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Watkins LR, Hansen MK, Nguyen KT, Lee JE, Maier SF. Dynamic regulation of the proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1beta: molecular biology for non-molecular biologists. Life Sci 1999; 65:449-81. [PMID: 10462074 DOI: 10.1016/s0024-3205(99)00095-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) is a key mediator and modulator of a wide array of physiological responses important for survival. It is created by a variety of cell types, including immune cells, glia, and neurons. It is a very potent biological molecule, acting both at the periphery as well as within the central nervous system. The production and release of IL-1beta is tightly regulated by far more complex processes than previously thought. An appreciation of this complexity is necessary for proper interpretation of apparent contradictions in the literature where different aspects of IL-1beta expression are measured. Given that many researchers are not molecular biologists by training, yet need an appreciation of the controls that regulate the function of key proteins such as IL-1beta, this review is aimed at both: (a) clarifying the multiple levels at which IL-1beta production is modulated and (b) using IL-1beta regulation to explain the dynamics of gene regulation to non-molecular biologists. Three major topics will be discussed. First, regulation of IL-1beta production will be examined at every level from extracellular signals that trigger gene activation through release of active protein into the extracellular fluid. Second, regulation of IL-1beta bioavailability and bioactivity will be discussed. This section examines the fact that even after IL-1beta is released, it may or may not be able to exert a biological action due to multiple modulatory factors. Last is the introduction of the idea that IL-1beta regulation is, at times, beyond the direct control of host; that is, when IL-1beta production becomes dysregulated by pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Watkins
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Boulder, 80309, USA.
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52
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Watkins LR, Nguyen KT, Lee JE, Maier SF. Dynamic regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1999; 461:153-78. [PMID: 10442173 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-585-37970-8_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L R Watkins
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Boulder 80309, USA
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53
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Li X, Commane M, Burns C, Vithalani K, Cao Z, Stark GR. Mutant cells that do not respond to interleukin-1 (IL-1) reveal a novel role for IL-1 receptor-associated kinase. Mol Cell Biol 1999; 19:4643-52. [PMID: 10373513 PMCID: PMC84262 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.19.7.4643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutagenized human 293 cells containing an interleukin-1 (IL-1)-regulated herpes thymidine kinase gene, selected in IL-1 and gancyclovir, have yielded many independent clones that are unresponsive to IL-1. The four clones analyzed here carry recessive mutations and represent three complementation groups. Mutant A in complementation group I1 lacks IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK), while the mutants in the other two groups are defective in unknown components that function upstream of IRAK. Expression of exogenous IRAK in I1A cells (I1A-IRAK) restores their responsiveness to IL-1. Neither NFkappaB nor Jun kinase is activated in IL-1-treated I1A cells, but these responses are restored in I1A-IRAK cells, indicating that IRAK is required for both. To address the role of the kinase activity of IRAK in IL-1 signaling, its ATP binding site was mutated (K239A), completely abolishing kinase activity. In transfected I1A cells, IRAK-K239A was still phosphorylated upon IL-1 stimulation and, surprisingly, still complemented all the defects in the mutant cells. Therefore, IRAK must be phosphorylated by a different kinase, and phospho-IRAK must play a role in IL-1-mediated signaling that does not require its kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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54
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Dale M, Nicklin MJ. Interleukin-1 receptor cluster: gene organization of IL1R2, IL1R1, IL1RL2 (IL-1Rrp2), IL1RL1 (T1/ST2), and IL18R1 (IL-1Rrp) on human chromosome 2q. Genomics 1999; 57:177-9. [PMID: 10191101 DOI: 10.1006/geno.1999.5767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The family of interleukin-1 receptor-like genes currently has six known members. We have constructed a contig of 10 overlapping human PAC clones that covers 530 kb and includes five of the six family members. The termini of the contig were mapped to the interval between D2S373 and D2S176 (chromosome 2q12) by radiation hybrid mapping. The contig contains the genes (cen --> tel), in the order given, for the type II interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor (IL1R2), the type I IL-1 receptor (IL1R1), the IL-1 receptor-related protein 2 (IL1RL2), T1/ST2/fit-1 (IL1RL1), and the IL-1 receptor-related protein 1, which has recently been shown to be a component of the IL-18 receptor (IL18R1). We show that all the genes are transcribed in the same direction, with IL1R2 being transcribed toward the cluster. The only known family member that is absent from the human contig is the IL-1 receptor accessory protein gene (IL1RAP), which maps to 3q28.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dale
- Division of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, University of Sheffield, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, S10 2JF, United Kingdom
