The biosecurity status and its associations with production and management characteristics in farrow-to-finish pig herds

Using the Biocheck.UGent™ scoring tool in Irish farrow-to-finish pig farms: assessing biosecurity and its relation to productive performance

BACKGROUND

Biosecurity is one of the main factors affecting disease occurrence and antimicrobial use, and it is associated with performance in pig production. However, the importance of specific measures could vary depending on the (national) context. The aim of this study was to describe the biosecurity status in a cohort of Irish pig farms, to investigate which of those biosecurity aspects are more relevant by using the Biocheck.UGent™ scoring system, and to study the impact of such aspects on farm performance.

RESULTS

External biosecurity score was high compared to most countries due to the characteristics of the Irish pig sector (i.e. purchasing only semen and breeding gilts on farm). The internal biosecurity score was lower and had greater variability among farms than other EU countries. Using multivariable linear regression, the biosecurity practices explained 8, 23, and 16% of variability in piglet mortality, finisher mortality, and average daily gain, respectively. Three clusters of farms were defined based on their biosecurity scores (0 to 100) using principal components and hierarchical clustering analysis. Scores for clusters 1, 2 and 3 were (mean ± SD) 38 ± 7.6, 61 ± 7.0 and 66 ± 9.8 for internal and 73 ± 5.1, 74 ± 5.3 and 86 ± 4.5 for external biosecurity. Cluster 3 had lower piglet mortality (P = 0.022) and higher average daily gain (P = 0.037) when compared to cluster 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Irish farms follow European tendencies with internal biosecurity posing as the biggest liability. Our results suggest that practices related to the environment and region, feed, water and equipment supply, and the management of the different stages, need to be addressed in lower performing farms to improve productive performance. Further studies on the economic impact of these biosecurity practices including complementary data on herd health, gilt rearing, piglet management, vaccination and feeding strategies are needed.

Biosecurity assessment of Argentinian pig farms

The pig industry is growing very fast in Argentina with an increasing need for replacement animals, feedstuff and transportation of animals. One of the main competitive advantages of the Argentinian pig industry is its being free of most major pig diseases. Within this context, applying measures aimed to reduce the risk of introduction and spread of pathogens is critical. The aim of the present study was to assess the biosecurity of Argentinian pig farms. Two types of farms were assessed: firstly, all official suppliers of high-genetic-value (n = 110) and secondly, a sample from commercial farms (n = 192). Data on the external and internal biosecurity practices applied on the farms was collected with a questionnaire. Data was analysed using a correspondence analysis and a hierarchical clustering analysis, which allowed identification of types of farms with regard to the biosecurity measures applied. Key variables characterizing the clusters were identified through an indicator value analysis. In addition, the external biosecurity of the farms was evaluated by using risk assessment tools with respect to the potential introduction of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus. Results made evident three clusters: the first one which, amongst other measures, applied several barriers to prevent the entry of people, trucks and other vehicles, and could be considered as a group of high biosecurity, and the two other groups which applied a lower number of external and internal biosecurity measures. The results of the risk assessment showed that the routes with the highest risk of disease introduction were: replacement animals, vehicles transporting feed or animals, and visitors. The assessment of the external biosecurity showed that most Argentinian farms were not prepared for the contingency of a pathogen such as porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus. Special efforts should be made in official suppliers of high-genetic-value farms with poor biosecurity scores since they are at the top of the pig production chain and can be key for the spread of diseases.

Association between antimicrobial usage, biosecurity measures as well as farm performance in German farrow-to-finish farms

Background

Antimicrobial usage in food producing animals is of major concern. A clear link between the extent of use and the development of antimicrobial resistance has already been demonstrated. To evaluate strategies that may reduce the antimicrobial usage while assuring pig health and welfare, it requires profound knowledge of factors that are associated with antimicrobial usage. Data on biosecurity and herd management practices are important parameters to identify risk factors which are related to a higher antimicrobial usage. To investigate between-farm variations of high and low usage the treatment incidence (TI) per age group in 60 German farrow-to-finish herds was qualitatively and quantitatively analysed and linked to biosecurity measures, and herd management characteristics.

