Alteration of genomic responses to doxorubicin and prevention of MDR in breast cancer cells by a polymer excipient: pluronic P85

Prevention of MDR development in leukemia cells by micelle-forming polymeric surfactant

Doxorubicin (Dox) incorporated in nanosized polymeric micelles, SP1049C, has shown promise as monotherapy in patients with advanced esophageal carcinoma. The formulation contains amphiphilic block copolymers, Pluronics, that exhibit the unique ability to chemosensitize multidrug resistant (MDR) tumors by inhibiting P-glycoprotein (Pgp) drug efflux system and enhancing pro-apoptotic signaling in cancer cells. This work evaluates whether a representative block copolymer, Pluronic P85 (P85) can also prevent development of Dox-induced MDR in leukemia cells. For in vitro studies murine lymphocytic leukemia cells (P388) were exposed to increasing concentrations of Dox with/without P85. For in vivo studies, BDF1 mice bearing P388 ascite were treated with Dox or Dox/P85. The selected P388 cell sublines and ascitic tumor-derived cells were characterized for Pgp expression and functional activity (RT-PCR, Western Blot, rhodamine 123 accumulation) as well as Dox resistance (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay). The global gene expression was determined by oligonucleotide gene microarrays. We demonstrated that P85 prevented development of MDR1 phenotype in leukemia cells in vitro and in vivo as determined by Pgp expression and functional assays of the selected cells. Cells selected with Dox in the presence of P85 in vitro and in vivo exhibited some increases in IC(50) values compared to parental cells, but these values were much less than IC(50) in respective cells selected with the drug alone. In addition to mdr1, P85 abolished alterations of genes implicated in apoptosis, drug metabolism, stress response, molecular transport and tumorigenesis. In conclusion, Pluronic formulation can prevent development of MDR in leukemia cells in vitro and in vivo.

Doxorubicin activates FOXO3a to induce the expression of multidrug resistance gene ABCB1 (MDR1) in K562 leukemic cells

Using the doxorubicin-sensitive K562 cell line and the resistant derivative lines KD30 and KD225 as models, we found that acquisition of multidrug resistance (MDR) is associated with enhanced FOXO3a activity and expression of ABCB1 (MDR1), a plasma membrane P-glycoprotein that functions as an efflux pump for various anticancer agents. Furthermore, induction of ABCB1 mRNA expression on doxorubicin treatment of naive K562 cells was also accompanied by increased FOXO3a activity. Analysis of transfected K562, KD30, and KD225 cells in which FOXO3a activity can be induced by 4-hydroxytamoxifen showed that FOXO3a up-regulates ABCB1 expression at protein, mRNA, and gene promoter levels. Conversely, silencing of endogenous FOXO3a expression in KD225 cells inhibited the expression of this transport protein. Promoter analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that FOXO3a regulation of ABCB1 expression involves binding of this transcription factor to the proximal promoter region. Moreover, activation of FOXO3a increased ABCB1 drug efflux potential in KD30 cells, whereas silencing of FOXO3a by siRNA significantly reduced ABCB1 drug efflux ability. Together, these findings suggest a novel mechanism that can contribute towards MDR, involving FOXO3a as sensor for the cytotoxic stress induced by anticancer drugs. Although FOXO3a may initially trigger a program of cell cycle arrest and cell death in response to doxorubicin, sustained FOXO3a activation promotes drug resistance and survival of cells by activating ABCB1 expression.

Motility-related actinin alpha-4 is associated with advanced and metastatic ovarian carcinoma

Advanced and metastatic ovarian cancer is a leading cause of death from gynecologic malignancies. A more detailed understanding of the factors controlling invasion and metastasis may lead to novel anti-metastatic therapies. To model cellular interactions that occur during intraperitoneal metastasis, comparative cDNA microarray analysis and confirmatory real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) were employed to uncover changes in gene expression that may occur in late stage ovarian cancer in response to microenvironmental cues, particularly native three-dimensional collagen I. Gene expression in human ovarian carcinoma tissues was evaluated on the RNA and protein level using real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Cell invasion and migration were evaluated in a collagen invasion assay and a scratch wound assay. Three-dimensional collagen I culture led to differential expression of several genes. The role of actinin alpha-4 (ACTN4), a cytoskeleton-associated protein implicated in the regulation of cell motility, was examined in detail. ACTN4 RNA and protein expression were associated with advanced and metastatic human ovarian carcinoma. This report demonstrates that a cytoskeletal-associated protein ACTN4 is upregulated by three-dimensional collagen culture conditions, leading to increased invasion and motility of ovarian cancer cells. Expression of ACTN4 in human ovarian tumors was found to be associated with advanced-stage disease and peritoneal metastases.

