51
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Fan L, Liu Y, Xiong J, White HS, Chen S. Electron-transfer kinetics and electric double layer effects in nanometer-wide thin-layer cells. ACS NANO 2014; 8:10426-10436. [PMID: 25211307 DOI: 10.1021/nn503780b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Redox cycling in nanometer-wide thin-layer cells holds great promise in ultrasensitive voltammetric detection and in probing fast heterogeneous electron-transfer kinetics. Quantitative understanding of the influence of the nanometer gap distance on the redox processes in the thin-layer cells is of crucial importance for reliable data analysis. We present theoretical consideration on the voltammetric behaviors associated with redox cycling of electroactive molecules between two electrodes separated by nanometer widths. Emphasis is placed on the weakness of the commonly used Butler-Volmer theory and the classic Marcus-Hush theory in describing the electrochemical heterogeneous electron-transfer kinetics at potentials significantly removed from the formal potential of redox moieties and, in addition, the effect of the electric-double-layer on the electron-transfer kinetics and mass transport dynamics of charged redox species. The steady-state voltammetric responses, obtained by using the Butler-Volmer and Marcus-Hush models and that predicted by the more realistic electron-transfer kinetics formulism, which is based on the alignments of the density of states between the electrode continuum and the Gaussian distribution of redox agents, and by inclusion of the electric-double-layer effect, are compared through systematic finite element simulations. The effect of the gap width between the electrodes, the standard rate constant and reorganization energy for the electron-transfer reactions, and the charges of the redox moieties are considered. On the basis of the simulation results, the reliability of the conventional voltammetric analysis based on the Butler-Volmer kinetic model and diffusion transport equations is discussed for nanometer-wide thin-layer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixin Fan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Electrochemical Power Sources, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University , Wuhan 430072, China
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52
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Han D, Kim YR, Kang CM, Chung TD. Electrochemical signal amplification for immunosensor based on 3D interdigitated array electrodes. Anal Chem 2014; 86:5991-8. [PMID: 24842332 DOI: 10.1021/ac501120y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We devised an electrochemical redox cycling based on three-dimensional interdigitated array (3D IDA) electrodes for signal amplification to enhance the sensitivity of chip-based immunosensors. The 3D IDA consists of two closely spaced parallel indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes that are positioned not only on the bottom but also the ceiling, facing each other along a microfluidic channel. We investigated the signal intensities from various geometric configurations: Open-2D IDA, Closed-2D IDA, and 3D IDA through electrochemical experiments and finite-element simulations. The 3D IDA among the four different systems exhibited the greatest signal amplification resulting from efficient redox cycling of electroactive species confined in the microchannel so that the faradaic current was augmented by a factor of ∼100. We exploited the enhanced sensitivity of the 3D IDA to build up a chronocoulometric immunosensing platform based on the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) protocol. The mouse IgGs on the 3D IDA showed much lower detection limits than on the Closed-2D IDA. The detection limit for mouse IgG measured using the 3D IDA was ∼10 fg/mL, while it was ∼100 fg/mL for the Closed-2D IDA. Moreover, the proposed immunosensor system with the 3D IDA successfully worked for clinical analysis as shown by the sensitive detection of cardiac troponin I in human serum down to 100 fg/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghoon Han
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University , Seoul 151-747, Korea
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53
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Ma C, Contento NM, Bohn PW. Redox Cycling on Recessed Ring-Disk Nanoelectrode Arrays in the Absence of Supporting Electrolyte. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:7225-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ja502052s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxiong Ma
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Nicholas M. Contento
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Paul W. Bohn
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre
Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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54
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Dawson K, O'Riordan A. Electroanalysis at the nanoscale. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2014; 7:163-181. [PMID: 24818810 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-071213-020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews the state of the art of silicon chip-based nanoelectrochemical devices for sensing applications. We first describe analyte mass transport to nanoscale electrodes and emphasize understanding the importance of mass transport for the design of nanoelectrode arrays. We then describe bottom-up and top-down approaches to nanoelectrode fabrication and integration at silicon substrates. Finally, we explore recent examples of on-chip nanoelectrodes employed as sensors and diagnostics, finishing with a brief look at future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Dawson
- Nanotechnology Group, Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland;
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55
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Hüske M, Stockmann R, Offenhäusser A, Wolfrum B. Redox cycling in nanoporous electrochemical devices. NANOSCALE 2014; 6:589-598. [PMID: 24247480 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr03818a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale redox cycling is a powerful technique for detecting electrochemically active molecules, based on fast repetitive oxidation and reduction reactions. An ideal implementation of redox cycling sensors can be realized by nanoporous dual-electrode systems in easily accessible and scalable geometries. Here, we introduce a multi-electrode array device with highly efficient nanoporous redox cycling sensors. Each of the sensors holds up to 209,000 well defined nanopores with minimal pore radii of less than 40 nm and an electrode separation of ~100 nm. We demonstrate the efficiency of the nanopore array by screening a large concentration range over three orders of magnitude with area-specific sensitivities of up to 81.0 mA (cm(-2) mM(-1)) for the redox-active probe ferrocene dimethanol. Furthermore, due to the specific geometry of the material, reaction kinetics has a unique potential-dependent impact on the signal characteristics. As a result, redox cycling experiments in the nanoporous structure allow studies on heterogeneous electron transfer reactions revealing a surprisingly asymmetric transfer coefficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Hüske
- Institute of Bioelectronics (PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA-Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, D-52425 Jülich, Germany.