Results

Weaned pigs received most of the treatments (median TI = 487.6), followed by suckling pigs (median TI = 138.9). Suckling pigs were treated with critically important antimicrobials (3rd and 4th generation cephalosporines) to a remarkable extent. The number of sows present at site (p < 0.01) and a low score for external biosecurity (p = 0.06) were associated with a higher antimicrobial usage in pigs from birth till slaughter. Herds with a higher treatment incidence in growing pigs (TI 200 days): i) were located in a region with a high pig density (p < 0.01), ii) had a less strict access check for visitors and personnel (p < 0.01) and iii) scored lower in the subcategory ‘cleaning and disinfection’ (internal biosecurity) (p < 0.01). Herds with a higher treatment incidence in breeding pigs weaned more piglets per sow and year and scored better in the internal biosecurity level (p = 0.02).

Conclusions

With the main focus on the treatment incidence in pigs from birth till slaughter and in breeding pigs risk factors for a high usage in these age groups were identified. The level of biosecurity of a herd was associated with the amount of antimicrobials used. Therefore, the findings in this study indicate possible points of action in the reduction and prudent use of antimicrobials in Germany. The active improvement of biosecurity measures could be a promising alternative to reduce antimicrobial usage on herd level.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40813-018-0106-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An epidemiological analysis of the level of biosecurity and animal welfare on pig farms in Japan and their effect on the use of veterinary antimicrobials

In Japan the highest use of veterinary antimicrobials is in pig production. To obtain useful information to achieve the best approach to reducing this use, we analyzed the association between the level of on-farm biosecurity and animal welfare with the level of antimicrobial use as recorded on prescriptions on 38 pig farms under contract to veterinarians of the Japanese Association of Swine Veterinarians. To determine the level of welfare we recorded the risk of pre- and post-weaning deaths and the floor space available per fattening pig (m²/head). Multivariable linear regression analysis was performed, using biosecurity scores and animal welfare indicators as independent variables and the amount of antimicrobial usage as dependent variables. The results showed that the higher scores for the site condition (location) and external biosecurity scores of the sub-categories ‘farm contractors’ were strongly associated with the lower use of oral antimicrobials (P<0.05). This suggests that in order to reduce the usage of antimicrobials for herd treatments, farmers should consider the location when building a new farm or pig house and strengthen the entrance requirements for high risk visitors. Regression analysis for the respective antimicrobials showed that the site condition, the biosecurity scores of the sub-categories ‘farm contractors’, ‘pen layouts’ (e.g. independence of pens and sites), ‘pig flows’ (e.g. the completeness of all-in/ all-out system) and an animal welfare indicator (i.e. post-weaning mortality risk) were significantly associated with the use of one or more antimicrobials (P<0.05).

Factors associated with specific health, welfare and reproductive performance indicators in pig herds from five EU countries

Production diseases are often of multi-factorial origin in which environment (housing, nutrition and management) health and reproductive challenges show complex interactions. The aim of this study was to identify specific environment-related factors and to discuss their associations with health, welfare and reproductive performance in sows and piglets, in diverse systems using data from 130 farms from five EU countries. Two sets of data were used: a) a questionnaire was developed for sows and piglets covering farm management, interventions and housing and b) farm production data covering various performance parameters. Eight parameters were further selected, four of which were related to sow reproductive performance (litter index, replacement rate, repeat breeding (i.e. failure to breed after one mating), weaning to first mating interval) and the remaining four to litter / piglet health performance (piglets born alive per litter, piglets born dead per litter, preweaning mortality rate and weaned piglets per litter). Univariable and multivariable linear models were employed to identify risk factors. Associations were considered significant if P ≤ 0.007 (a criterion of p ≤ 0.05 corrected for the number of parameters tested). Various risk and protective factors were identified for each tested outcome variable. Country effects were included in all models as a fixed factor. Adjusted R-squared values for the multivariable models varied between 9.6% (preweaning mortality) and 66% (litter index). Litter index (litters/sow/year) was negatively associated with a higher weaning age of the piglets. Housing recently weaned sows to be inseminated in a separate unit from the gestation unit had a positive association with litter index. Repeat breeding was negatively associated with PRRS-free farms, farms that bred (raised) all gilts on the farm and farms that perform farrowing induction of sows. PRRS-free farms were also associated with a higher replacement rate. Farms that bred gilts on the farm and PRRS-free farms were negatively associated with preweaning mortality. Natural ventilation in the gestation unit was associated with fewer piglets born alive and with fewer weaned piglets. Closed type of farms was associated with less piglets born dead. The use of open box housing system for pregnant sows (provision of individual resting areas) was associated with more weaned piglets. In conclusion, several factors related to applying good farm and health management, and optimal housing conditions showed positive association with various sow and piglet performance parameters. Further studies will help to assess causal links for these factors.