Pluronic block copolymers: evolution of drug delivery concept from inert nanocarriers to biological response modifiers

Polymer nanomaterials have sparked a considerable interest as vehicles used for diagnostic and therapeutic agents; research in nanomedicine has not only become a frontier movement but is also a revolutionizing drug delivery field. A common approach for building a drug delivery system is to incorporate the drug within the nanocarrier that results in increased solubility, metabolic stability, and improved circulation time. With this foundation, nanoparticles with stealth properties that can circumvent RES and other clearance and defense mechanisms are the most promising. However, recent developments indicate that select polymer nanomaterials can implement more than only inert carrier functions by being biological response modifiers. One representative of such materials is Pluronic block copolymers that cause various functional alterations in cells. The key attribute for the biological activity of Pluronics is their ability to incorporate into membranes followed by subsequent translocation into the cells and affecting various cellular functions, such as mitochondrial respiration, ATP synthesis, activity of drug efflux transporters, apoptotic signal transduction, and gene expression. As a result, Pluronics cause drastic sensitization of MDR tumors to various anticancer agents, enhance drug transport across the blood brain and intestinal barriers, and causes transcriptional activation of gene expression both in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, these studies suggest that Pluronics have a broad spectrum of biological response modifying activities which make it one of the most potent drug targeting systems available, resulting in a remarkable impact on the emergent field of nanomedicine.

Synthesis, characterization, antitumor activity of pluronic mimicking copolymer micelles conjugated with doxorubicin via acid-cleavable linkage

Pluronic mimicking poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock copolymer having multiple hydroxyl groups in the PPO middle segment (core-functionalized Pluronic: CF-PLU) was synthesized for conjugation of doxorubicin (DOX). DOX was conjugated on the multiple hydroxyl groups of CF-PLU via an acid-labile hydrazone linkage (CF-PLU-DOX). In aqueous solution, CF-PLU-DOX copolymers self-assembled to form a core/shell-type micelle structure consisting of a hydrophobic DOX-conjugated PPO core and a hydrophilic PEO shell layer. The conjugated DOX from CF-PLU-DOX micelles was released out more rapidly at pH 5 than pH 7.4, indicating that the hydrazone linkage was cleaved under acidic condition. CF-PLU-DOX micelles exhibited greatly enhanced cytotoxicity for MCF-7 human breast cancer cells compared to naked DOX, while CF-PLU copolymer itself showed extremely low cytotoxicity. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the extent of cellular uptake for CF-PLU-DOX micelles was greater than free DOX. Confocal image analysis also showed that CF-PLU-DOX micelles had a quite different intracellular distribution profile from free DOX. CF-PLU-DOX micelles were mainly distributed in the cytoplasm, endosomal/lysosomal vesicles, and nucleus, while free DOX was localized mainly within the nucleus, suggesting that CF-PLU-DOX micellar formulation might be advantageously used for overcoming the multidrug resistance (MDR) effect, which gradually develops in many tumor cells during repeated drug administration.

