Raman spectra of epitaxial graphene on SiC and of epitaxial graphene transferred to SiO2

Large area graphene nanomesh: an artificial platform for edge-electrochemical biosensing at the sub-attomolar level

Recent advances in large area graphene growth have led to tremendous applications in a variety of areas. The graphene nanomesh with its tunable band-gap is of great interest for both fundamental research, to explore the effect of edges on both the 2D electrical conduction and its electrochemical behavior, and applications such as nanoelectronic devices or highly sensitive biosensors. Here, we report on the fabrication of a large surface graphene nanomesh by nanoimprint lithography (NIL) to produce controlled artificial edges. The electrochemical response of this high quality single graphene layer imprinted nanomesh shows an enhancement in capacitance associated with faster electron transfer which can be attributed to the high density of edges. The electrochemical performances of this nanomesh graphene platform have been also studied for label-free DNA detection from Hepatitis C virus as a model. We demonstrate that such a nanomesh platform allows direct detection at the sub-attomolar level with more than 90% of molecules located on the imprinted artificial edges. Such a graphene nanomesh electrode will find useful future applications in the field of biosensing.

Growth of Epitaxial Oxide Thin Films on Graphene

The transfer process of graphene onto the surface of oxide substrates is well known. However, for many devices, we require high quality oxide thin films on the surface of graphene. This step is not understood. It is not clear why the oxide should adopt the epitaxy of the underlying oxide layer when it is deposited on graphene where there is no lattice match. To date there has been no explanation or suggestion of mechanisms which clarify this step. Here we show a mechanism, supported by first principles simulation and structural characterisation results, for the growth of oxide thin films on graphene. We describe the growth of epitaxial SrTiO₃ (STO) thin films on a graphene and show that local defects in the graphene layer (e.g. grain boundaries) act as bridge-pillar spots that enable the epitaxial growth of STO thin films on the surface of the graphene layer. This study, and in particular the suggestion of a mechanism for epitaxial growth of oxides on graphene, offers new directions to exploit the development of oxide/graphene multilayer structures and devices.

Progress and Challenges in Transfer of Large-Area Graphene Films

Graphene, the thinnest, strongest, and stiffest material with exceptional thermal conductivity and electron mobility, has increasingly received world-wide attention in the past few years. These unique properties may lead to novel or improved technologies to address the pressing global challenges in many applications including transparent conducting electrodes, field effect transistors, flexible touch screen, single-molecule gas detection, desalination, DNA sequencing, osmotic energy production, etc. To realize these applications, it is necessary to transfer graphene films from growth substrate to target substrate with large-area, clean, and low defect surface, which are crucial to the performances of large-area graphene devices. This critical review assesses the recent development in transferring large-area graphene grown on Fe, Ru, Co, Ir, Ni, Pt, Au, Cu, and some nonmetal substrates by using various synthesized methods. Among them, the transfers of the most attention kinds of graphene synthesized on Cu and SiC substrates are discussed emphatically. The advances and the main challenges of each wet and dry transfer method for obtaining the transferred graphene film with large-area, clean, and low defect surface are also reviewed. Finally, the article concludes the most promising methods and the further prospects of graphene transfer.

Quantitative Subsurface Atomic Structure Fingerprint for 2D Materials and Heterostructures by First-Principles-Calibrated Contact-Resonance Atomic Force Microscopy

Interfaces and subsurface layers are critical for the performance of devices made of 2D materials and heterostructures. Facile, nondestructive, and quantitative ways to characterize the structure of atomically thin, layered materials are thus essential to ensure control of the resultant properties. Here, we show that contact-resonance atomic force microscopy-which is exquisitely sensitive to stiffness changes that arise from even a single atomic layer of a van der Waals-adhered material-is a powerful experimental tool to address this challenge. A combined density functional theory and continuum modeling approach is introduced that yields sub-surface-sensitive, nanomechanical fingerprints associated with specific, well-defined structure models of individual surface domains. Where such models are known, this information can be correlated with experimentally obtained contact-resonance frequency maps to reveal the (sub)surface structure of different domains on the sample.

Effect of substrate polishing on the growth of graphene on 3C-SiC(111)/Si(111) by high temperature annealing

We analyse the effects of substrate polishing and of the epilayer thickness on the quality of graphene layers grown by high temperature annealing on 3C-SiC(111)/Si(111) by scanning tunnelling microscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, low energy electron diffraction and high resolution angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy. The results provide a comprehensive set of data confirming the superior quality of the graphene layers obtained on polished substrates, and the limitations of the growth obtained on unpolished surfaces.

