The role of children's future expectations in self-system functioning and adjustment to life stress: A prospective study of urban at-risk children

Educational aspiration-expectation discrepancies: relation to socioeconomic and academic risk-related factors

This study examines whether disconnection between educational aspirations and expectations is associated with socioeconomic status, academic performance, academic risk-related behaviors and related psychosocial factors in an ethnically and economically diverse sample of early adolescents from a public middle school (N = 761). Results suggest that students who aspire to achieve more than they expect to achieve also are likely to have more economically disadvantaged backgrounds and poorer academic performance. These students also show a variety of academic and social risks. Specifically, students whose aspirations exceeded their expectations reported lower levels of school bonding, higher levels of test/performance anxiety, and elevated behavioral/emotional difficulties. Results are discussed in terms of social-cognitive theory as well as applications for promoting student social and academic success.

Intervention to strengthen emotional self-regulation in children with emerging mental health problems: proximal impact on school behavior

A model for teaching children skills to strengthen emotional self-regulation is introduced, informed by the developmental concept of scaffolding. Adult modeling/instruction, role-play and in vivo coaching are tailored to children's level of understanding and skill to promote use of skills in real life contexts. Two-hundred twenty-six kindergarten-3rd grade children identified with elevated behavioral and social classroom problems from a population-based screening participated in a wait listed randomized trial of the Rochester Resilience Project derived from this model. In 14 lessons with school-based mentors, children were taught a hierarchical set of skills: monitoring of emotions; self control/ reducing escalation of emotions; and maintaining control and regaining equilibrium. Mentors provided classroom reinforcement of skill use. Multi-level modeling accounting for the nesting of children in schools and classrooms showed the following effects at post-intervention: reduced problems rated by teachers in behavior control, peer social skills, shy-withdrawn and off-task behaviors (ES 0.31-0.47). Peer social skills improved for girls but not for boys. Children receiving the intervention had a 46% mean decrease in disciplinary referrals and a 43% decrease in suspensions during the 4-month intervention period. Limitations and future directions to promote skill transfer are discussed.

Exploring posttraumatic growth in children impacted by Hurricane Katrina: correlates of the phenomenon and developmental considerations

This study explored posttraumatic growth (PTG), positive change resulting from struggling with trauma, among 7- to 10-year-olds impacted by Hurricane Katrina. Analyses focused on child self-system functioning and cognitive processes, and the caregiving context, in predicting PTG at 2 time points (Time 1 n = 66, Time 2 n = 51). Findings suggest that rumination, both negative, distressing thoughts and constructive, repetitive thinking, plays an important role in PTG. Hypotheses regarding future expectations and perceived competence were not fully supported, and, unexpectedly, coping competency beliefs, realistic control attributions, and perceived caregiver warmth did not contribute to PTG models. With 1 exception (positive reframing coping advice), caregiver-reported variables did not relate to PTG; no caregiver variable reached significance in final models. Relevant theory, developmental considerations, and future directions are discussed.

Confidence as a predictor of sexual and reproductive health outcomes for youth

PURPOSE

To assess the association between four positive youth development (PYD) constructs of confidence and adolescent sexual and reproductive health (ASRH) outcomes.

METHODS

We searched nine online databases to locate behavioral research that examined the association between four constructs of confidence (belief in the future, self-determination, clear and positive identity, and self-efficacy) and ASRH outcomes (e.g., ever had sex, condom use, contraception use, number of partners, pregnancy/birth, and sexually transmitted infection). Findings were coded as "protective," "risk," or "no association." The presence of at least two longitudinal studies reporting consistent significant associations for at least one ASRH outcome indicated evidence for a protective or risk association.