Surfactant-polymer nanoparticles overcome P-glycoprotein-mediated drug efflux

Nanoparticles enhance the therapeutic efficacy of an encapsulated drug by increasing and sustaining the delivery of the drug inside the cell. We have previously demonstrated that Aerosol OT (AOT)-alginate nanoparticles, a novel formulation developed recently in our laboratory, significantly enhance the therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs like doxorubicin in drug-sensitive tumor cells. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the drug delivery potential of AOT-alginate nanoparticles in drug-resistant cells overexpressing the drug efflux transporter, P-glycoprotein (P-gp). AOT-alginate nanoparticles were formulated using an emulsion-cross-linking process. Rhodamine 123 and doxorubicin were used as model P-gp substrates. Cytotoxicity of nanoparticle-encapsulated doxorubicin and kinetics of nanoparticle-mediated cellular drug delivery were evaluated in both drug-sensitive and -resistant cell lines. AOT-alginate nanoparticles enhanced the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin significantly in drug-resistant cells. The enhancement in cytotoxicity with nanoparticles was sustained over a period of 10 days. Uptake studies with rhodamine-loaded nanoparticles indicated that nanoparticles significantly increased the level of drug accumulation in resistant cells at nanoparticle doses higher than 200 microg/mL. Blank nanoparticles also improved rhodamine accumulation in drug-resistant cells in a dose-dependent manner. Nanoparticle-mediated enhancement in rhodamine accumulation was not because of membrane permeabilization. Fluorescence microscopy studies demonstrated that nanoparticle-encapsulated doxorubicin was predominantly localized in the perinuclear vesicles and to a lesser extent in the nucleus, whereas free doxorubicin accumulated mainly in peripheral endocytic vesicles. Inhibition of P-gp-mediated rhodamine efflux with AOT-alginate nanoparticles was confirmed in primary brain microvessel endothelial cells. In conclusion, an AOT-alginate nanoparticle system enhanced the cellular delivery and therapeutic efficacy of P-gp substrates in P-gp-overexpressing cells.

Enhanced anticancer effect of conjugated linoleic acid by conjugation with Pluronic F127 on MCF-7 breast cancer cells

This study is designed to evaluate whether conjugated linoleic acid-coupled Pluronic F127 (Plu-CLA) enhances anticancer efficacy in MCF-7 breast cancer cells when compared to conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) itself. CLA was simply coupled to Pluronic F127 through ester linkage between carboxyl group of CLA and hydroxyl one of Pluronic at melting state without solvent or catalyst. Plu-CLA significantly enhanced apoptosis with increasing concentration compared with CLA itself. Moreover, it was found that p53, p21, and Bax were up-regulated, whereas Bcl-2 and procaspase 9 were down-regulated with increasing concentration of Plu-CLA. These results were attributed to the sensitization activity of Pluronic F127.

Poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) block copolymer micelles as drug delivery agents: improved hydrosolubility, stability and bioavailability of drugs

The low solubility in biological fluids displayed by about 50% of the drugs still remains the main limitation in oral, parenteral, and transdermal administration. Among the existing strategies to overcome these drawbacks, inclusion of hydrophobic drugs into polymeric micelles is one of the most attractive alternatives. Amphiphilic poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide) block copolymers are thermoresponsive materials that display unique aggregation properties in aqueous medium. Due to their ability to form stable micellar systems in water, these materials are broadly studied as hydrosolubilizers for poorly water-soluble drugs. The present review provides a concise description of the most important applications of PEO-PPO-based copolymers in the Pharmaceutical Technology field as means for attaining improved solubility, stability, release, and bioavailability of drugs.

Polymer genomics: an insight into pharmacology and toxicology of nanomedicines

Synthetic polymers and nanomaterials display selective phenotypic effects in cells and in the body signal transduction mechanisms involved in inflammation, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. When physically mixed or covalently conjugated with cytotoxic agents, bacterial DNA or antigens, polymers can drastically alter specific genetically controlled responses to these agents. These effects, in part, result from cooperative interactions of polymers and nanomaterials with plasma cell membranes and trafficking of polymers and nanomaterials to intracellular organelles. Cells and whole organism responses to these materials can be phenotype or genotype dependent. In selected cases, polymer agents can bypass limitations to biological responses imposed by the genotype, for example, phenotypic correction of immune response by polyelectrolytes. Overall, these effects are relatively benign as they do not result in cytotoxicity or major toxicities in the body. Collectively, however, these studies support the need for assessing pharmacogenomic effects of polymer materials to maximize clinical outcomes and understand the pharmacological and toxicological effects of polymer formulations of biological agents, i.e. polymer genomics.