51
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Krafft D, López Castellanos S, Lira RB, Dimova R, Ivanov I, Sundmacher K. Compartments for Synthetic Cells: Osmotically Assisted Separation of Oil from Double Emulsions in a Microfluidic Chip. Chembiochem 2019; 20:2604-2608. [PMID: 31090995 PMCID: PMC6852271 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Liposomes are used in synthetic biology as cell-like compartments and their microfluidic production through double emulsions allows for efficient encapsulation of various components. However, residual oil in the membrane remains a critical bottleneck for creating pristine phospholipid bilayers. It has been discovered that osmotically driven shrinking leads to detachment of the oil drop. Separation inside a microfluidic chip has been realized to automate the procedure, which allows for controlled continuous production of monodisperse liposomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Krafft
- Process Systems EngineeringMax Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical SystemsSandtorstrasse 139106MagdeburgGermany
| | - Sebastián López Castellanos
- Process Systems EngineeringMax Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical SystemsSandtorstrasse 139106MagdeburgGermany
| | - Rafael B. Lira
- Theory and Bio-SystemsMax Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Rumiana Dimova
- Theory and Bio-SystemsMax Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Ivan Ivanov
- Process Systems EngineeringMax Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical SystemsSandtorstrasse 139106MagdeburgGermany
| | - Kai Sundmacher
- Process Systems EngineeringMax Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical SystemsSandtorstrasse 139106MagdeburgGermany
- Otto-von-Guericke University MagdeburgUniversitätsplatz 239106MagdeburgGermany
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52
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Mei S, Kochovski Z, Roa R, Gu S, Xu X, Yu H, Dzubiella J, Ballauff M, Lu Y. Enhanced Catalytic Activity of Gold@Polydopamine Nanoreactors with Multi-compartment Structure Under NIR Irradiation. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2019; 11:83. [PMID: 34138056 PMCID: PMC7770829 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-019-0314-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Photothermal conversion (PTC) nanostructures have great potential for applications in many fields, and therefore, they have attracted tremendous attention. However, the construction of a PTC nanoreactor with multi-compartment structure to achieve the combination of unique chemical properties and structural feature is still challenging due to the synthetic difficulties. Herein, we designed and synthesized a catalytically active, PTC gold (Au)@polydopamine (PDA) nanoreactor driven by infrared irradiation using assembled PS-b-P2VP nanosphere as soft template. The particles exhibit multi-compartment structure which is revealed by 3D electron tomography characterization technique. They feature permeable shells with tunable shell thickness. Full kinetics for the reduction reaction of 4-nitrophenol has been investigated using these particles as nanoreactors and compared with other reported systems. Notably, a remarkable acceleration of the catalytic reaction upon near-infrared irradiation is demonstrated, which reveals for the first time the importance of the synergistic effect of photothermal conversion and complex inner structure to the kinetics of the catalytic reduction. The ease of synthesis and fresh insights into catalysis will promote a new platform for novel nanoreactor studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilin Mei
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zdravko Kochovski
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rafael Roa
- Department of Applied Physics I, University of Málaga, 29071, Málaga, Spain
| | - Sasa Gu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 210000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaohui Xu
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hongtao Yu
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim Dzubiella
- Institute of Physics, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Simulation of Energy Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Ballauff
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany
- Institut für Physik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstr. 15, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yan Lu
- Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner Platz 1, 14109, Berlin, Germany.
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, 14476, Potsdam, Germany.
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53
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Wang X, Tian L, Du H, Li M, Mu W, Drinkwater BW, Han X, Mann S. Chemical communication in spatially organized protocell colonies and protocell/living cell micro-arrays. Chem Sci 2019; 10:9446-9453. [PMID: 32055320 PMCID: PMC6991169 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc04522h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Arrays of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) with controllable geometries and occupancies are prepared by acoustic trapping and used to implement chemical signaling in protocell colonies and protocell/living cell consortia.
Micro-arrays of discrete or hemifused giant unilamellar lipid vesicles (GUVs) with controllable spatial geometries, lattice dimensions, trapped occupancies and compositions are prepared by acoustic standing wave patterning, and employed as platforms to implement chemical signaling in GUV colonies and protocell/living cell consortia. The methodology offers an alternative approach to GUV micro-array fabrication and provides new opportunities in protocell research and bottom-up synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Harbin Institute of Technology , Harbin , 150001 , China . .,Centre for Protolife Research and Centre for Organized Matter Chemistry , School of Chemistry University of Bristol , Bristol , BS8 1TS UK .
| | - Liangfei Tian
- Centre for Protolife Research and Centre for Organized Matter Chemistry , School of Chemistry University of Bristol , Bristol , BS8 1TS UK .
| | - Hang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Harbin Institute of Technology , Harbin , 150001 , China .
| | - Mei Li
- Centre for Protolife Research and Centre for Organized Matter Chemistry , School of Chemistry University of Bristol , Bristol , BS8 1TS UK .
| | - Wei Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Harbin Institute of Technology , Harbin , 150001 , China .
| | | | - Xiaojun Han
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment , School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Harbin Institute of Technology , Harbin , 150001 , China .
| | - Stephen Mann
- Centre for Protolife Research and Centre for Organized Matter Chemistry , School of Chemistry University of Bristol , Bristol , BS8 1TS UK .
