Toward a Universal Water Model: First Principles Simulations from the Dimer to the Liquid Phase

Energy Transfer to the Hydrogen Bond in the (H2O)2 + H2O Collision

Trajectory procedures are used to study the collision between the vibrationally excited H₂O and the ground-state (H₂O)₂ with particular reference to energy transfer to the hydrogen bond through the inter- and intramolecular pathways. In nearly 98% of the trajectories, energy transfer processes occur on a subpicosecond scale (≤0.7 ps). The H₂O transfers approximately three-quarters of its excitation energy to the OH stretches of the dimer. The first step of the intramolecular pathway in the dimer involves a near-resonant first overtone transition from the OH stretch to the bending mode. The energy transfer probability in the presence of the 1:2 resonance is 0.61 at 300 K. The bending mode then redistributes its energy to low-frequency intermolecular vibrations in a series of small excitation steps, with the pathway which results in the hydrogen-bonding modes gaining most of the available energy. The hydrogen bonding in ∼50% of the trajectories ruptures on vibrational excitation, leaving one quantum in the bend of the monomer fragment. In a small fraction of trajectories, the duration of collision is longer than 1 ps, during which the dimer and H₂O form a short-lived complex through a secondary hydrogen bond, which undergoes large amplitude oscillations.

Nuclear quantum effects on the vibrational dynamics of liquid water

Based on quantum-mechanical path-integral molecular dynamics simulations, the impact of nuclear quantum effects on the vibrational and hydrogen bond dynamics in liquid water is investigated. The instantaneous fluctuations in the frequencies of the O-H stretch modes are calculated using the wavelet method of time-series analysis, while the time scales of the vibrational spectral diffusion are determined from frequency-time correlation functions, joint probability distributions, and the slope of three-pulse photon echo. We find that the inclusion of nuclear quantum effects leads not only to a redshift of the vibrational frequency distribution by around 130 cm^-1 but also to an acceleration of the vibrational dynamics by as much as 30%. In addition, quantum fluctuations also entail a significantly faster decay of correlation in the initial diffusive regime, which is in agreement with recent vibrational echo experiments.

Getting the Right Answers for the Right Reasons: Toward Predictive Molecular Simulations of Water with Many-Body Potential Energy Functions

The central role played by water in fundamental processes relevant to different disciplines, including chemistry, physics, biology, materials science, geology, and climate research, cannot be overemphasized. It is thus not surprising that, since the pioneering work by Stillinger and Rahman, many theoretical and computational studies have attempted to develop a microscopic description of the unique properties of water under different thermodynamic conditions. Consequently, numerous molecular models based on either molecular mechanics or ab initio approaches have been proposed over the years. However, despite continued progress, the correct prediction of the properties of water from small gas-phase clusters to the liquid phase and ice through a single molecular model remains challenging. To large extent, this is due to the difficulties encountered in the accurate modeling of the underlying hydrogen-bond network in which both number and strength of the hydrogen bonds vary continuously as a result of a subtle interplay between energetic, entropic, and nuclear quantum effects. In the past decade, the development of efficient algorithms for correlated electronic structure calculations of small molecular complexes, accompanied by tremendous progress in the analytical representation of multidimensional potential energy surfaces, opened the doors to the design of highly accurate potential energy functions built upon rigorous representations of the many-body expansion (MBE) of the interaction energies. This Account provides a critical overview of the performance of the MB-pol many-body potential energy function through a systematic analysis of energetic, structural, thermodynamic, and dynamical properties as well as of vibrational spectra of water from the gas to the condensed phase. It is shown that MB-pol achieves unprecedented accuracy across all phases of water through a quantitative description of each individual term of the MBE, with a physically correct representation of both short- and long-range many-body contributions. Comparisons with experimental data probing different regions of the water potential energy surface from clusters to bulk demonstrate that MB-pol represents a major step toward the long-sought-after "universal model" capable of accurately describing the molecular properties of water under different conditions and in different environments. Along this path, future challenges include the extension of the many-body scheme adopted by MB-pol to the description of generic solutes as well as the integration of MB-pol in an efficient theoretical and computational framework to model acid-base reactions in aqueous environments. In this context, given the nontraditional form of the MB-pol energy and force expressions, synergistic efforts by theoretical/computational chemists/physicists and computer scientists will be critical for the development of high-performance software for many-body molecular dynamics simulations.

