Stability and Nonfouling Properties of Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) Brushes under Cell Culture Conditions

Hydrolytically Labile Linkers Regulate Release and Activity of Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein-6

Release of growth factors while simultaneously maintaining their full biological activity over a period of days to weeks is an important issue in controlled drug delivery and in tissue engineering. In addition, the selected strategy to immobilize growth factors largely determines their biological activity. Silica surfaces derivatized with glycidyloxy propyl trimethoxysilane and poly(glycidyl methacrylate) brushes yielded epoxide-functionalized surfaces onto which human bone morphogenetic protein-6 (hBMP-6) was immobilized giving stable secondary amine bonds. The biological activity of hBMP-6 was unleashed by hydrolysis of the surface siloxane and ester bonds. We demonstrate that this type of labile bonding strategy can be applied to biomaterial surfaces with relatively simple and biocompatible chemistry, such as siloxane, ester, and imine bonds. Our data indicates that the use of differential hydrolytically labile linkers is a versatile method for functionalization of biomaterials with a variety of growth factors providing control over their biological activity.

Visualization of Mechanochemically-Assisted Degrafting of Surface-Tethered Poly(Acrylic Acid) Brushes

We report visualization of mechanochemically assisted degrafting of surface-tethered poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) brushes in a basic aqueous buffer at nanometer to micrometer length scale by monitoring changes in local etching of silicon substrates. PAA brushes were prepared by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization and incubated in 0.1 M ethanolamine buffer (pH 9.0) with 0.5 M NaCl. Morphological changes of the underlying substrates were monitored by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The appearance of regular-shaped pits indicated etching of the substrate, and both their number and size grew with increasing incubation time. We compared the etching behaviors for PAA, poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PPEGMA) brushes grafted on silicon substrates. After incubation for 7 days, the substrate of PMMA brush remained intact. In PAA brush systems, we detected the formation of a few large pits whose size grew in time. Many pits showed up on the substrate of PPEGMA brush but with substantially smaller size compared to PAA. Our findings suggest that hydrophobicity and stability of the grafted polymers play an important role in the morphological changes of the underlying silicon substrates under given incubation conditions.

Chemical Design of Functional Polymer Structures for Biosensors: From Nanoscale to Macroscale

Over the past decades, biosensors, a class of physicochemical detectors sensitive to biological analytes, have drawn increasing interest, particularly in light of growing concerns about human health. Functional polymeric materials have been widely researched for sensing applications because of their structural versatility and significant progress that has been made concerning their chemistry, as well as in the field of nanotechnology. Polymeric nanoparticles are conventionally used in sensing applications due to large surface area, which allows rapid and sensitive detection. On the macroscale, hydrogels are crucial materials for biosensing applications, being used in many wearable or implantable devices as a biocompatible platform. The performance of both hydrogels and nanoparticles, including sensitivity, response time, or reversibility, can be significantly altered and optimized by changing their chemical structures; this has encouraged us to overview and classify chemical design strategies. Here, we have organized this review into two main sections concerning the use of nanoparticles and hydrogels (as polymeric structures) for biosensors and described chemical approaches in relevant subcategories, which act as a guide for general synthetic strategies.

Stable polymer brushes with effectively varied grafting density synthesized from highly crosslinked random copolymer thin films

Crosslinkable epoxy copolymers enable achieving highly stable P(S-b-MMA) brushes with controlled grafting density for close examination of phase separation behaviors.

Reduced Lateral Confinement and Its Effect on Stability in Patterned Strong Polyelectrolyte Brushes

The stability of strong polyelectrolyte brushes (PEBs) was studied in bulk and in patterned structures. Thick PEBs of poly([(2-methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride) with thicknesses >100 nm were synthesized using single electron transfer living radical polymerization. Brush patterning was identified using deep-ultraviolet photolithography by means of either a top-down (TD) or bottom-up (BU) method, with features as small as 200 nm. The brushes were soaked in water under a range of pH or temperature conditions, and the hydrolysis was monitored through dry-state ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy measurements. BU patterns showed reduced degrafting for smaller patterns, which was attributed to increased stress relaxation at such dimensions. In contrast to the already relaxed BU-patterned brush, a TD-patterned brush possesses perpendicular structures that result from the use of orthogonal lithography. It was found that the TD process induces cross-linking on the sidewall, which subsequently fortifies the sidewall materials. This modification of the polymer brushes hindered the stress relaxation of the patterns, and the degrafting trends became irrelevant to the pattern sizes. With proper tuning, the cross-linking on the sidewall was minimized and the degrafting trends were again relaxation-dependent.