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54
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Mason A, Yewdall NA, Welzen PLW, Shao J, van Stevendaal M, van Hest JCM, Williams DS, Abdelmohsen LKEA. Mimicking Cellular Compartmentalization in a Hierarchical Protocell through Spontaneous Spatial Organization. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2019; 5:1360-1365. [PMID: 31482118 PMCID: PMC6716124 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
A systemic feature of eukaryotic cells is the spatial organization of functional components through compartmentalization. Developing protocells with compartmentalized synthetic organelles is, therefore, a critical milestone toward emulating one of the core characteristics of cellular life. Here we demonstrate the bottom-up, multistep, noncovalent, assembly of rudimentary subcompartmentalized protocells through the spontaneous encapsulation of semipermeable, polymersome proto-organelles inside cell-sized coacervates. The coacervate microdroplets are membranized using tailor-made terpolymers, to complete the hierarchical self-assembly of protocells, a system that mimics both the condensed cytosol and the structure of a cell membrane. In this way, the spatial organization of enzymes can be finely tuned, leading to an enhancement of functionality. Moreover, incompatible components can be sequestered in the same microenvironments without detrimental effect. The robust stability of the subcompartmentalized coacervate protocells in biocompatible milieu, such as in PBS or cell culture media, makes it a versatile platform to be extended toward studies in vitro, and perhaps, in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander
F. Mason
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - N. Amy Yewdall
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Pascal L. W. Welzen
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jingxin Shao
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen van Stevendaal
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jan C. M. van Hest
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - David S. Williams
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Science, Swansea
University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, Wales SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
| | - Loai K. E. A. Abdelmohsen
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering
and Chemistry, Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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55
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Izri Z, Garenne D, Noireaux V, Maeda YT. Gene Expression in on-Chip Membrane-Bound Artificial Cells. ACS Synth Biol 2019; 8:1705-1712. [PMID: 31268305 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.9b00247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Artificial cells made of molecular components and lipid membrane are emerging platforms to characterize living systems properties. Cell-free transcription-translation (TXTL) offers advantages for the bottom-up synthesis of cellular reactors. Yet, scaling up their design within well-defined geometries remains challenging. We present a microfluidic device hosting TXTL reactions of a reporter gene in thousands of microwells separated from an external buffer by a phospholipid membrane. In the presence of nutrients in the buffer, microreactors are stable beyond 24 h and yield a few mg/mL of proteins. Nutrients in the external solution feed the TXTL reaction at the picoliter scale via passive transport across the phospholipid membrane of each microfluidic well, despite the absence of pores. Replacing nutrients with an inert polymer and fatty acids at an isotonic concentration reduces microreactors efficiency, and a significant fraction yields no protein. This emphasizes the crucial role of the membrane for designing cell-free TXTL microreactors as efficient artificial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziane Izri
- Department of Physics , Kyushu University , Fukuoka , 819-0395 , Japan
| | - David Garenne
- School of Physics and Astronomy , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 United States
| | - Vincent Noireaux
- School of Physics and Astronomy , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , Minnesota 55455 United States
| | - Yusuke T Maeda
- Department of Physics , Kyushu University , Fukuoka , 819-0395 , Japan
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56
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Martin N. Dynamic Synthetic Cells Based on Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation. Chembiochem 2019; 20:2553-2568. [PMID: 31039282 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Living cells have long been a source of inspiration for chemists. Their capacity of performing complex tasks relies on the spatiotemporal coordination of matter and energy fluxes. Recent years have witnessed growing interest in the bottom-up construction of cell-like models capable of reproducing aspects of such dynamic organisation. Liquid-liquid phase-separation (LLPS) processes in water are increasingly recognised as representing a viable compartmentalisation strategy through which to produce dynamic synthetic cells. Herein, we highlight examples of the dynamic properties of LLPS used to assemble synthetic cells, including their biocatalytic activity, reversible condensation and dissolution, growth and division, and recent directions towards the design of higher-order structures and behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Martin
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR 5031, 115 Avenue du Dr. Albert Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
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57
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Fanalista F, Birnie A, Maan R, Burla F, Charles K, Pawlik G, Deshpande S, Koenderink GH, Dogterom M, Dekker C. Shape and Size Control of Artificial Cells for Bottom-Up Biology. ACS NANO 2019; 13:5439-5450. [PMID: 31074603 PMCID: PMC6543616 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b00220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Bottom-up biology is an expanding research field that aims to understand the mechanisms underlying biological processes via in vitro assembly of their essential components in synthetic cells. As encapsulation and controlled manipulation of these elements is a crucial step in the recreation of such cell-like objects, microfluidics is increasingly used for the production of minimal artificial containers such as single-emulsion droplets, double-emulsion droplets, and liposomes. Despite the importance of cell morphology on cellular dynamics, current synthetic-cell studies mainly use spherical containers, and methods to actively shape manipulate these have been lacking. In this paper, we describe a microfluidic platform to deform the shape of artificial cells into a variety of shapes (rods and discs) with adjustable cell-like dimensions below 5 μm, thereby mimicking realistic cell morphologies. To illustrate the potential of our method, we reconstitute three biologically relevant protein systems (FtsZ, microtubules, collagen) inside rod-shaped containers and study the arrangement of the protein networks inside these synthetic containers with physiologically relevant morphologies resembling those found in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Fanalista