Biosecurity practices on foie gras duck farms, Southwest France

On-farm biosecurity can be assessed by analyzing patterns of practices to better tailor technical advice to producers. Given their close contact with environmental and wildlife disease reservoirs, free-range duck farms are exposed to multiple risk factors of pathogen exposure that are rare or absent in indoor production. The recurrent emergence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) viruses in Southeast Asia and Europe has emphasized the importance of farm-level biosecurity on free-range duck farms. This study was conducted on 46 French duck farms. The farms were visited and an 80-question survey was administered to assess biosecurity practices. Patterns of practices were explored with multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Farms were assigned to one of three clusters in which specific farm types were overrepresented: farms specialized in rearing to grow-out phases and open-circuit full cycle (i.e., all production phases on the farm) farms in cluster 1, closed-circuit full cycle farms in cluster 2, and farms specialized in gavage in cluster 3. Differences in practices might be linked with differences in production constraints. This study provides a baseline assessment of biosecurity practices on foie gras duck farms in Southwest France and will help efforts to adapt biosecurity programs to farm types.

Scoring biosecurity in European conventional broiler production

Good biosecurity procedures are crucial for healthy animal production. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of biosecurity on conventional broiler farms in Europe, following a standardized procedure, thereby trying to identify factors that are amenable to improvement. The current study used a risk-based weighted scoring system (biocheck.ugent ®) to assess the level of biosecurity on 399 conventional broiler farms in 5 EU member states. The scoring system consisted of 2 main categories, namely external and internal biosecurity, which had 8 and 3 subcategories, respectively. Biosecurity was quantified by converting the answers to 97 questions into a score from 0 to 100. The minimum score, "0," represents total absence of any biosecurity measure on the broiler farm, whereas the maximum score, "100," means full application of all investigated biosecurity measures. A possible correlation between biosecurity and farm characteristics was investigated by multivariate linear regression analysis. The participating broiler farms scored better for internal biosecurity (mean score of 76.6) than for external biosecurity (mean 68.4). There was variation between the mean biosecurity scores for the different member states, ranging from 59.8 to 78.0 for external biosecurity and from 63.0 to 85.6 for internal biosecurity. Within the category of external biosecurity, the subcategory related to "infrastructure and vectors" had the highest mean score (82.4), while the subcategory with the lowest score related to biosecurity procedures for "visitors and staff" (mean 51.5). Within the category of internal biosecurity, the subcategory "disease management" had the highest mean score (65.8). In the multivariate regression model a significant negative correlation was found between internal biosecurity and the number of employees and farm size. These findings indicate that there is a lot of variation for external and internal biosecurity on the participating broiler farms, suggesting that improvements are possible. Since the subcategory "visitors and staff" scored the lowest, better education of broiler farmers and their staff may help to improve overall biosecurity on broiler farms in Europe.