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55
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Abstract
Given at the Meeting of the Physiological Society held at the University of Southampton on 10 September 1998
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Rothwell
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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56
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Turnbull AV, Rivier CL. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by cytokines: actions and mechanisms of action. Physiol Rev 1999; 79:1-71. [PMID: 9922367 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.1999.79.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 808] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are hormone products of the adrenal gland, which have long been recognized to have a profound impact on immunologic processes. The communication between immune and neuroendocrine systems is, however, bidirectional. The endocrine and immune systems share a common "chemical language," with both systems possessing ligands and receptors of "classical" hormones and immunoregulatory mediators. Studies in the early to mid 1980s demonstrated that monocyte-derived or recombinant interleukin-1 (IL-1) causes secretion of hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, establishing that immunoregulators, known as cytokines, play a pivotal role in this bidirectional communication between the immune and neuroendocrine systems. The subsequent 10-15 years have witnessed demonstrations that numerous members of several cytokine families increase the secretory activity of the HPA axis. Because this neuroendocrine action of cytokines is mediated primarily at the level of the central nervous system, studies investigating the mechanisms of HPA activation produced by cytokines take on a more broad significance, with findings relevant to the more fundamental question of how cytokines signal the brain. This article reviews published findings that have documented which cytokines have been shown to influence hormone secretion from the HPA axis, determined under what physiological/pathophysiological circumstances endogenous cytokines regulate HPA axis activity, established the possible sites of cytokine action on HPA axis hormone secretion, and identified the potential neuroanatomic and pharmacological mechanisms by which cytokines signal the neuroendocrine hypothalamus.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Turnbull
- The Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
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57
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Thomassen E, Bird TA, Renshaw BR, Kennedy MK, Sims JE. Binding of interleukin-18 to the interleukin-1 receptor homologous receptor IL-1Rrp1 leads to activation of signaling pathways similar to those used by interleukin-1. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1998; 18:1077-88. [PMID: 9877452 DOI: 10.1089/jir.1998.18.1077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is an inflammatory cytokine that has been shown to enhance a variety of Th1 type T cell responses. Because IL-18 is homologous to IL-1, we tested binding of IL-18 to the known IL-1R family members. We could show binding of IL-18 to the orphan receptor IL-1Rrp1 but not to other IL-1R homologous proteins. IL-1Rrp1 and IL-1RI share highly conserved domains within their cytoplasmic regions. Comparison of the IL-1 and IL-18 signaling mechanisms showed that they activate identical cytoplasmic messengers. IL-18, like IL-1, induced association of its receptor with IRAK and subsequent recruitment of TRAF6. IL-18 activated p38 MAP kinase, jun kinase, and beta casein kinase (TIP kinase), an apparently novel kinase previously thought to be specifically activated by IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). IL-18 activated NF-kappaB in EL4/6.1 thymoma cells but not in COS-7 cells, even though the latter presumably contain all components required for the IL-1 signaling pathway. From our binding and signaling studies, we conclude that the IL-18 receptor complex consists of IL-18, the IL-1Rrp1, and another thus far unidentified receptor molecule.
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58
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Born TL, Thomassen E, Bird TA, Sims JE. Cloning of a novel receptor subunit, AcPL, required for interleukin-18 signaling. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:29445-50. [PMID: 9792649 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.45.29445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
We have identified a novel member of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor family, which we have termed AcPL. In transient transfection assays, we were unable to demonstrate a role for AcPL in IL-1-induced activation of NFkappaB. Interleukin-18 (interferon-gamma-inducing factor) is another member of the IL-1 family of cytokines, and it has recently been shown that IL-18 has a weak affinity for IL-1R-rp1. We examined whether AcPL might function alone or in concert with IL-1R-rp1 to mediate IL-18 signaling. We found that both IL-1R-rp1 and AcPL expression were required for induction of NFkappaB activity and for activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in response to IL-18. Furthermore, a dominant negative version of AcPL specifically inhibited IL-18 signaling. In vitro immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that AcPL alone was unable to bind IL-18 with any appreciable affinity. We propose that although IL-1R-rp1 binds the cytokine, IL-1R-rp1 and AcPL proteins are both required for IL-18 signaling, analogous to the requirement for both IL-1R and IL-1RAcP in IL-1-mediated responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Born
- Immunex Corporation, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA.