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56
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Anne A, Bahri MA, Chovin A, Demaille C, Taofifenua C. Probing the conformation and 2D-distribution of pyrene-terminated redox-labeled poly(ethylene glycol) chains end-adsorbed on HOPG using cyclic voltammetry and atomic force electrochemical microscopy. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:4642-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp54720e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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57
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Chen S, Liu Y, Chen J. Heterogeneous electron transfer at nanoscopic electrodes: importance of electronic structures and electric double layers. Chem Soc Rev 2014; 43:5372-86. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00087k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Recent insights into the nanoscopic electrode size and structure effects on heterogeneous ET kinetics are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengli Chen
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Electrochemical Power Sources
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yuwen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Electrochemical Power Sources
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Junxiang Chen
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Electrochemical Power Sources
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072, China
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58
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59
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Hasnat MA, Gross AJ, Dale SEC, Barnes EO, Compton RG, Marken F. A dual-plate ITO–ITO generator–collector microtrench sensor: surface activation, spatial separation and suppression of irreversible oxygen and ascorbate interference. Analyst 2014; 139:569-75. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01826a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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60
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Kang S, Nieuwenhuis AF, Mathwig K, Mampallil D, Lemay SG. Electrochemical single-molecule detection in aqueous solution using self-aligned nanogap transducers. ACS NANO 2013; 7:10931-10937. [PMID: 24279688 DOI: 10.1021/nn404440v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical detection of individual molecular tags in nanochannels may enable cost-effective, massively parallel analysis and diagnostics platforms. Here we demonstrate single-molecule detection of prototypical analytes in aqueous solution based on redox cycling in 40 nm nanogap transducers. These nanofluidic devices are fabricated using standard microfabrication techniques combined with a self-aligned approach that minimizes gap size and dead volume. We demonstrate the detection of three common redox mediators at physiological salt concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Kang
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente , PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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61
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62
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Rizal B, Archibald MM, Connolly T, Shepard S, Burns MJ, Chiles TC, Naughton MJ. Nanocoax-Based Electrochemical Sensor. Anal Chem 2013; 85:10040-4. [DOI: 10.1021/ac402441x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Binod Rizal
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Michelle M. Archibald
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Timothy Connolly
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Stephen Shepard
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Michael J. Burns
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Thomas C. Chiles
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
| | - Michael J. Naughton
- Department of Physics, ‡Department of Biology, §Integrated Sciences Cleanroom Facility, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467, United States
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63
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Ma C, Contento NM, Gibson LR, Bohn PW. Recessed Ring–Disk Nanoelectrode Arrays Integrated in Nanofluidic Structures for Selective Electrochemical Detection. Anal Chem 2013; 85:9882-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac402417w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxiong Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Nicholas M. Contento
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Larry R. Gibson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Paul W. Bohn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and ‡Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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64
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Ma C, Contento NM, Gibson LR, Bohn PW. Redox cycling in nanoscale-recessed ring-disk electrode arrays for enhanced electrochemical sensitivity. ACS NANO 2013; 7:5483-90. [PMID: 23691968 DOI: 10.1021/nn401542x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
An array of nanoscale-recessed ring-disk electrodes was fabricated using layer-by-layer deposition, nanosphere lithography, and a multistep reactive ion etching process. The resulting device was operated in generator-collector mode by holding the ring electrodes at a constant potential and performing cyclic voltammetry by sweeping the disk potential in Fe(CN)6(3-/4-) solutions. Steady-state response and enhanced (~10×) limiting current were achieved by cycling the redox couple between ring and disk electrodes with high transfer/collection efficiency. The collector (ring) electrode, which is held at a constant potential, exhibits a much smaller charging current than the generator (disk), and it is relatively insensitive to scan rate. A characteristic feature of the nanoscale ring-disk geometry is that the electrochemical reaction occurring at the disk electrodes can be tuned by modulating the potential at the ring electrodes. Measured shifts in Fe(CN)6(3-/4-) concentration profiles were found to be in excellent agreement with finite element method simulations. The main performance metric, the amplification factor, was optimized for arrays containing small diameter pores (r < 250 nm) with minimum electrode spacing and high pore density. Finally, integration of the fabricated array within a nanochannel produced up to 50-fold current amplification as well as enhanced selectivity, demonstrating the compatibility of the device with lab-on-a-chip architectures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxiong Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, USA
