the cellular and humoral immune responses of ICR mice against ovalbumin (OVA) were investigated. ICR mice were immunized subcutaneously with OVA 100 microg alone or with OVA 100 microg dissolved in saline containing Alum (200 microg), QuilA (10 and 20 microg) or AMS (50, 100 or 200 microg) on Day 1 and 15. Two weeks later (Day 28), concanavalin A (Con A)-, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and OVA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation and OVA-specific antibodies in serum were measured. AMS significantly enhanced the Con A-, LPS-, and OVA-induced splenocyte proliferation in the OVA-immunized mice especially at a dose of 100 microg (P<0.05 or P<0.001). OVA-specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2b antibody titers in serum were also significantly enhanced by AMS compared with OVA control group (P<0.01 or P<0.001). Moreover, no significant differences (P>0.05) were observed between enhancing effect of AMS and QuilA on the OVA-specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2b antibody responses to OVA in mice. In conclusion, the results suggest that AMS could be safely used as adjuvant with low or non-haemolytic effect.

Eimeria tenella: Ginsenosides-enhanced immune response to the immunization with recombinant 5401 antigen in chickens

Three-day-old specific-pathogen-free chickens were subcutaneously immunized with Eimeria tenella recombinant 5401 antigen (100 microg per chicken) with (0.25, 0.5 or 1.0mg per dose) or without ginsenosides, and boosted with the same dosage 14 days later. The chickens were challenged with 6 x 10(4) homologous sporulated oocysts 14 day after the booster. The specific antibody response and lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A were measured before and 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42 days after the immunization. Oocyst output, mortality, and lesion scores were measured to evaluate the protective effects of the immunization. The vaccine containing 0.5 or 1.0mg ginsenosides per dose induces higher antibody response and lymphocyte proliferation in response to Con A than the vaccine without ginsenosides or containing 0.25mg per dose. The oocyst output indicated that recombinant 5401 antigen with ginsenosides (0.5 and 1.0mg per dose) gave a protection rate of 59.38 and 62.5%, respectively. The lesion score in the group vaccinated with recombinant 5401 antigen with 0.5 or 1.0mg ginsenosides per dose were significantly lower than in group without ginsenosides or containing 0.25mg per dose. Therefore, we conclude that ginsenosides have strong adjuvant effects at a dose of 0.5 or 1.0mg when mixed with E. tenella recombinant 5401 antigen, and has a potential as an adjuvant in chicken vaccine.

Immune response modulation to DPT vaccine by aqueous extract of Withania somnifera in experimental system

Immunopotentiation on oral feeding of standardized aqueous extract of Withania somnifera (Linn. Dunal, Family Solanaceae) was evaluated in laboratory animals immunized with DPT (Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus) vaccine. The immunostimulation was evaluated using serological and hematological parameters. Treatment of immunized animals with test material (100 mg/kg/day) for 15 days resulted in significant increase of antibody titers to B. pertussis (P=0.000007). Immunized animals (treated and untreated) were challenged with B. pertussis 18,323 strain and the animals were observed for 14 days. Results indicate that the treated animals did show significant increase in antibody titers as compared to untreated animals after challenge (P=0.000003). Immunoprotection against intracerebral challenge of live B. pertussis cells was evaluated based on degree of sickness, paralysis and subsequent death. Reduced mortality accompanied with overall improved health status was observed in treated animals after intracerebral challenge of B. pertussis indicating development of protective immune response. Present study indicates application of the test material as potential immunopotentiating agent possible applications in immunochemical industry. The test material also offers direct therapeutic benefits resulting in reduced morbidity and mortality of experimental animals.

Panax ginseng induces production of proinflammatory cytokines via toll-like receptor

Ginseng radix, the dried root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, has been shown to enhance the ability to resist microbial infections. Proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), IL-6, and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) are produced by macrophages treated with ginseng radix extract (GRE) in vitro as well as in vivo. However, the molecular mechanisms of the production are still not clear. In the present study, we demonstrated that production of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma was induced by GRE in spleen cells and peritoneal macrophages from C3H/HeN mice but was impaired in C3H/HeJ mice carrying a defective toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) gene. In addition to these cytokines, the expression of IFN-beta and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNAs was also increased in GRE-treated C3H/HeN spleen cells. We investigated the possibility that GRE contains a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-like component. However, GRE induced production of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma in the presence of polymyxin B, an LPS inhibitor. Furthermore, a Limulus amebocyte lysate assay showed that the endotoxin content of GRE was below the threshold level of 1 ng/ml LPS. These results suggest that GRE contains a non-LPS agent that enhances innate immunity through production of proinflammatory cytokines via TLR-4.

Intraperitoneal injection of ginseng extract enhances both immunoglobulin and cytokine production in mice