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59
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Adachi O, Kawai T, Takeda K, Matsumoto M, Tsutsui H, Sakagami M, Nakanishi K, Akira S. Targeted disruption of the MyD88 gene results in loss of IL-1- and IL-18-mediated function. Immunity 1998; 9:143-50. [PMID: 9697844 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(00)80596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1635] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
MyD88, originally isolated as a myeloid differentiation primary response gene, is shown to act as an adaptor in interleukin-1 (IL-1) signaling by interacting with both the IL-1 receptor complex and IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK). Mice generated by gene targeting to lack MyD88 have defects in T cell proliferation as well as induction of acute phase proteins and cytokines in response to IL-1. Increases in interferon-gamma production and natural killer cell activity in response to IL-18 are abrogated. In vivo Th1 response is also impaired. Furthermore, IL-18-induced activation of NF-kappaB and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is blocked in MyD88-/- Th1-developing cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that MyD88 is a critical component in the signaling cascade that is mediated by IL-1 receptor as well as IL-18 receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Adachi
- Department of Biochemistry, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Japan
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60
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Adachi O, Kawai T, Takeda K, Matsumoto M, Tsutsui H, Sakagami M, Nakanishi K, Akira S. Targeted Disruption of the MyD88 Gene Results in Loss of IL-1- and IL-18-Mediated Function. Immunity 1998. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1074-7613(00)80596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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61
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Adachi O, Kawai T, Takeda K, Matsumoto M, Tsutsui H, Sakagami M, Nakanishi K, Akira S. Targeted Disruption of the MyD88 Gene Results in Loss of IL-1- and IL-18-Mediated Function. Immunity 1998. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/s1074-7613(00)80596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
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62
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Loddick SA, Liu C, Takao T, Hashimoto K, De Souza EB. Interleukin-1 receptors: cloning studies and role in central nervous system disorders. BRAIN RESEARCH. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 1998; 26:306-19. [PMID: 9651547 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0173(97)00037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S A Loddick
- Neurocrine Biosciences, Inc., San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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63
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Wesche H, Henzel WJ, Shillinglaw W, Li S, Cao Z. MyD88: an adapter that recruits IRAK to the IL-1 receptor complex. Immunity 1997; 7:837-47. [PMID: 9430229 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(00)80402-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 834] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
IL-1 is a proinflammatory cytokine that signals through a receptor complex of two different transmembrane chains to generate multiple cellular responses, including activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB. Here we show that MyD88, a previously described protein of unknown function, is recruited to the IL-1 receptor complex following IL-1 stimulation. MyD88 binds to both IRAK (IL-1 receptor-associated kinase) and the heterocomplex (the signaling complex) of the two receptor chains and thereby mediates the association of IRAK with the receptor. Ectopic expression of MyD88 or its death domain-containing N-terminus activates NF-kappaB. The C-terminus of MyD88 interacts with the IL-1 receptor and blocks NF-kappaB activation induced by IL-1, but not by TNF. Thus, MyD88 plays the same role in IL-1 signaling as TRADD and Tube do in TNF and Toll pathways, respectively: it couples a serine/threonine protein kinase to the receptor complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Wesche
- Tularik, Incorporated, South San Francisco, California 94080, USA
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64
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Hunter CA, Timans J, Pisacane P, Menon S, Cai G, Walker W, Aste-Amezaga M, Chizzonite R, Bazan JF, Kastelein RA. Comparison of the effects of interleukin-1 alpha, interleukin-1 beta and interferon-gamma-inducing factor on the production of interferon-gamma by natural killer. Eur J Immunol 1997; 27:2787-92. [PMID: 9394800 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830271107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Interferon-gamma inducing factor (IGIF) is a recently identified cytokine which stimulates the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) by T cells and enhances natural killer (NK) cell cytolytic activity. Protein fold recognition, structure prediction and comparative modeling have revealed that IGIF is a member of the interleukin (IL)-1 cytokine family and has prompted the designation IL-1 gamma. Here we report functional similarities between members of the IL-1 family by comparing the effects of IL-1 alpha, IL-1 beta and IGIF on NK cell production of IFN-gamma. All three IL-1 types enhanced NK cell production of IFN-gamma when induced by IL-2 or IL-12, although at high concentrations (> 10 ng/ml), IGIF was five- to tenfold more potent than IL-1 alpha or IL-1 beta. This effect correlated with enhanced levels of mRNA for IFN-gamma when NK cells were stimulated with IGIF plus IL-12. In contrast to IL-12 and IL-2, the ability of IGIF to stimulate NK cell production of IFN-gamma was not increased by IL-1 alpha or IL-1 beta. The ability of IGIF to enhance IFN-gamma production was independent of the type I and type II IL-1 receptors or the IL-1R accessory protein. Together, these results identify IGIF as a potent stimulator of NK cell production of IFN-gamma and demonstrate that the effect of IGIF on NK cell production of IFN-gamma is similar to that of IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta but distinct from that of IL-12.
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Hunter
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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