Comparison of RAFT derived Poly(vinylpyrolidone) verses Poly(oligoethyleneglycol methacrylate) for the Stabilization of Glycosylated Gold Nanoparticles

Carbohydrates dictate many biological processes including infection by pathogens. Glycosylated polymers and nanomaterials which have increased affinity due to the cluster glycoside effect, are therefore useful tools to probe function, but also as prophylactic therapies or diagnostic tools. Here, the effect of polymer structure on the coating of gold nanoparticles is studied in the context of grafting density, buffer stability and in a lectin binding assay. RAFT polymerization is used to generate poly(oligoethyleneglycol methacrylates) and poly(N-vinyl pyrolidones) with a thiol end-group for subsequent immobilization onto the gold. It is observed that poly(oligoethylene glycol methacrylates), despite being widely used particle coatings, lead to low grafting densities which in turn resulted in lower stability in biological buffers. A depression of the cloud point upon nanoparticle immobilization is also seen, which might compromise performance. In comparison poly(vinyl pyrolidones) resulted in stable particles with higher grafting densities due to the compact size of each monomer unit. The higher grafting density also enabled an increase in the number of carbohydrates which can be installed per nanoparticle at the chain ends, and gave increased binding in a lectin recognition assay. These results will guide the development of new nanoparticle biosensors with enhanced specificity, affinity and stability.

Modification of Nanoporous Silicon Nitride with Stable and Functional Organic Monolayers

This study describes the formation of functional organic monolayers on thin, nanoporous silicon nitride membranes. We demonstrate that the vapor-phase carbene insertion into the surface C-H bonds can be used to form sub-5 nm molecular coatings on nanoporous materials, which can be further modified with monolayers of polyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules. We investigate composition, thickness, and stability of the functionalized monolayers and the changes in the membrane permeability and pore size distribution. We show that, due to the low coating thickness (~7 nm), the functionalized membrane retains 80% of the original gas permeance and 40% of the original hydraulic permeability. We also show that the carbene/PEG functionalization is hydrolytically stable for up to 48 h of exposure to water and that it can suppress nonspecific adsorption of the proteins BSA and IgG. Our results suggest that the vapor-phase carbenylation can be used as a complementary technology to the traditional self-assembly and polymer brush chemistries in chemical functionalization of nanoporous materials, which are limited in their ability to serve as stable coatings that do not occlude nanomembrane pores.

Surface-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities, and Challenges in Surface and Interface Engineering with Polymer Brushes

The generation of polymer brushes by surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization (SI-CRP) techniques has become a powerful approach to tailor the chemical and physical properties of interfaces and has given rise to great advances in surface and interface engineering. Polymer brushes are defined as thin polymer films in which the individual polymer chains are tethered by one chain end to a solid interface. Significant advances have been made over the past years in the field of polymer brushes. This includes novel developments in SI-CRP, as well as the emergence of novel applications such as catalysis, electronics, nanomaterial synthesis and biosensing. Additionally, polymer brushes prepared via SI-CRP have been utilized to modify the surface of novel substrates such as natural fibers, polymer nanofibers, mesoporous materials, graphene, viruses and protein nanoparticles. The last years have also seen exciting advances in the chemical and physical characterization of polymer brushes, as well as an ever increasing set of computational and simulation tools that allow understanding and predictions of these surface-grafted polymer architectures. The aim of this contribution is to provide a comprehensive review that critically assesses recent advances in the field and highlights the opportunities and challenges for future work.

PEGylated Polyaniline Nanofibers: Antifouling and Conducting Biomaterial for Electrochemical DNA Sensing

Biofouling arising from nonspecific adsorption is a substantial outstanding challenge in diagnostics and disease monitoring, and antifouling sensing interfaces capable of reducing the nonspecific adsorption of proteins from biological complex samples are highly desirable. We present herein the preparation of novel composite nanofibers through the grafting of polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymer onto polyaniline (PANI) nanofibers and their application in the development of antifouling electrochemical biosensors. The PEGylated PANI (PANI/PEG) nanofibers possessed large surface area and remained conductive and at the same time demonstrated excellent antifouling performances in single protein solutions as well as complex human serum samples. Sensitive and low fouling electrochemical biosensors for the breast cancer susceptibility gene (BRCA1) can be easily fabricated through the attachment of DNA probes to the PANI/PEG nanofibers. The biosensor showed a very high sensitivity to target BRCA1 with a linear range from 0.01 pM to 1 nM and was also efficient enough to detect DNA mismatches with satisfactory selectivity. Moreover, the DNA biosensor based on the PEGylated PANI nanofibers supported the quantification of BRCA1 in complex human serum, indicating great potential of this novel biomaterial for application in biosensors and bioelectronics.