Terahertz and mid-infrared reflectance of epitaxial graphene

Graphene has emerged as a promising material for infrared (IR) photodetectors and plasmonics. In this context, wafer scale epitaxial graphene on SiC is of great interest in a variety of applications in optics and nanoelectronics. Here we present IR reflectance spectroscopy of graphene grown epitaxially on the C-face of 6H-SiC over a broad optical range, from terahertz (THz) to mid-infrared (MIR). Contrary to the transmittance, reflectance measurements are not hampered by the transmission window of the substrate, and in particular by the SiC Reststrahlen band in the MIR. This allows us to present IR reflectance data exhibiting a continuous evolution from the regime of intraband to interband charge carrier transitions. A consistent and simultaneous analysis of the contributions from both transitions to the optical response yields precise information on the carrier dynamics and the number of layers. The properties of the graphene layers derived from IR reflection spectroscopy are corroborated by other techniques (micro-Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies, transport measurements). Moreover, we also present MIR microscopy mapping, showing that spatially-resolved information can be gathered, giving indications on the sample homogeneity. Our work paves the way for a still scarcely explored field of epitaxial graphene-based THz and MIR optical devices.

Pulsed-Plasma Physical Vapor Deposition Approach Toward the Facile Synthesis of Multilayer and Monolayer Graphene for Anticoagulation Applications

We demonstrate the growth of multilayer and single-layer graphene on copper foil using bipolar pulsed direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering of a graphite target in pure argon atmosphere. Single-layer graphene (SG) and few-layer graphene (FLG) films are deposited at temperatures ranging from 700 °C to 920 °C within <30 min. We find that the deposition and post-deposition annealing temperatures influence the layer thickness and quality of the graphene films formed. The films were characterized using atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and optical transmission spectroscopy techniques. Based on the above studies, a diffusion-controlled mechanism was proposed for the graphene growth. A single-step whole blood assay was used to investigate the anticoagulant activity of graphene surfaces. Platelet adhesion, activation, and morphological changes on the graphene/glass surfaces, compared to bare glass, were analyzed using fluorescence microscopy and SEM techniques. We have found significant suppression of the platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation on the graphene-covered surfaces, compared to the bare glass, indicating the anticoagulant activity of the deposited graphene films. Our production technique represents an industrially relevant method for the growth of SG and FLG for various applications including the biomedical field.

A simple preparation of porous graphene nanosheets containing onion-like nano-holes with favorable high-rate Li-storage performance

Porous graphene nanosheets containing hollow onion-like nano-holes were fabricated through simple graphitization from phenolic resin, and exhibit endurable capability and outstanding rate performance as anode materials for lithium ion batteries.

The effect of the surface energy and structure of the SiC substrate on epitaxial graphene growth

The theoretical calculations and experiments were employed to study the effect of the exposed SiC surface on epitaxial graphene growth.

Highly Decoupled Graphene Multilayers: Turbostraticity at its Best

The extraordinary properties of graphene are truly observable when it is suspended, being free from any substrate influence. Here, a new type of multilayer graphene is reported wherein each layer is turbostratically decoupled, resembling suspended graphene in nature, while maintaining high degree of 2D crystallinity. Such defect-free graphene multilayers have been made over large areas by Joule heating of a Ni foil coated with a solid hydrocarbon. Raman spectra measured on thick flakes of turbostratically single layer graphene (T-SLG) (100-250 nm) have shown characteristics similar to suspended graphene with very narrow 2D bands (∼16 cm(-1)) and I2D/IG ratios up to 7.4, importantly with no D band intensity. Electron diffraction patterns showed sets of diffraction spots spread out with definite angular spacings, reminiscent of the angular deviations from the AB packing which are responsible for keeping the layers decoupled. The d-spacing derived from X-ray diffraction was larger (by ∼0.04 Å) compared to that in graphite. Accordingly, the c-axis resistance values were three orders higher, suggesting that the layers are indeed electronically decoupled. The high 2D crystallinity observed along with the decoupled nature should accredit the observed graphene species as a close cousin of suspended graphene.

Gain and Raman line-broadening with graphene coated diamond-shape nano-antennas

Using Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS), we report on intensity-dependent broadening in graphene-deposited broad-band antennas. The antenna gain curve includes both the incident frequency and some of the scattered mode frequencies. By comparing antennas with various gaps and types (bow-tie vs. diamond-shape antennas) we make the case that the line broadening did not originate from strain, thermal or surface potential. Strain, if present, further shifts and broadens those Raman lines that are included within the antenna gain curve.