Herd typologies based on multivariate analysis of biosecurity, productivity, antimicrobial and vaccine use data from Danish sow herds

The use of antimicrobials in livestock constitutes an increasing global concern, and many countries pursue approaches to reduce the amount used, particularly in the pig production industry. The EU Commission has decided, due to environmental concerns, to phase out use of zinc oxide in pigs by 2022. This poses an additional challenge to efforts to reduce antimicrobial use (AMU) in European pig production. The pig production sector needs further information about how to comply with official AMU requirements without losing competitiveness. The most efficient approaches are likely to involve a combination of multiple factors. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore multidimensional associations between biosecurity, productivity, vaccination and AMU. A cross sectional study was conducted using data from 160 Danish sow herds in 2014-2015. Biosecurity data were collected through computer-assisted telephone interviews using a pre-developed questionnaire (Biocheck.UGent®) supplemented with additional country-specific questions and translated into Danish. Herd-specific data, consisting of antimicrobial prescriptions, purchase of vaccines against five endemic infections, herd health status and one productivity measure (i.e. number of weaned piglets per sow per year) were extracted from various databases. Factor analysis was conducted on a subset of the data from 152 herds with sufficiently complete data. The identified factors were explained by evaluating data from herds with extreme loadings on the respective factor. The results were further discussed based on plots combining herd factor loadings on two factors at a time. Four factors were selected based on the break-point in the scree-plot. Factor 1 included herd type, herd size, and age of farm buildings. Factor 2 covered general biosecurity, including several internal and external biosecurity measures. Factor 3 represented preventive measures implying specific focus on avoiding introduction of ASF by foreign employees. Lastly, Factor 4 covered vaccination status, specifically regarding vaccination against Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus. These factors were used to group the 152 sow herds into herd typologies. Feasible strategies aimed at improving health by reducing AMU without hampering animal welfare were identified and discussed for each typology. AMU and productivity correlated only weakly with other variables. This is probably due to limited variability in both these variables in study herds, which might be attributed to official restrictions on AMU, and a general high level of health and biosecurity in Danish sow herds.

Assessment of Factors Influencing the Implementation of Biosecurity Measures on Pig Farms in the Western Highlands of Cameroon (Central Africa)

Biosecurity plays an irreplaceable role in preventing diseases and increasing productivity on farm. The main objective of this study was to characterize pig farming and investigate factors influencing biosecurity on pig farms in the western highlands of Cameroon. Data were collected from May to July 2017 using a questionnaire and observations. A technical scoring system was developed from the biosecurity measures. The results revealed that most farmers are males (76.29%), on average 47.82 ± 10.34 years old, with secondary school level (53.61%). The most common husbandry system is extensive (73.22%). Over a total score of 93, measures with higher scores (>80) included "employees do not rear pigs at home," "animals of different age not in the same room," "unsold animals from market quarantined prior to reintroduction into the herd," "production materials not exchanged among farms," "piggeries clean every day," "disinfectants used," "pigs vaccinated," and "vaccination calendar respected." Those with the lowest score (<6) were "sanitary lock present," "use of herd specific clean coveralls and boots on farm," and "entry restriction sign post present." The biosecurity level was associated with production system, with the score 6.57 and 3.66 points lower for extensive and semi-intensive farms, respectively, than for intensive system. Farmer's age, gender, education level, and herd size did not affect the level of biosecurity. The results can be used to improve the general biosecurity status in pig herds in the country which in turn will lead, as observed elsewhere, to improved technical performance and economic gain.

Connecting Different Data Sources to Assess the Interconnections between Biosecurity, Health, Welfare, and Performance in Commercial Pig Farms in Great Britain