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65
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Kätelhön E, Krause KJ, Singh PS, Lemay SG, Wolfrum B. Noise Characteristics of Nanoscaled Redox-Cycling Sensors: Investigations Based on Random Walks. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:8874-81. [DOI: 10.1021/ja3121313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enno Kätelhön
- Institute of Bioelectronics
(PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich,
Germany
| | - Kay J. Krause
- Institute of Bioelectronics
(PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich,
Germany
| | - Pradyumna S. Singh
- MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede,
The Netherlands
| | - Serge G. Lemay
- MESA+ Institute
for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede,
The Netherlands
| | - Bernhard Wolfrum
- Institute of Bioelectronics
(PGI-8/ICS-8) and JARA—Fundamentals of Future Information Technology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich,
Germany
- Institute
of Physics, RWTH Aachen University, 52074
Aachen, Germany
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66
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Mampallil D, Mathwig K, Kang S, Lemay SG. Redox Couples with Unequal Diffusion Coefficients: Effect on Redox Cycling. Anal Chem 2013; 85:6053-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac400910n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dileep Mampallil
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Klaus Mathwig
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Shuo Kang
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Serge G. Lemay
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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67
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Pushing the Limits of Electrical Detection of Ultralow Flows in Nanofluidic Channels. MICROMACHINES 2013. [DOI: 10.3390/mi4020138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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68
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Lemay SG, Kang S, Mathwig K, Singh PS. Single-molecule electrochemistry: present status and outlook. Acc Chem Res 2013; 46:369-77. [PMID: 23270398 DOI: 10.1021/ar300169d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The development of methods for detecting and manipulating matter at the level of individual macromolecules represents one of the key scientific advancements of recent decades. These techniques allow us to get information that is largely unobtainable otherwise, such as the magnitudes of microscopic forces, mechanistic details of catalytic processes, macromolecular population heterogeneities, and time-resolved, step-by-step observation of complex kinetics. Methods based on optical, mechanical, and ionic-conductance signal transduction are particularly developed. However, there is scope for new approaches that can broaden the range of molecular systems that we can study at this ultimate level of sensitivity and for developing new analytical methods relying on single-molecule detection. Approaches based on purely electrical detection are particularly appealing in the latter context, since they can be easily combined with microelectronics or fluidic devices on a single microchip to create large parallel assays at relatively low cost. A form of electrical signal transduction that has so far remained relatively underdeveloped at the single-molecule level is the direct detection of the charge transferred in electrochemical processes. The reason for this is simple: only a few electrons are transferred per molecule in a typical faradaic reaction, a heterogeneous charge-transfer reaction that occurs at the electrode's surface. Detecting this tiny amount of charge is impossible using conventional electrochemical instrumentation. A workaround is to use redox cycling, in which the charge transferred is amplified by repeatedly reducing and oxidizing analyte molecules as they randomly diffuse between a pair of electrodes. For this process to be sufficiently efficient, the electrodes must be positioned within less than 100 nm of each other, and the analyte must remain between the electrodes long enough for the measurement to take place. Early efforts focused on tip-based nanoelectrodes, descended from scanning electrochemical microscopy, to create suitable geometries. However, it has been challenging to apply these technologies broadly. In this Account, we describe our alternative approach based on electrodes embedded in microfabricated nanochannels, so-called nanogap transducers. Microfabrication techniques grant a high level of reproducibility and control over the geometry of the devices, permitting systematic development and characterization. We have employed these devices to demonstrate single-molecule sensitivity. This method shows good agreement with theoretical analysis based on the Brownian motion of discrete molecules, but only once the finite time resolution of the experimental apparatus is taken into account. These results highlight both the random nature of single-molecule signals and the complications that it can introduce in data interpretation. We conclude this Account with a discussion on how scientists can overcome this limitation in the future to create a new experimental platform that can be generally useful for both fundamental studies and analytical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge G. Lemay
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Shuo Kang
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Klaus Mathwig
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Pradyumna S. Singh