RESULTS

We found evidence to support two of the four PYD constructs of confidence (belief in the future and self-determination) as protective factors for ASRH outcomes. Evidence was insufficient to draw conclusions about clear and positive identity as a protective factor, and was mixed for self-efficacy. Measures of confidence varied considerably across the studies reviewed, reflecting varying definitions; often, the measures used had limited information on reliability. Few longitudinal investigations were identified, and available studies were inconsistent in how they examined the association between the PYD constructs and ASRH outcomes. Evidence for most constructs was insufficient to identify their influence on specific sub-groups of youth.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the need for additional research, this review suggests that belief in the future and self-determination are promising protective factors. Further research is needed to better understand the potential for self-efficacy and clear and positive identity as protective factors.

Preadolescent female development through sport and physical activity: a case study of an urban after-school program

Youth development research has found that children become more engaged and benefit more from being incorporated as decision makers. Thus participation helps promote development and encourages engagement. Based in theories of engagement and free-choice learning, the current research focused on a program combining sport/physical activity, life skills, and mentoring while promoting healthy life choices for preadolescent girls of color The co-investigators, all women, conducted two 2-hr visits per week for two 12-week periods with a group of 8 girls at a community recreation center in Hartford, Connecticut, including lessons in nutrition and life skills and participation in a sport/physical activity. Five of the girls completed every stage of data collection, including participant journals and four individual interviews with each participant and her parents, over the course of the 24 weeks. The co-investigators also kept journals throughout the program. The results reflected the following themes: self-esteem/self-worth, accountability/responsibility for self connections to community and a sense of belonging, knowledge and acquisition of health/life skills, application of those skills, and planning and recognizing one's own influence on self and others.

Comparison of One-, Two-, and Three-Factor Models of Personal Resiliency Using the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents

This article examines the scale structure of the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA). Confirmatory factor analysis reveals that a three-factor model is a better fit than one- or two-factor models for the normative sample. These findings lend support to the construct validity of the RSCA. The three-factor model is discussed as a framework that is useful in systematically relating critical aspects of resiliency in children and adolescents for the purpose of clinical intervention.

An exploratory study of posttraumatic growth in children following a natural disaster

This study extends L. G. Calhoun and R. G. Tedeschi's (1998) model of posttraumatic growth (PTG), positive change resulting from the struggle with trauma, to children by exploring the construct among youngsters who experienced Hurricane Floyd and the subsequent flooding. Despite burgeoning interest in PTG, few studies have examined the phenomenon among non-adults. This first systematic study of PTG in children explores hypothesized linkages among PTG and social support, competency beliefs, and ruminative thinking. Results suggest that competency beliefs relate to PTG and that a supportive social environment and ruminative thinking are associated with positive competency beliefs. Contrary to expectations, social support did not relate to rumination. Findings testify to the merit of studying the PTG process in children. Clinical implications and future directions are considered.

Future expectations of Brasilian street youth

Future expectations of youth surviving on the streets of Porto Alegre, Brasil, were examined. The sample consisted of 35 boys and 34 girls aged 10-18 (M age 14.4) who participated in a sentence completion task and semi-structured interviews. Responses to two incomplete sentences regarding the future revealed a mismatch between hoped-for and expected events. When completing the sentence, "In the future, I hope..." the majority of youth gave optimistic (but generally non-specific) responses. In contrast, the sentence "For me, the future..." elicited more pessimistic responses. Few gender or age-related differences emerged. Findings are discussed in light of prior research with general populations of adolescents as well as studies of street youth. Taken as a whole, results suggest that life on the street shapes and constrains how youth see their futures. Implications of the findings for policy makers and practitioners are addressed.

Developing a Resilience Package for Vulnerable Children

In recent years great efforts have been made to clarify what factors make it more likely that a child will develop mental health problems, and what elements increase the resilience of vulnerable children, and hence protect them from becoming disturbed. With the increase in understanding about the nature of such resilience comes the possibility of developing preventative packages for at-risk groups.

METHOD

Children whose parents have significant depressive illness have been offered a supportive package that seeks to increase their resilience. This focuses on the child's resources, family education and interaction, and community resources and supports for the family to access.