This study aimed to provide an overview of the interconnections between biosecurity, health, welfare, and performance in commercial pig farms in Great Britain. We collected on-farm data about the level of biosecurity and animal performance in 40 fattening pig farms and 28 breeding pig farms between 2015 and 2016. We identified interconnections between these data, slaughterhouse health indicators, and welfare indicator records in fattening pig farms. After achieving the connections between databases, a secondary data analysis was performed to assess the interconnections between biosecurity, health, welfare, and performance using correlation analysis, principal component analysis, and hierarchical clustering. Although we could connect the different data sources the final sample size was limited, suggesting room for improvement in database connection to conduct secondary data analyses. The farm biosecurity scores ranged from 40 to 90 out of 100, with internal biosecurity scores being lower than external biosecurity scores. Our analysis suggested several interconnections between health, welfare, and performance. The initial correlation analysis showed that the prevalence of lameness and severe tail lesions was associated with the prevalence of enzootic pneumonia-like lesions and pyaemia, and the prevalence of severe body marks was associated with several disease indicators, including peritonitis and milk spots (r > 0.3; P < 0.05). Higher average daily weight gain (ADG) was associated with lower prevalence of pleurisy (r > 0.3; P < 0.05), but no connection was identified between mortality and health indicators. A subsequent cluster analysis enabled identification of patterns which considered concurrently indicators of health, welfare, and performance. Farms from cluster 1 had lower biosecurity scores, lower ADG, and higher prevalence of several disease and welfare indicators. Farms from cluster 2 had higher biosecurity scores than cluster 1, but a higher prevalence of pigs requiring hospitalization and lameness which confirmed the correlation between biosecurity and the prevalence of pigs requiring hospitalization (r > 0.3; P < 0.05). Farms from cluster 3 had higher biosecurity, higher ADG, and lower prevalence for some disease and welfare indicators. The study suggests a smaller impact of biosecurity on issues such as mortality, prevalence of lameness, and pig requiring hospitalization. The correlations and the identified clusters suggested the importance of animal welfare for the pig industry.

Veterinary Expert Opinion on Potential Drivers and Opportunities for Changing Antimicrobial Usage Practices in Livestock in Denmark, Portugal, and Switzerland

Reducing antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock is requested by Public Health authorities. Ideally, this should be achieved without jeopardizing production output or animal health and welfare. Thus, efficient measures must be identified and developed to target drivers of AMU. Veterinarians play a central role in the identification and implementation of such efficient interventions. Sixty-seven veterinarians with expertise in livestock production in Denmark, Portugal, and Switzerland participated in an expert opinion study aimed at investigating experiences and opinions of veterinarians about the driving forces and practices related to AMU in the main livestock sectors (broiler, dairy cattle, fattening/veal calf, and pig industry) of the aforementioned countries. Opinions on potential factors influencing the choice of antimicrobials and opportunities to reduce AMU were collected. Antibiograms are seldom used, mainly due to the time lag between testing and obtaining the results. The perceived percentage of treatment failures varied between countries and livestock sectors; however, little changes were reported over time (2005-2015). The animal health problems of each livestock sector most frequently leading to AMU did not vary substantially between countries. Mandatory official interventions (i.e., binding measures applied by national or international authorities) were highlighted as having the biggest impact on AMU. There was a variation in the experts' opinion regarding feasibility and impact of interventions both between countries and livestock sectors. Nevertheless, improved biosecurity and education of veterinarians frequently received high scores. Most veterinarians believed that AMU can be reduced. The median potential reduction estimates varied from 1% in Swiss broilers to 50% in Portuguese broilers and veal/fattening calves in all countries. We hypothesize that the differences in views could be related to disease epidemiology, animal husbandry, and socio-economic factors. A profound investigation of these disparities would provide the required knowledge for developing targeted strategies to tackle AMU and consequently resistance development. However, experts also agreed that mandatory official interventions could have the greatest impact on antimicrobial consumption. Furthermore, improvement of biosecurity and education of veterinarians, the use of zinc oxide (in pigs), improving vaccination strategies, and the creation of treatment plans were the measures considered to have the largest potential to reduce AMU. This paper can inform policymakers in Europe and countries with a similar animal production regarding their AMU policy.

Review of transmission routes of 24 infectious diseases preventable by biosecurity measures and comparison of the implementation of these measures in pig herds in six European countries