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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69
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Heo JI, Lim Y, Shin H. The effect of channel height and electrode aspect ratio on redox cycling at carbon interdigitated array nanoelectrodes confined in a microchannel. Analyst 2013; 138:6404-11. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an00905j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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70
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Dale SEC, Marken F. Pulse electroanalysis at gold–gold micro-trench electrodes: Chemical signal filtering. Faraday Discuss 2013; 164:349-59. [DOI: 10.1039/c3fd00022b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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71
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Xiong J, White HS. The i–V response of an electrochemical cell comprising two polarizable microelectrodes and the influence of impurities on the cell response. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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72
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Singh PS, Kätelhön E, Mathwig K, Wolfrum B, Lemay SG. Stochasticity in single-molecule nanoelectrochemistry: origins, consequences, and solutions. ACS NANO 2012; 6:9662-9671. [PMID: 23106647 DOI: 10.1021/nn3031029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical detection of single molecules is being actively pursued as an enabler of new fundamental experiments and sensitive analytical capabilities. Most attempts to date have relied on redox cycling in a nanogap, which consists of two parallel electrodes separated by a nanoscale distance. While these initial experiments have demonstrated single-molecule detection at the proof-of-concept level, several fundamental obstacles need to be overcome to transform the technique into a realistic detection tool suitable for use in more complex settings (e.g., studying enzyme dynamics at single catalytic event level, probing neuronal exocytosis, etc.). In particular, it has become clearer that stochasticity--the hallmark of most single-molecule measurements--can become the key limiting factor on the quality of the information that can be obtained from single-molecule electrochemical assays. Here we employ random-walk simulations to show that this stochasticity is a universal feature of all single-molecule experiments in the diffusively coupled regime and emerges due to the inherent properties of brownian motion. We further investigate the intrinsic coupling between stochasticity and detection capability, paying particular attention to the role of the geometry of the detection device and the finite time resolution of measurement systems. We suggest concrete, realizable experimental modifications and approaches to mitigate these limitations. Overall, our theoretical analyses offer a roadmap for optimizing single-molecule electrochemical experiments, which is not only desirable but also indispensable for their wider employment as experimental tools for electrochemical research and as realistic sensing or detection systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradyumna S Singh
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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73
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Mathwig K, Mampallil D, Kang S, Lemay SG. Electrical cross-correlation spectroscopy: measuring picoliter-per-minute flows in nanochannels. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2012; 109:118302. [PMID: 23005685 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.109.118302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We introduce all-electrical cross-correlation spectroscopy of molecular number fluctuations in nanofluidic channels. Our approach is based on a pair of nanogap electrochemical transducers located downstream from each other in the channel. When liquid is driven through this device, mesoscopic fluctuations in the local density of molecules are transported along the channel. We perform a time-of-flight measurement of these fluctuations by cross-correlating current-time traces obtained at the two detectors. Thereby we are able to detect ultralow liquid flow rates below 10 pL/min. This method constitutes the electrical equivalent of fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Mathwig
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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74
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75
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van Soestbergen M. Ionic currents exceeding the diffusion limitation in planar nano-cavities. Electrochem commun 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2012.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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76
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Patten HV, Meadows KE, Hutton LA, Iacobini JG, Battistel D, McKelvey K, Colburn AW, Newton ME, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR. Electrochemical Mapping Reveals Direct Correlation between Heterogeneous Electron-Transfer Kinetics and Local Density of States in Diamond Electrodes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:7002-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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77
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Patten HV, Meadows KE, Hutton LA, Iacobini JG, Battistel D, McKelvey K, Colburn AW, Newton ME, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR. Electrochemical Mapping Reveals Direct Correlation between Heterogeneous Electron-Transfer Kinetics and Local Density of States in Diamond Electrodes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201203057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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78