Hybrid Hairy Janus Particles as Building Blocks for Antibiofouling Surfaces

Herein, we report a new strategy for the design of antifouling surfaces by using hybrid hairy Janus particles. The amphiphilic Janus particles possess either a spherical or a plateletlike shape and have core-shell structures with an inorganic core and hydrophilic/hydrophobic polymeric shells. Subsequently, these bifunctional Janus particles enable the fabrication of surfaces with modularity in chemical composition and final surface topography, which possess antifouling properties. The antifouling and fouling-release capability of the composite Janus particle-based surfaces is investigated using the marine biofilm-forming bacteria Cobetia marina. The Janus particle-based coatings are robust and significantly reduce bacterial retention under both static and dynamic conditions independent of the particle geometry. The plateletlike (kaolinite-based) Janus particles represent a scalable system for the rational design of antifouling coatings as well as their large-scale production and application in the future.

Hydrophilic Polymer Brush Layers on Stainless Steel Using Multilayered ATRP Initiator Layer

Thin polymer coatings (in tens of nanometers to a micron thick) are desired on industrial surfaces such as stainless steel. In this thickness range coatings are difficult to produce using conventional methods. In this context, surface-initiated controlled polymerization method can offer a promising tool to produce thin polymer coatings via bottom-up approach. Furthermore, the industrial surfaces are chemically heterogeneous and exhibit surface features in the form of grain boundaries and grain surfaces. Therefore, the thin coatings must be equally effective on both the grain surfaces and the grain boundary regions. This study illustrates a novel "periodic rejuvenation of surface initiation" process using surface-initiated ATRP technique to amplify the graft density of poly(oligoethylene glycol)methacrylate (POEGMA) brush layers on stainless steel 316L surface. The optimized conditions demonstrate a controlled, macroscopically homogeneous, and stable POEGMA brush layer covering both the grain surface and the grain boundary region. Various relevant parameters-surface cleaning methods, controllability of thickness, graft density, homogeneity and stability-were studied using techniques such as ellipsometer, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray, surface zeta potential, and infrared reflection-adsorption spectroscopy.

Controlling integrin-based adhesion to a degradable electrospun fibre scaffold via SI-ATRP

While polycaprolactone (PCL) and similar polyesters are commonly used as degradable scaffold materials in tissue engineering and related applications, non-specific adsorption of environmental proteins typically precludes any control over the signalling pathways that are activated during cell adhesion to these materials. Here we describe the preparation of PCL-based fibres that facilitate cell adhesion through well-defined pathways while preventing adhesion via adsorbed proteins. Surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerisation (SI-ATRP) was used to graft a protein-resistant polymer brush coating from the surface of fibres, which had been electrospun from a brominated PCL macroinitiator. This coating also provided alkyne functional groups for the attachment of specific signalling molecules via the copper-mediated azide-alkyne click reaction; in this case, a cyclic RGD peptide with high affinity for α_vβ₃ integrins. Mesenchymal stem cells were shown to attach to the fibres via the peptide, but did not attach in its absence, nor when blocked with soluble peptide, demonstrating the effective control of cell adhesion pathways.

Amino Acid-Based Zwitterionic Polymer Surfaces Highly Resist Long-Term Bacterial Adhesion