This study aimed to review the transmission routes of important infectious pig diseases and to translate these into biosecurity measures preventing or reducing the transmission between and within pig herds. Furthermore, it aimed to identify the level of implementation of these measures in different European countries and discuss the observed variations to identify potentials for improvement. First, a literature review was performed to show which direct and indirect transmission routes of 24 infectious pig diseases can be prevented through different biosecurity measures. Second, a quantitative analysis was performed using the Biocheck.UGent™, a risk-based scoring system to evaluate biosecurity in pig herds, to obtain an insight into the implementation of these biosecurity measures. The database contained farm-specific biosecurity data from 574 pig farms in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden, entered between January 2014 and January 2016. Third, a qualitative analysis based on a review of literature and other relevant information resources was performed for every subcategory of internal and external biosecurity in the Biocheck.UGent™ questionnaire. The quantitative analysis indicated that at the level of internal, external and overall biosecurity, Denmark had a significantly distinct profile with higher external biosecurity scores and less variation than the rest of the countries. This is likely due to a widely used specific pathogen-free (SPF) system with extensive focus on biosecurity since 1971 in Denmark. However, the observed pattern may also be attributed to differences in data collection methods. The qualitative analysis identified differences in applied policies, legislation, disease status, pig farm density, farming culture and habits between countries that can be used for shaping country-specific biosecurity advice to attain improved prevention and control of important pig diseases in European pig farms.

Profile of pig farms combining high performance and low antimicrobial usage within four European countries

Pig farmers are strongly encouraged to reduce their antimicrobial usage because of the rising threat from antimicrobial resistance. However, such efforts should not compromise the herd health status and performance. This study aimed to describe the profile of so-called 'top-farms' that managed to combine both high technical performance and low antimicrobial usage. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 227 farrow-to-finish farms in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden. Among them, 44 farms were allocated to the top-farms group and were compared with the 'regular' farms group in terms of farm characteristics, biosecurity and health status. Top-farms had fewer gastrointestinal symptoms in suckling pigs and fewer respiratory symptoms in fatteners, which could partly explain their reduced need for antimicrobials and higher performance. They also had higher biosecurity and were located in sparsely populated pig areas. However, 14 farms of the top-farms group were located in densely populated pig areas, but still managed to have low usage and high technical performance; they had higher internal biosecurity and more extensive vaccination against respiratory pathogens. These results illustrate that it is possible to control infectious diseases using other approaches than high antimicrobial usage, even in farms with challenging environmental and health conditions.

Comparison of Antimicrobial Consumption Patterns in the Swiss and Danish Cattle and Swine Production (2007-2013)

Veterinary antimicrobial consumption patterns vary considerably across Europe. These differences are not only limited to the total amount consumed but are also observed with regards to the relative proportion of the various antimicrobial classes used. Currently, most of the data on veterinary antimicrobials are reported at sales level without any information on the consumption by different animal species. This hinders a proper comparison of antimicrobial consumption at the species level between countries. However, it is imperative to improve our understanding on antimicrobial usage patterns at the species level, as well as on the drivers contributing to those differences. This will allow for development of tailored interventions with the lowest possible risk for human health, while ensuring effective treatment of diseased livestock. An important step to attain such an objective is to perform detailed comparisons of the antimicrobial consumption in each species between countries. We compared antimicrobial consumption estimates for cattle and pigs in Switzerland and Denmark, in order to distinguish species-specific patterns and trends in consumption from 2007 to 2013. Swiss data were obtained from a previous study that assessed methodologies to stratify antimicrobial sales per species; Danish antimicrobial consumption estimates were assembled from Danish Integrated Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring and Research Programme reports. A decrease in antimicrobial consumption in milligrams per kilogram of biomass was observed for both countries (4.5% in Denmark and 34.7% in Switzerland) when comparing 2013 to 2007. For pigs and cattle, the overall consumption per kilogram of biomass of most antimicrobial classes was higher in Switzerland than in Denmark. Large variations in the relative consumption of different antimicrobial classes were also evident. Sulfonamides/trimethoprim and tetracyclines were consumed in a higher proportion in Switzerland than in Denmark, whereas the relative consumption of penicillins was higher in Denmark. The differences observed in veterinary antimicrobial consumption are not solely related to animal demographic characteristics in these two countries. Other factors, such as the level of biosecurity and farming practices, veterinarians and farmers’ education, or governmental/industry programs put in place might also partly explain these variations. These differences should be taken into account when aiming to implement targeted interventions to reduce antimicrobial consumption.