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Straver MG, Odijk M, Olthuis W, van den Berg A. A simple method to fabricate electrochemical sensor systems with predictable high-redox cycling amplification. LAB ON A CHIP 2012; 12:1548-1553. [PMID: 22361973 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc21233a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In this paper an easy to fabricate SU8/glass-based microfluidic sensor is described with two closely spaced parallel electrodes for highly selective measurements using the redox cycling effect. By varying the length of the microfluidic entrance channel, a diffusion barrier is created for non-cycling species effectively increasing selectivity for redox cycling species. Using this sensor, a redox cycling amplification of ∼6500× is measured using the ferrocyanide redox couple. Moreover, a simple, but accurate analytical expression is derived that predicts the amplification factor based on the sensor geometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Straver
- BIOS/Lab-on-Chip Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P. O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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79
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Kang S, Mathwig K, Lemay SG. Response time of nanofluidic electrochemical sensors. LAB ON A CHIP 2012; 12:1262-1267. [PMID: 22361835 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc21104a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Nanofluidic thin-layer cells count among the most sensitive electrochemical sensors built to date. Here we study both experimentally and theoretically the factors that limit the response time of these sensors. We find that the key limiting factor is reversible adsorption of the analyte molecules to the surfaces of the nanofluidic system, a direct consequence of its high surface-to-volume ratio. Our results suggest several means of improving the response time of the sensor, including optimizing the device geometry and tuning the electrode biasing scheme so as to minimize adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Kang
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, PO Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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80
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Kleijn SE, Yanson AI, Koper MT. Electrochemical characterization of nano-sized gold electrodes fabricated by nano-lithography. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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81
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Bae JH, Han JH, Chung TD. Electrochemistry at nanoporous interfaces: new opportunity for electrocatalysis. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:448-63. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22927c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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82
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Park S, Kim HC, Chung TD. Electrochemical analysis based on nanoporous structures. Analyst 2012; 137:3891-903. [DOI: 10.1039/c2an35294j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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83
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Batchelor-McAuley C, Dickinson EJF, Rees NV, Toghill KE, Compton RG. New Electrochemical Methods. Anal Chem 2011; 84:669-84. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2026767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Batchelor-McAuley
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Edmund J. F. Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Neil V. Rees
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kathryn E. Toghill
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Richard G. Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
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84
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Singh PS, Chan HSM, Kang S, Lemay SG. Stochastic amperometric fluctuations as a probe for dynamic adsorption in nanofluidic electrochemical systems. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:18289-95. [PMID: 21957965 DOI: 10.1021/ja2067669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Adsorption of analyte molecules is ubiquitous in nanofluidic channels due to their large surface-to-volume ratios. It is also difficult to quantify due to the nanometric scale of these channels. We propose a simple method to probe dynamic adsorption at electrodes that are embedded in nanofluidic channels or which enclose nanoscopic volumes. The amperometric method relies on measuring the amplitude of the fluctuations of the redox cycling current that arise when the channel is diffusively coupled to a bulk reservoir. We demonstrate the versatility of this new method by quantifying adsorption for several redox couples, investigating the dependence of adsorption on the electrode potential and studying the effect of functionalizing the electrodes with self-assembled monolayers of organothiol molecules bearing polar end groups. These self-assembled monolayer coatings are shown to significantly reduce the adsorption of the molecules on to the electrodes. The detection method is not limited to electrodes in nanochannels and can be easily extended to redox cycling systems that enclose very small volumes, in particular scanning electrochemical microscopy with nanoelectrodes. It thus opens the way for imaging spatial heterogeneity with respect to adsorption, as well as rational design of interfaces for redox cycling based sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pradyumna S Singh
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
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85
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Anne A, Chovin A, Demaille C, Lafouresse M. High-Resolution Mapping of Redox-Immunomarked Proteins Using Electrochemical–Atomic Force Microscopy in Molecule Touching Mode. Anal Chem 2011; 83:7924-32. [DOI: 10.1021/ac201907v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Anne
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Arnaud Chovin
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Christophe Demaille
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Manon Lafouresse
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie Moléculaire, UMR 7591 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 15 rue Jean-Antoine de Baïf, F-75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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86