The surfaces or coatings that can effectively suppress bacterial adhesion in the long term are of critical importance for biomedical applications. Herein, a group of amino acid-based zwitterionic polymers (pAAZ) were investigated for their long-term resistance to bacterial adhesion. The polymers were derived from natural amino acids including serine, ornithine, lysine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid. The pAAZ brushes were grafted on gold via the surface-initiated photoiniferter-mediated polymerization (SI-PIMP). Results show that the pAAZ coatings highly suppressed adsorption from the undiluted human serum and plasma. Long-term bacterial adhesion on these surfaces was investigated, using two kinds of representative bacteria [Gram-positive Staphylococcus epidermidis and Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa] as the model species. Results demonstrate that the pAAZ surfaces were highly resistant to bacterial adhesion after culturing for 1, 5, 9, or even 14 days, representing at least 95% reduction at all time points compared to the control unmodified surfaces. The bacterial accumulation on the pAAZ surfaces after 9 or 14 days was even lower than on the surfaces grafted with poly[poly(ethyl glycol) methyl ether methacrylate] (pPEGMA), one of the most common antifouling materials known to date. The pAAZ brushes also exhibited excellent structural stability in phosphate-buffered saline after incubation for 4 weeks. The bacterial resistance and stability of pAAZ polymers suggest they have good potential to be used for those applications where long-term suppression to bacterial attachment is desired.

Surface functionalization and dynamics of polymeric cell culture substrates

The promise of growing tissues to replace or improve the function of failing ones, a practice often referred to as regenerative medicine, has been driven in recent years by the development of stem cells and cell lines. Stem cells are typically cultured outside the body to increase cell number or differentiate the cells into mature cell types. In order to maximize the regenerative potential of these cells, there is a need to understand cell-material interactions that direct cell behavior and cell-material dynamics. Most synthetic surfaces used for growth and differentiation of cells in the lab are impractical and cost prohibitive in clinical labs. This review focuses on the modification of low cost polymer substrates that are already widely used for cell culture so that they may be used to control and understand cell-material interactions. In addition, we discuss the ability of cells to exert dynamic control over the microenvironment leading to a more complex, less controlled surface.

Self-Assembled Amphiphilic Macromolecule Coatings: Comparison of Grafting-From and Grafting-To Approaches for Bioactive Delivery

Although drug-eluting stent technologies have significantly improved clinical outcomes over the past decade, substantial issues with postimplantation vessel reocclusion still remain. To combat these issues, bioactive amphiphilic macromolecules (AMs), comprised of a functional end group, a branched hydrophobic domain, and a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) tail, were investigated as a therapeutic coating to reduce smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation and platelet adhesion. In this study, grafting-from and grafting-to approaches for AM surface functionalization were compared to determine the effects of fabrication method on bioactive delivery characteristics, including the AM loading, release, and biological activity. Grafted-from coatings were formed by stepwise synthesis of phosphonate AMs, 1pM, on the substrate, first by alkyl phosphonate coordination to stainless steel and subsequent carbodiimide coupling to conjugate the hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. In contrast, grafted-to monolayers were assembled utilizing presynthesized 1pM in a tethering by aggregation and growth technique. Coatings formed using the grafting-from approach yielded high AM grafting density and a highly ordered layer, which corresponded to a slower release rate and sustained bioactivity over 28 days. In contrast, the grafted-to coatings yielded less dense, heterogeneous layers, which released faster and were therefore less efficacious in suppressing prolonged SMC proliferation. Both coatings significantly reduced platelet adhesion compared to an uncoated control, but similar platelet adhesion results between grafted-from and grafted-to coatings suggest that both surfaces maintained a molecular density favorable for antiplatelet activity. Overall, the grafting-from method produced uniform coatings with improved loading, release, and bioactive properties compared to the grafting-to approach, highlighting the potential of AM controlled release coatings for therapeutic delivery.

Molecular Understanding and Structural-Based Design of Polyacrylamides and Polyacrylates as Antifouling Materials

Design and synthesis of highly bioinert and biocompatible antifouling materials are crucial for a broad range of biomedical and engineering applications. Among antifouling materials, polyacrylamides and polyacrylates have proved so promising because of cheap raw materials, ease of synthesis and applicability, and abundant functional groups. The strong surface hydration and the high surface packing density of polyacrylamides and polyacrylates are considered to be the key contributors to their antifouling property. In this article, we review our studies on the design and synthesis of a series of polyacrylamides and polyacrylates with different molecular structures. These polymers can be fabricated into different architectural forms (brushes, nanoparticles, nanogels, and hydrogels), all of which are highly resistant to the attachment of proteins, cells, and bacteria. We find that small structural changes in the polymers can lead to large enhancement in surface hydration and antifouling performance, both showing a positive correlation. This reveals a general design rule for effective antifouling materials. Furthermore, polyacrylamides and polyacrylates are readily functionalized with other bioactive compounds to achieve different new multifunctionalities.