RESULTS

Initial results show the package increases social activity, reduces emotionality and helps families become more flexible.

CONCLUSION

Helping children reduce their risk of developing mental health problems is rightly an area of growing importance. This package is a potentially successful way of achieving this by promoting their resilience.

An organizational framework for conceptualizing resilience in children

TOPIC

An organizational framework for conceptualizing resilience in children.

PURPOSE

To propose a framework based on relevant literature that clarifies, differentiates, organizes, and elaborates on pertinent factors associated with resilience in children.

SOURCES

Relevant literature from developmental psychology, child, psychiatry, and nursing.

CONCLUSIONS

Salient factors affecting resilience in children originate internally or externally to the individual. Internal factors include biological and psychological factors; external factors are reflected in the nature and quality of relationships established within or outside the family group. The influence and importance of each factor, however, may vary in individual situations. The framework can guide research efforts and facilitate interventions for practice.

A longitudinal assessment of teacher perceptions of parent involvement in children's education and school performance

This study examines the ways in which parental involvement in children's education changes over time and how it relates to children's social and academic functioning in school. Teachers provided information on parent involvement and school performance for 1,205 urban, kindergarten through third-grade children for 3 consecutive years. They rated the following four dimensions of parent involvement: frequency of parent-teacher contact, quality of the parent-teacher interactions, participation in educational activities at home, and participation in school activities. As predicted, the frequency of parent-teacher contacts, quality of parent-teacher interactions, and parent participation at school declined from Years 1 to 3. Every parent involvement variable correlated moderately with school performance and parent involvement in Years 1 and 2, and accounted for a small, but significant amount of variance in Year 3 performance after controlling for initial performance level. Participation in educational activities at home predicted the widest range of performance variables. Results suggest that enhancing parental involvement in children's schooling relates to improvements in school functioning.

Individual differences in posttraumatic distress: problems with the DSM-IV model

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the evidence concerning the role of threatening life events in accounting for clinically significant posttraumatic stress responses.

METHOD

Research was examined to review the epidemiology, evidence of dose-response relations, and individual difference factors in accounting for variations in conditions, including posttraumatic stress disorder, after exposure to threatening events.

RESULTS

The evidence is significantly discrepant from the clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) model. Greater distress arises from individual differences than from event characteristics. Important individual differences that interact with threat exposures include trait negative affectivity (neuroticism); beliefs about emotions, the self, the world, and the sources and consequences of danger; and prevent acts, disorders, and intelligence. Reasons for the discrepancies between the evidence and the current model of posttraumatic distress are proposed.

CONCLUSION

In accounting for responses to threatening life events, the relatively minor contribution of event qualities compared with individual differences has significant treatment implications. Treatment approaches assuming that toxic event exposure creates a posttraumatic disorder fail to consider individual differences that could improve treatment efficacy.

School adjustment, school membership and adolescents' future expectations

Two studies investigated how students' school adjustment and sense of school membership relates to their future expectations. In Study 1 measures of future expectations, school membership and school adjustment were administered to a random sample of 307 5th-12th grade (male and female) students in 16 schools. Correlations among the measures were significant, and no meaningful grade differences were found on these variables. Multiple regression analysis showed that students' social acceptance in school predicted future expectations. Study 2 replicated Study 1 using 164 female students (i.e. the entire student population of one high school) as subjects. Findings of Study 2 also support the conclusion that students' school experiences, particularly with peers, shape their future expectations.

Fostering children's resilience

Resilience is relevant to nurses because of its implications for health. Research on the resilience of children and adolescents has proliferated over the past five years. However, the specific processes underlying resilience and outcome variables require further study. Furthermore, few intervention studies have been conducted. This article describes resilience and factors that influence resilience of children, examines the relationship between resilience and health, identifies interventions that foster children's resilience and health, reviews research focusing on children's resilience, and suggests the relevance of resilience to nursing of children.