Ginseng is one of the most widely used Chinese herbal medicines. In this report, the relatively short-term effect of ginseng extract on the immunoglobulin production and cytokine production was studied. The ginseng extract was prepared by boiling the ground ginseng root in 50% ethanol. The specific pathogen-free mice were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with various doses of ginseng extract for 3 consecutive days. The results indicated that the serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig)M, IgG and IgA were significantly elevated after the mice were i.p. injected with 4 g/kg/day of ginseng extract. Under in vitro condition, the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated spleen cells showed a dose-dependent increase in secretion of IgM, IgG and IgA. However, at a higher dosage (4 g/kg/day), the amount of IgA secretion began to decline. The serum level of interleukin (IL)-2, interferon (IFN)-gamma[T-helper (Th) 1-type cytokines] and IL-4 and IL-10 (Th2-type cytokines) were significantly elevated after the mice were i.p. injected with 2 g/kg/day or higher doses of ginseng extract. The amount of cytokine secretion by concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated spleen cells was also significantly enhanced after the mice were i.p. injected with 0.4 g/kg/day or higher dose of ginseng extracted. To further confirm the results from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the spleen cells were cultured for 36 hours in the presence of 1 microgram/ml of Con A. Total mRNA was isolated and assayed for mRNA expression using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The results revealed that expression of IL-2 and IFN-gamma mRNA were dose-dependently enhanced by the ethanol extract of ginseng. The levels of IL-4 and IL-10 mRNA expression were also elevated in the spleen cells of ginseng-treated mice in comparison with that of the control group. In addition, we observed that the concentrations of IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b in culture supernatants of spleen cells were dose-dependently increased by in vivo treatment of ginseng extract, suggesting that both Th1- and Th2-type cytokines were involved in IgG production. Our observation in this study demonstrated that the Chinese herbal drug ginseng was able to regulate antibody production by augmenting Th1- (IL-2, IFN-gamma) and Th2-type (IL-4, IL-10) cytokine production.

Enhancement of ovalbumin-specific IgA responses via oral boosting with antigen co-administered with an aqueous Solanum torvum extract

An experiment was conducted with the objective to enhance mucosal immunity against ovalbumin (OVA) by co-administration of OVA with an aqueous extract from the fruit of Solanum torvum (STE). Five groups of female ICR mice aged approximately 8 weeks at the commencement of the experiment were caged in groups of eight and received various treatments. The treatments included OVA alone, OVA with cholera toxin (CT), and OVA with various doses of STE. Mice were primed intraperitoneally with 500 microg of OVA alone or co-administered with 0.1 microg CT, or with 1 microg STE. All mice were boosted orally via gastric intubation 14 days after priming with 10 mg OVA alone, or co-administered with 10 microg CT or with 10 mg, 1 mg or 0.1 mg STE. One week later all mice were killed and organs obtained for analysis of the immune response. Intestinal, faecal and pulmonary OVA-specific sIgA concentration was significantly increased (p<0.05) in mice that received booster combinations of OVA/CT and OVA with all extract doses (p<0.05). Specific serum IgG titres did not differ significantly between groups. It is concluded that STE can significantly enhance secretory immunity in the intestine to OVA with mucosal homing to the lungs. The adjuvant effect of STE is comparable to that of CT.

Immune system effects of echinacea, ginseng, and astragalus: a review

Traditional herbal medicine provides several remedies for strengthening the body's resistance to illness through effects on immune system components. This review article examines 3 popular herbal immune stimulants that are often of interest to cancer patients. Echinacea, a native of North America, is widely used to prevent, or provide early treatment for, colds. Preclinical studies lend biological plausibility to the idea that echinacea works through immune mechanisms. Numerous clinical trials have been carried out on echinacea preparations: it appears that the extracts shorten the duration and severity of colds and other upper respiratory infections (URIs) when given as soon as symptoms become evident. However, trials of long-term use of echinacea as a preventive have not shown positive results. Ginseng has been studied in some depth as an antifatigue agent, but studies of immune mechanisms have not proceeded so far. Preclinical evidence shows some immune-stimulating activity. There have been several clinical trials in a variety of different diseases. Astragalus is the least-studied agent. There are some preclinical trials that show intriguing immune activity. The herbs discussed appear to have satisfactory safety profiles. Cancer patients may wish to use these botanicals to inhibit tumor growth or to boost resistance to infections. However, passive immunotherapy with herbs, with no mechanism to expose tumor antigens, is unlikely to be effective in inhibiting tumor growth. Although the margin of safety for these herbs is large, more research is needed to demonstrate the clear value of using herbs to improve resistance to infections.

Immunoadjuvant potential of Asparagus racemosus aqueous extract in experimental system

The immunoadjuvant potential of Asparagus racemosus (Willd.) Family (Liliaceae) aqueous root extract was evaluated in experimental animals immunized with diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (DTP) vaccine. Immunostimulation was evaluated using serological and hematological parameters. Oral administration of test material at 100 mg/kg per day dose for 15 days resulted significant increase (P = 0.0052) in antibody titers to Bordtella pertussis as compared to untreated (control) animals. Immunized animals (treated and untreated) were challenged with B. pertussis 18323 strain and the animals were observed for 14 days. Results indicate that the treated animals did show significant increase in antibody titers as compared to untreated animals after challenge (P = 0.002). Immunoprotection against intra-cerebral challenge of live B. pertussis cells was evaluated based on degree of sickness, paralysis and subsequent death. Reduced mortality accompanied with overall improved health status was observed in treated animals after intra-cerebral challenge of B. pertussis indicating development of protective immune response. Present study indicates applications of test material as potential immunoadjuvant that also offers direct therapeutic benefits resulting in less morbidity and mortality.

Immunostimulating effects of sugar cane extract on X-ray radiation induced immunosuppression in the chicken

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum L.) extract (SCE) on the immune system of X-ray immunosuppressed chickens. SCE (500 mg/kg/day) was administrated into the crop of 3-week-old chickens for three consecutive days before or after irradiation. The results indicated that administration of SCE before or after whole body X-ray irradiation enhanced both primary and secondary immune responses in chickens immunized with sheep red blood cells and Brucella abortus (BA) as well as cell-mediated immunity measured by delayed type hypersensitivity to human gamma-globulin.