Evaluation of the grand-canonical partition function using expanded Wang-Landau simulations. IV. Performance of many-body force fields and tight-binding schemes for the fluid phases of silicon

We extend Expanded Wang-Landau (EWL) simulations beyond classical systems and develop the EWL method for systems modeled with a tight-binding Hamiltonian. We then apply the method to determine the partition function and thus all thermodynamic properties, including the Gibbs free energy and entropy, of the fluid phases of Si. We compare the results from quantum many-body (QMB) tight binding models, which explicitly calculate the overlap between the atomic orbitals of neighboring atoms, to those obtained with classical many-body (CMB) force fields, which allow to recover the tetrahedral organization in condensed phases of Si through, e.g., a repulsive 3-body term that favors the ideal tetrahedral angle. Along the vapor-liquid coexistence, between 3000 K and 6000 K, the densities for the two coexisting phases are found to vary significantly (by 5 orders of magnitude for the vapor and by up to 25% for the liquid) and to provide a stringent test of the models. Transitions from vapor to liquid are predicted to occur for chemical potentials that are 10%-15% higher for CMB models than for QMB models, and a ranking of the force fields is provided by comparing the predictions for the vapor pressure to the experimental data. QMB models also reveal the formation of a gap in the electronic density of states of the coexisting liquid at high temperatures. Subjecting Si to a nanoscopic confinement has a dramatic effect on the phase diagram with, e.g. at 6000 K, a decrease in liquid densities by about 50% for both CMB and QMB models and an increase in vapor densities between 90% (CMB) and 170% (QMB). The results presented here provide a full picture of the impact of the strategy (CMB or QMB) chosen to model many-body effects on the thermodynamic properties of the fluid phases of Si.

Modeling Molecular Interactions in Water: From Pairwise to Many-Body Potential Energy Functions

Almost 50 years have passed from the first computer simulations of water, and a large number of molecular models have been proposed since then to elucidate the unique behavior of water across different phases. In this article, we review the recent progress in the development of analytical potential energy functions that aim at correctly representing many-body effects. Starting from the many-body expansion of the interaction energy, specific focus is on different classes of potential energy functions built upon a hierarchy of approximations and on their ability to accurately reproduce reference data obtained from state-of-the-art electronic structure calculations and experimental measurements. We show that most recent potential energy functions, which include explicit short-range representations of two-body and three-body effects along with a physically correct description of many-body effects at all distances, predict the properties of water from the gas to the condensed phase with unprecedented accuracy, thus opening the door to the long-sought "universal model" capable of describing the behavior of water under different conditions and in different environments.

The Carbon-Water Interface: Modeling Challenges and Opportunities for the Water-Energy Nexus

Providing clean water and sufficient affordable energy to all without compromising the environment is a key priority in the scientific community. Many recent studies have focused on carbon-based devices in the hope of addressing this grand challenge, justifying and motivating detailed studies of water in contact with carbonaceous materials. Such studies are becoming increasingly important because of the miniaturization of newly proposed devices, with ubiquitous nanopores, large surface-to-volume ratio, and many, perhaps most of the water molecules in contact with a carbon-based surface. In this brief review, we discuss some recent advances obtained via simulations and experiments in the development of carbon-based materials for applications in water desalination. We suggest possible ways forward, with particular emphasis on the synergistic combination of experiments and simulations, with simulations now sometimes offering sufficient accuracy to provide fundamental insights. We also point the interested reader to recent works that complement our short summary on the state of the art of this important and fascinating field.

Water at Interfaces

The interfaces of neat water and aqueous solutions play a prominent role in many technological processes and in the environment. Examples of aqueous interfaces are ultrathin water films that cover most hydrophilic surfaces under ambient relative humidities, the liquid/solid interface which drives many electrochemical reactions, and the liquid/vapor interface, which governs the uptake and release of trace gases by the oceans and cloud droplets. In this article we review some of the recent experimental and theoretical advances in our knowledge of the properties of aqueous interfaces and discuss open questions and gaps in our understanding.

Concerted hydrogen-bond breaking by quantum tunneling in the water hexamer prism

The nature of the intermolecular forces between water molecules is the same in small hydrogen-bonded clusters as in the bulk. The rotational spectra of the clusters therefore give insight into the intermolecular forces present in liquid water and ice. The water hexamer is the smallest water cluster to support low-energy structures with branched three-dimensional hydrogen-bond networks, rather than cyclic two-dimensional topologies. Here we report measurements of splitting patterns in rotational transitions of the water hexamer prism, and we used quantum simulations to show that they result from geared and antigeared rotations of a pair of water molecules. Unlike previously reported tunneling motions in water clusters, the geared motion involves the concerted breaking of two hydrogen bonds. Similar types of motion may be feasible in interfacial and confined water.

An adaptive quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics method for the infrared spectrum of water: incorporation of the quantum effect between solute and solvent

Quantum effects in solute–solvent interactions, such as the many-body effect and the dipole-induced dipole, are known to be critical factors influencing the infrared spectra of species in the liquid phase.

The effects of framework dynamics on the behavior of water adsorbed in the [Zn(l-L)(Cl)] and Co-MOF-74 metal–organic frameworks

Density distributions of water molecules in the pores of the [Zn(l-L)(Cl)] metal–organic framework.

Ab initio water pair potential with flexible monomers

A potential energy surface for the water dimer with explicit dependence on monomer coordinates is presented. The surface was fitted to a set of previously published interaction energies computed on a grid of over a quarter million points in the 12-dimensional configurational space using symmetry-adapted perturbation theory and coupled-cluster methods. The present fit removes small errors in published fits, and its accuracy is critically evaluated. The minimum and saddle-point structures of the potential surface were found to be very close to predictions from direct ab initio optimizations. The computed second virial coefficients agreed well with experimental values. At low temperatures, the effects of monomer flexibility in the virial coefficients were found to be much smaller than the quantum effects.

Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Liquid Water through "First-Principles" Many-Body Molecular Dynamics

Vibrational spectroscopy is a powerful technique to probe the structure and dynamics of water. However, deriving an unambiguous molecular-level interpretation of the experimental spectral features remains a challenge due to the complexity of the underlying hydrogen-bonding network. In this contribution, we present an integrated theoretical and computational framework (named many-body molecular dynamics or MB-MD) that, by systematically removing uncertainties associated with existing approaches, enables a rigorous modeling of vibrational spectra of water from quantum dynamical simulations. Specifically, we extend approaches used to model the many-body expansion of interaction energies to develop many-body representations of the dipole moment and polarizability of water. The combination of these "first-principles" representations with centroid molecular dynamics simulations enables the simulation of infrared and Raman spectra of liquid water under ambient conditions that, without relying on any ad hoc parameters, are in good agreement with the corresponding experimental results. Importantly, since the many-body energy, dipole, and polarizability surfaces employed in the simulations are derived independently from accurate fits to correlated electronic structure data, MB-MD allows for a systematic analysis of the calculated spectra in terms of both electronic and dynamical contributions. The present analysis suggests that, while MB-MD correctly reproduces both the shifts and the shapes of the main spectroscopic features, an improved description of quantum dynamical effects possibly combined with a dissociable water potential may be necessary for a quantitative representation of the OH stretch band.

Water clusters in an argon matrix: infrared spectra from molecular dynamics simulations with a self-consistent charge density functional-based tight binding/force-field potential

The present theoretical study aims at investigating the effects of an argon matrix on the structures, energetics, dynamics, and infrared (IR) spectra of small water clusters (H2O)n (n = 1-6). The potential energy surface is obtained from a hybrid self-consistent charge density functional-based tight binding/force-field approach (SCC-DFTB/FF) in which the water clusters are treated at the SCC-DFTB level and the matrix is modeled at the FF level by a cluster consisting of ∼340 Ar atoms with a face centered cubic (fcc) structure, namely (H2O)n/Ar. With respect to a pure FF scheme, this allows a quantum description of the molecular system embedded in the matrix, along with all-atom geometry optimization and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the (H2O)n/Ar system. Finite-temperature IR spectra are derived from the MD simulations. The SCC-DFTB/FF scheme is first benchmarked on (H2O)Arn clusters against correlated wave function results and DFT calculations performed in the present work, and against FF data available in the literature. Regarding (H2O)n/Ar systems, the geometries of the water clusters are found to adapt to the fcc environment, possibly leading to intermolecular distortion and matrix perturbation. Several energetical quantities are estimated to characterize the water clusters in the matrix. In the particular case of the water hexamer, substitution and insertion energies for the prism, bag, and cage are found to be lower than that for the 6-member ring isomer. Finite-temperature MD simulations show that the water monomer has a quasifree rotation motion at 13 K, in agreement with experimental data. In the case of the water dimer, the only large-amplitude motion is a distortion-rotation intermolecular motion, whereas only vibration motions around the nuclei equilibrium positions are observed for clusters with larger sizes. Regarding the IR spectra, we find that the matrix environment leads to redshifts of the stretching modes and almost no shift of the bending modes. This is in agreement with experimental data. Furthermore, in the case of the water monomer and dimer, the magnitudes of the computed shifts are in fair agreement with the experimental values. The complex case of the water hexamer, which presents several low-energy isomers, is discussed.

Predictions for water clusters from a first-principles two- and three-body force field

A new rigid-monomer three-body potential has been developed for water by fitting it to more than 70 thousand trimer interaction energies computed ab initio using coupled-cluster methods and augmented triple-zeta-quality basis sets. This potential was used together with a modified form of a previously developed two-body potential and with a polarization model of four- and higher-body interactions to predict the energetics of the water trimer, hexamer, and 24-mer. Despite using the rigid-monomer approximation, these predictions agree better with flexible-monomer benchmarks than published results obtained with flexible-monomer force fields. An unexpected finding of our work is that simple polarization models predict four-body interactions to within a few percent, whereas for three-body interactions these models are known to have errors on the order of 50%.

GEM*: A Molecular Electronic Density-Based Force Field for Molecular Dynamics Simulations

GEM*, a force field that combines Coulomb and Exchange terms calculated with Hermite Gaussians with the polarization, bonded, and modified van der Waals terms from AMOEBA is presented. GEM* is tested on an initial water model fitted at the same level as AMOEBA. The integrals required for the evaluation of the intermolecular Coulomb interactions are efficiently evaluated by means of reciprocal space methods. The GEM* water model is tested by comparing energies and forces for a series of water oligomers and MD simulations. Timings for GEM* compared to AMOEBA are presented and discussed.