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Anthony Birnie
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Renu Maan
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Federica Burla
- Department
of Living Matter, Biological Soft Matter Group, AMOLF, Science Park
104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kevin Charles
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Grzegorz Pawlik
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Siddharth Deshpande
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Gijsje H. Koenderink
- Department
of Living Matter, Biological Soft Matter Group, AMOLF, Science Park
104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marileen Dogterom
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Cees Dekker
- Department
of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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58
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Exterkate M, Driessen AJM. Synthetic Minimal Cell: Self-Reproduction of the Boundary Layer. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:5293-5303. [PMID: 30949617 PMCID: PMC6443216 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
A critical aspect in the bottom-up construction of a synthetic minimal cell is to develop an entity that is capable of self-reproduction. A key role in this process is the expansion and division of the boundary layer that surrounds the compartment, a process in which content loss has to be avoided and the barrier function maintained. Here, we describe the latest developments regarding self-reproduction of a boundary layer with a focus on the growth and division of phospholipid-based membranes in the context of a synthetic minimal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marten Exterkate
- Department of Molecular Microbiology,
Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arnold J. M. Driessen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology,
Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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59
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Abstract
Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) has become an established tool for rapid protein synthesis in order to accelerate the discovery of new enzymes and the development of proteins with improved characteristics. Over the past years, progress in CFPS system preparation has been made towards simplification, and many applications have been developed with regard to tailor-made solutions for specific purposes. In this review, various preparation methods of CFPS systems are compared and the significance of individual supplements is assessed. The recent applications of CFPS are summarized and the potential for biocatalyst development discussed. One of the central features is the high-throughput synthesis of protein variants, which enables sophisticated approaches for rapid prototyping of enzymes. These applications demonstrate the contribution of CFPS to enhance enzyme functionalities and the complementation to in vivo protein synthesis. However, there are different issues to be addressed, such as the low predictability of CFPS performance and transferability to in vivo protein synthesis. Nevertheless, the usage of CFPS for high-throughput enzyme screening has been proven to be an efficient method to discover novel biocatalysts and improved enzyme variants.
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60
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Wang L, Lin Y, Zhou Y, Xie H, Song J, Li M, Huang Y, Huang X, Mann S. Autonomic Behaviors in Lipase‐Active Oil Droplets. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:1067-1071. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201812111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Youping Lin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Yuting Zhou
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Hui Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics & SystemsHIT Harbin 150080 China
| | - Jianmin Song
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics & SystemsHIT Harbin 150080 China
| | - Mei Li
- Centre for Protolife Research & Centre for Organized Matter ChemistrySchool of ChemistryUniversity of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
| | - Yudong Huang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Xin Huang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Stephen Mann
- Centre for Protolife Research & Centre for Organized Matter ChemistrySchool of ChemistryUniversity of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
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61
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Wang L, Lin Y, Zhou Y, Xie H, Song J, Li M, Huang Y, Huang X, Mann S. Autonomic Behaviors in Lipase‐Active Oil Droplets. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201812111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Youping Lin
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Yuting Zhou
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Hui Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics & SystemsHIT Harbin 150080 China
| | - Jianmin Song
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics & SystemsHIT Harbin 150080 China
| | - Mei Li
- Centre for Protolife Research & Centre for Organized Matter ChemistrySchool of ChemistryUniversity of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
| | - Yudong Huang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Xin Huang
- MIIT Key Laboratory of Critical Materials Technology for New Energy Conversion and StorageSchool of Chemistry & Chemical EngineeringHarbin Institute of Technology (HIT) Harbin 150001 China
| | - Stephen Mann
- Centre for Protolife Research & Centre for Organized Matter ChemistrySchool of ChemistryUniversity of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
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