Assessing the impact of tailored biosecurity advice on farmer behaviour and pathogen presence in beef herds in England and Wales

The term 'biosecurity' encompasses many measures farmers can take to reduce the risk of pathogen incursion or spread. As the best strategy will vary between settings, veterinarians play an important role in assessing risk and providing advice, but effectiveness requires farmer acceptance and implementation. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of specifically-tailored biosecurity advice packages in reducing endemic pathogen presence on UK beef suckler farms. One hundred and sixteen farms recruited by 10 veterinary practices were followed for three years. Farms were randomly allocated to intervention (receiving specifically-tailored advice, with veterinarians and farmers collaborating to develop an improved biosecurity strategy) or control (receiving general advice) groups. A spreadsheet-based tool was used annually to attribute a score to each farm reflecting risk of entry or spread of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV1), Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), Leptospira interrogans serovar hardjo (L. hardjo) and Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis). Objectives of these analyses were to identify evidence of reduction in risk behaviours during the study, as well as evidence of reductions in pathogen presence, as indications of effectiveness. Risk behaviours and pathogen prevalences were examined across study years, and on intervention compared with control farms, using descriptive statistics and multilevel regression. There were significant reductions in risk scores for all five pathogens, regardless of intervention status, in every study year compared with the outset. Animals on intervention farms were significantly less likely than those on control farms to be seropositive for BVDV in years 2 and 3 and for L. hardjo in year 3 of the study. Variations by study year in animal-level odds of seropositivity to BHV1 or MAP were not associated with farm intervention status. All farms had significantly reduced odds of BHV1 seropositivity in year 2 than at the outset. Variations in farm-level MAP seropositivity were not associated with intervention status. There were increased odds of M. bovis on intervention farms compared with control farms at the end of the study. Results suggest a structured annual risk assessment process, conducted as a collaboration between veterinarian and farmer, is valuable in encouraging improved biosecurity practices. There were some indications, but not conclusive evidence, that tailored biosecurity advice packages have potential to reduce pathogen presence. These findings will inform development of a collaborative approach to biosecurity between veterinarians and farmers, including adoption of cost-effective strategies effective across pathogens.

Antimicrobial use in Swedish farrow-to-finish pig herds is related to farmer characteristics

Background

Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing problem and reducing AM use is critical in limiting its severity. The underlying causes of antimicrobial use at pig farm level must be understood to select effective reduction measures. We previously showed that antimicrobial use on Swedish pig farms is comparatively low but varies between farms, although few farms are high users. In the present survey of a convenience sample of 60 farrow-to-finish herds in Sweden, we investigated farmers’ attitudes to antimicrobials and the influence of information provided by veterinarians about antimicrobial resistance. Farm characteristics were also recorded. We had previously quantified antimicrobial use for different age categories of pigs during one year, as well as external and internal biosecurity. Risk factors based on hypothetical causal associations between these and calculated treatment incidence (TI) for the different age categories were assessed here in a linear regression model.

Results

There were no significant associations between biosecurity and TI for any pig age category. Increasing farmer age was associated with higher TI for suckling piglets and fatteners. For suckling piglets, the age group with the highest frequency of treatment, TI was also significantly associated with farmer and education of the staff, where female farmers, and university educated staff was associated with a higher TI. Larger farms were associated with a higher TI in fatteners.

Conclusions

In the investigated Swedish pig farms, factors that influenced antimicrobial usage were more related to characteristics of the individual farmer and his/her staff than to biosecurity level, other management factors or farmers’ attitudes to antimicrobials.

Reducing Antimicrobial Usage in Pig Production without Jeopardizing Production Parameters