Control of Cell Attachment and Spreading on Poly(acrylamide) Brushes with Varied Grafting Density

To achieve spatial control of fibroblast cell attachment and spreading on a biocompatible polymer coating, the effect of poly(acrylamide) (PAAm) brushes with varied grafting density was investigated. The synthesis of the brushes was performed by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). Gold substrates were modified with binary self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of an initiator and 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid (MHDA) as an "inert" thiol to initiate the ATRP of AAm. By using different mixtures for the binary SAMs, a series of polymer brushes with varied grafting densities were prepared. The fractional coverage of surface bound initiator was determined by grazing incidence Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and contact angle measurements. A linear relationship between the Br/S ratio determined by XPS and ToF-SIMS versus the fraction of initiator on the surface determined by water contact angle measurements was observed. The varied initiation concentration on the gold substrates yielded PAAm brushes with different thicknesses, indicating a transition from mushroom to brush regimes with increasing grafting density. Thereby we achieved exquisite control of the degree of cell adhesion. Cell attachment experiments with NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells revealed cell spreading on PAAm brushes with low grafting densities (initiator fractional coverage <0.2) as well as a complete passivation by polymer brushes with higher grafting densities.

Effects of Grafting Density and Film Thickness on the Adhesion of Staphylococcus epidermidis to Poly(2-hydroxy ethyl methacrylate) and Poly(poly(ethylene glycol)methacrylate) Brushes

Thin polymer films that prevent the adhesion of bacteria are of interest as coatings for the development of infection-resistant biomaterials. This study investigates the influence of grafting density and film thickness on the adhesion of Staphylococcus epidermidis to poly(poly(ethylene glycol)methacrylate) (PPEGMA) and poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) brushes prepared via surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). These brushes are compared with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) brushes, which are obtained by grafting PEG onto an epoxide-modified substrate. Except for very low grafting densities (ρ = 1%), crystal violet staining experiments show that the PHEMA and PPEGMA brushes are equally effective as the PEG-modified surfaces in preventing S. epidermis adhesion and do not reveal any significant variations as a function of film thickness or grafting density. These results indicate that brushes generated by SI-ATRP are an attractive alternative to grafted-onto PEG films for the preparation of surface coatings that resist bacterial adhesion.

Antibacterial Coatings: Challenges, Perspectives, and Opportunities

Antibacterial coatings are rapidly emerging as a primary component of the global mitigation strategy of bacterial pathogens. Thanks to recent concurrent advances in materials science and biotechnology methodologies, and a growing understanding of environmental microbiology, an extensive variety of options are now available to design surfaces with antibacterial properties. However, progress towards a more widespread use in clinical settings crucially depends on addressing the key outstanding issues. We review release-based antibacterial coatings and focus on the challenges and opportunities presented by the latest generation of these materials. In particular, we highlight recent approaches aimed at controlling the release of antibacterial agents, imparting multi-functionality, and enhancing long-term stability.

Degradable Polycaprolactone and Polylactide Homopolymer and Block Copolymer Brushes Prepared by Surface-Initiated Polymerization with Triazabicyclodecene and Zirconium Catalysts

Surface-initiated ring-opening polymerization (SI-ROP) of polycaprolactone (PCL) and polylactide (PLA) polymer brushes with controlled degradation rates were prepared on oxide substrates. PCL brushes were polymerized from hydroxyl-terminated monolayers utilizing triazabicyclodecene (TBD) as the polymerization catalyst. A consistent brush thickness of 40 nm could be achieved with a reproducible unique crystalline morphology. The organocatalyzed PCL brushes were chain extended using lactide in the presence of zirconium n-butoxide to successfully grow PCL/PLA block copolymer (PCL-b-PLA) brushes with a final thickness of 55 nm. The degradation properties of "grafted from" PCL brush and the PCL-b-PLA brush were compared to "grafted to" PCL brushes, and we observed that the brush density plays a major role in degradation kinetics. Solutions of methanol/water at pH 14 were used to better solvate the brushes and increase the kinetics of degradation. This framework enables a control of degradation that allows for the precise removal of these coatings.