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Kätelhön E, Hofmann B, Lemay SG, Zevenbergen MAG, Offenhäusser A, Wolfrum B. Nanocavity redox cycling sensors for the detection of dopamine fluctuations in microfluidic gradients. Anal Chem 2011; 82:8502-9. [PMID: 20849083 DOI: 10.1021/ac101387f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical mapping of neurotransmitter concentrations on a chip promises to be an interesting technique for investigating synaptic release in cellular networks. In here, we present a novel chip-based device for the detection of neurotransmitter fluctuations in real-time. The chip features an array of plane-parallel nanocavity sensors, which strongly amplify the electrochemical signal. This amplification is based on efficient redox cycling via confined diffusion between two electrodes inside the nanocavity sensors. We demonstrate the capability of resolving concentration fluctuations of redox-active species in a microfluidic mixing gradient on the chip. The results are explained by a simulated concentration profile that was calculated on the basis of the coupled Navier-Stokes and convection-diffusion equations using a finite element approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enno Kätelhön
- Institut für Bio- und Nanosysteme (IBN), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
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87
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Abstract
Lithographically fabricated nanostructures appear in an increasingly wide range of scientific fields, and electroanalytical chemistry is no exception. This article introduces lithography methods and provides an overview of the new capabilities and electrochemical phenomena that can emerge in nanostructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Rassaei
- MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, The Netherlands
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88
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Analysis of the hydrogen electrode reaction mechanism in thin-layer cells. 1. Theory. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2010.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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89
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Wang Y, Velmurugan J, Mirkin MV. Kinetics of Charge-Transfer Reactions at Nanoscopic Electrochemical Interfaces. Isr J Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201000026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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90
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Mawatari K, Tsukahara T, Sugii Y, Kitamori T. Extended-nano fluidic systems for analytical and chemical technologies. NANOSCALE 2010; 2:1588-1595. [PMID: 20820689 DOI: 10.1039/c0nr00185f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Recently, integrated chemical systems have been further downscaled to the 10(1)-10(3) nm scale, which we call extended-nano space. The extended-nano space is a transient space from single molecules to bulk condensed phase, and fluidics and chemistry have not been explored. One of the reasons is the lack of research tools for the extended-nano space, because the space locates the gap between the conventional nanotechnology (10(0)-10(1) nm) and microtechnology (>1 microm). For these purposes, basic methodologies were developed such as nanofabrication, fluidic control, detection methods, and surface modification methods. Especially, fluidic control is one of the important methods. By utilizing the methodologies, new specific phenomena in fluidics and chemistry were reported, and the new phenomena are increasingly applied to unique applications. Microfluidic technologies are now entering new research phase combined with the nanofluidic technologies. In this review, we mainly focus on pressure-driven or shear-driven extended-nano fluidic systems and illustrate the basic nanofluidics and the representative applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuma Mawatari
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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91
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Trends in computational simulations of electrochemical processes under hydrodynamic flow in microchannels. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 399:183-90. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4070-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Revised: 07/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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92
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Rassaei L, Marken F. Pulse-Voltammetric Glucose Detection at Gold Junction Electrodes. Anal Chem 2010; 82:7063-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac101303s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liza Rassaei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Frank Marken
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
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93
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Arce MD, Fernández JL, Gennero de Chialvo MR, Chialvo AC. Fabrication, characterization and application of graphite ring ultramicroelectrodes for kinetic studies of fuel cell reactions under high mass-transport rates. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2010.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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94
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Zevenbergen MAG, Singh PS, Goluch ED, Wolfrum BL, Lemay SG. Electrochemical Correlation Spectroscopy in Nanofluidic Cavities. Anal Chem 2009; 81:8203-12. [DOI: 10.1021/ac9014885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcel A. G. Zevenbergen
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Pradyumna S. Singh
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Edgar D. Goluch
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Bernhard L. Wolfrum
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Serge G. Lemay
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
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