Antimicrobial usage (AMU) has been described to be high in pig production. Although farmers are aware of the high usage, little is known about intervention to improve the situation. This study evaluated the extent to which AMU could be reduced in pig production by the optimization of herd management, biosecurity status, vaccination strategy, anthelmintic therapy and advice on prudent AMU. Furthermore, the effects of these interventions on the herd production results were explored. This intervention study was conducted on 61 Flemish pig herds and included three visits per herd. During the initial visit, information was gathered on herd management, biosecurity status (quantified by means of the Biocheck.UGent^™ risk-based scoring system), vaccination strategy, anthelmintic therapy and AMU. This info was then translated into a herd-specific action plan which was discussed with the farmer and herd veterinarian/other advisors during the second visit. In the final herd visit (±8 months later), comparable data were obtained to evaluate the progress. Overall, a significant improvement of 2.4 points external and 7 points internal biosecurity on the herds was obtained, combined with additional vaccination, anthelmintic therapy and prudent AMU. This was accompanied by a significant reduction in the AMU with a decrease of 52% for the pigs from birth till slaughter and 32% for breeding animals, based on treatment incidences (TIs) and included an important reduction in the use of critically important antimicrobials. More importantly, the increased biosecurity levels and decreased AMU were combined with significantly improved technical results such as the number of weaned piglets per sow per year (+1.1), daily weight gain (+5.9 g/day) and mortality in the finisher period (-0.6%). Guided interventions as a team effort of farmer and herd veterinarian/other advisors have shown to be a promising method in the reduction of AMU in pig production.

Quantitative and qualitative antimicrobial usage patterns in farrow-to-finish pig herds in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden

Data on sales of antimicrobials using a standardised methodology have shown that there are vast differences between countries in amounts of antimicrobials sold for food-producing animals, but these data do not provide insight on how sales are distributed by species and age groups. The aim of this study was to compare herd level antimicrobial usage for pigs by age category, antimicrobial class and administration route for farrow-to-finish herds in four EU countries. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 227 farrow-to-finish pig herds with at least 100 sows and 500 finishing pigs in Belgium (n=47), France (n=60), Germany (n=60) and Sweden (n=60). Detailed information about the antimicrobial consumption for breeding and growing pigs was collected. Antimicrobial usage was quantified as active substance expressed as mg and then converted to treatment incidence (TI) based on Defined Daily Doses Animal per 1000 pig-days at risk. TIs varied between and within countries, herds and age groups. The Swedish herds had the lowest and the German herds the highest overall use. Most treatments were applied to weaned piglets except in the Swedish herds where treatments of suckling piglets were most frequent. Antimicrobials were most often applied through feed or water except in the Swedish herds where parenteral treatments were most frequent. Aminopenicillins was the antimicrobial class most commonly used. Use of third and fourth generation cephalosporins constituted 11% of use for the Belgian herds, which was higher compared to the other countries. There was a significant (p<0.01) association between the within-herd antimicrobial use across different age categories. This study has shown that there were large differences in antimicrobial use for pigs between countries, herds and age groups in farrow-to-finish herds of similar size when actual consumption data were compared. Collecting detailed usage data can be used to efficiently target high users in order to reduce antimicrobial consumption.

Evaluation of the relationship between the biosecurity status, production parameters, herd characteristics and antimicrobial usage in farrow-to-finish pig production in four EU countries

BACKGROUND

High antimicrobial usage and the threat of antimicrobial resistance highlighted the need for reduced antimicrobial usage in pig production. Prevention of disease however, is necessary to obtain a reduced need for antimicrobial treatment. This study aimed at assessing possible associations between the biosecurity level, antimicrobial usage and farm and production characteristics in order to advice on best practices for a low antimicrobial usage and maximum animal health and production. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 227 farrow-to-finish pig herds in Belgium, France, Germany and Sweden between December 2012 and December 2013. Associations between biosecurity status, antimicrobial usage, and production parameters were evaluated with multivariable general linear models, according to an assumed causal pathway.

RESULTS

The results showed that higher antimicrobial usage in sows tended to be associated with higher antimicrobial usage from birth until slaughter (p = 0.06). The antimicrobial usage from birth until slaughter was positively associated with the number of pathogens vaccinated against (p < 0.01). A shorter farrowing rhythm (p < 0.01) and a younger weaning age (p = 0.06) tended to be also associated with a higher antimicrobial usage from birth until slaughter whereas a better external biosecurity (p < 0.01) was related with a lower antimicrobial usage from birth until slaughter.

CONCLUSION

Management practices such as weaning age and biosecurity measures may be important factors indirectly impacting on antimicrobial usage. We therefore promote a holistic approach when assessing the potential to reduce the need for antimicrobial treatments.