Modular and Versatile Spatial Functionalization of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds through Fiber-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization

Native tissues are typically heterogeneous and hierarchically organized, and generating scaffolds that can mimic these properties is critical for tissue engineering applications. By uniquely combining controlled radical polymerization (CRP), end-functionalization of polymers, and advanced electrospinning techniques, a modular and versatile approach is introduced to generate scaffolds with spatially organized functionality. Poly-ε-caprolactone is end functionalized with either a polymerization-initiating group or a cell-binding peptide motif cyclic Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser (cRGDS), and are each sequentially electrospun to produce zonally discrete bilayers within a continuous fiber scaffold. The polymerization-initiating group is then used to graft an antifouling polymer bottlebrush based on poly(ethylene glycol) from the fiber surface using CRP exclusively within one bilayer of the scaffold. The ability to include additional multifunctionality during CRP is showcased by integrating a biotinylated monomer unit into the polymerization step allowing postmodification of the scaffold with streptavidin-coupled moieties. These combined processing techniques result in an effective bilayered and dual-functionality scaffold with a cell-adhesive surface and an opposing antifouling non-cell-adhesive surface in zonally specific regions across the thickness of the scaffold, demonstrated through fluorescent labelling and cell adhesion studies. This modular and versatile approach combines strategies to produce scaffolds with tailorable properties for many applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Polyethylene Glycol Coatings on Plastic Substrates for Chemically Defined Stem Cell Culture

Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) are a widely available and clinically relevant cell type with a host of applications in regenerative medicine. Current clinical expansion methods can lead to selective changes in hMSC phenotype potentially resulting from relatively undefined cell culture surfaces. Chemically defined synthetic surfaces can aid in understanding the influence of cell-material interactions on stem cell behavior. Here, a thin copolymer coating for hMSC culture on plastic substrates is developed. The random copolymer is synthesized by living free radical polymerization and characterized in solution before application to the substrate, ensuring a homogeneous coating and limiting the sample-to-sample variations. The ability to coat multiple substrate types and cover large surface areas is reported. Arg-Gly-Asp-containing peptides are incorporated into the coating under aqueous conditions via their lysine or cysteine side chains, resulting in amide and thioester linkages, respectively. Stability studies show amide linkages to be stable and thioester linkages to be labile under standard serum-containing culture conditions. In addition, chemically defined passaging of hMSCs using only ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid on polystyrene dishes is shown. After passage, the hMSCs can be seeded back onto the same plate, indicating potential reusability of the coating.

Expanding the Polymer Mechanochemistry Toolbox through Surface-Initiated Polymerization

Surface-initiated polymerizations represent a versatile toolbox to generate densely grafted assemblies of chain end-tethered polymers. At sufficiently short interchain distances, surface-grafted polymers are forced into an extended chain conformation, which forms the basis of several unique properties, including their ability to withstand efficiently biofouling or to act as low friction coatings. While the effect on materials properties is well-established, only relatively recently first reports have appeared describing that chain stretching in surface-grafted polymer films also impacts chemical stability/reactivity. This Viewpoint presents surface-initiated polymerization as an alternative polymer mechanochemical tool. The absence of an external force field to induce chain elongation and the possibility to modulate chain stretching by varying brush molecular weight and grafting density, in conjunction with electrostatic interactions and nanoinclusions that may be present inside the polymeric grafts, make surface-initiated polymerization an attractive tool to both study and understand the effects of polymer chain conformation on the stability/reactivity of surface-grafted polymers.

On the long term antibacterial features of silver-doped diamondlike carbon coatings deposited via a hybrid plasma process

Environmental surfaces are increasingly recognized as important sources of transmission of hospital-acquired infections. The use of antibacterial surface coatings may constitute an effective solution to reduce the spread of contamination in healthcare settings, provided that they exhibit sufficient stability and a long-term antibacterial effect. In this study, silver-incorporated diamondlike carbon films (Ag-DLC) were prepared in a continuous, single-step plasma process using a hybrid, inductively coupled plasma reactor combined with a very-low-frequency sputtering setup. The average Ag concentration in the films, ranging from 0 to 2.4 at. %, was controlled by varying the sputtering bias on the silver target. The authors found that the activity of Escherichia coli was reduced by 2.5 orders of magnitude, compared with the control surface, after a 4-h contact with a 2.4 at. % Ag-DLC coating. The coatings displayed slow release kinetics, with a total silver ion release in the sub-ppb range after 4 h in solution, as measured by graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectroscopy. This was confirmed by Kirby-Bauer diffusion tests, which showed limited diffusion of biocidal silver with a localized antibacterial effect. As a slow and continuous release is mandatory to ensure a lasting antibacterial effect, the newly developed Ag-DLC coatings appears as promising materials for environmental hospital surfaces.