Laser ablation- and plasma etching-based patterning of graphene on silicon-on-insulator waveguides

We present a new approach to remove monolayer graphene transferred on top of a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) photonic integrated chip. Femtosecond laser ablation is used for the first time to remove graphene from SOI waveguides, whereas oxygen plasma etching through a metal mask is employed to peel off graphene from the grating couplers attached to the waveguides. We show by means of Raman spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy that the removal of graphene is successful with minimal damage to the underlying SOI waveguides. Finally, we employ both removal techniques to measure the contribution of graphene to the loss of grating-coupled graphene-covered SOI waveguides using the cut-back method.

Surface Evolution of Nano-Textured 4H-SiC Homoepitaxial Layers after High Temperature Treatments: Morphology Characterization and Graphene Growth

Nano-textured 4H–SiC homoepitaxial layers (NSiCLs) were grown on 4H–SiC(0001) substrates using a low pressure chemical vapor deposition technique (LPCVD), and subsequently were subjected to high temperature treatments (HTTs) for investigation of their surface morphology evolution and graphene growth. It was found that continuously distributed nano-scale patterns formed on NSiCLs which were about submicrons in-plane and about 100 nanometers out-of-plane in size. After HTTs under vacuum, pattern sizes reduced, and the sizes of the remains were inversely proportional to the treatment time. Referring to Raman spectra, the establishment of multi-layer graphene (MLG) on NSiCL surfaces was observed. MLG with sp² disorders was obtained from NSiCLs after a high temperature treatment under vacuum at 1700 K for two hours, while MLG without sp² disorders was obtained under Ar atmosphere at 1900 K.

Epitaxial graphene on SiC: modification of structural and electron transport properties by substrate pretreatment

The electrical transport properties of epitaxial graphene layers are correlated with the SiC surface morphology. In this study we show by atomic force microscopy and Raman measurements that the surface morphology and the structure of the epitaxial graphene layers change significantly when different pretreatment procedures are applied to nearly on-axis 6H-SiC(0 0 0 1) substrates. It turns out that the often used hydrogen etching of the substrate is responsible for undesirable high macro-steps evolving during graphene growth. A more advantageous type of sub-nanometer stepped graphene layers is obtained with a new method: a high-temperature conditioning of the SiC surface in argon atmosphere. The results can be explained by the observed graphene buffer layer domains after the conditioning process which suppress giant step bunching and graphene step flow growth. The superior electronic quality is demonstrated by a less extrinsic resistance anisotropy obtained in nano-probe transport experiments and by the excellent quantization of the Hall resistance in low-temperature magneto-transport measurements. The quantum Hall resistance agrees with the nominal value (half of the von Klitzing constant) within a standard deviation of 4.5 × 10(-9) which qualifies this method for the fabrication of electrical quantum standards.

Delamination of graphite in a high pressure homogenizer

A scalable industrial method for graphene and Few-Layer-Graphene (FLG) production by graphite delamination in N-methylpyrrolidone and water–surfactant mixtures using a high pressure homogenizer is presented.

Direct epitaxial CVD synthesis of tungsten disulfide on epitaxial and CVD graphene

Direct epitaxial growth of WS₂ isolated crystals and WS₂ continuous films onto epitaxial- and CVD-graphene providing a homogeneous and narrow PL peak.

Experimental techniques for the characterization of carbon nanoparticles - a brief overview

THE REVIEW OF FOUR EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance and four-point electrical conductivity measurements is presented to characterize carbon nanoparticles. Two types of carbon nanoparticle systems are discussed: one comprising the powder of individual carbon nanoparticles and the second as a structurally interconnected nanoparticle matrix in the form of a fiber. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy reveal the atomic structure of the carbon nanoparticles and allow for observation of the changes in the quasi-graphitic ordering induced by ultrasonic irradiation and with the so-called quasi-high pressure effect under adsorption conditions. Structural changes have strong influence on the electronic properties, especially the localization of charge carriers within the nanoparticles, which can be observed with the EPR technique. This in turn can be well-correlated with the four-point electrical conductivity measurements which directly show the character of the charge carrier transport within the examined structures.

Charged nano-domes and bubbles in epitaxial graphene

For the first time, new epitaxial graphene nano-structures resembling charged 'bubbles' and 'domes' are reported. A strong influence, arising from the change in morphology, on the graphene layer's electronic, mechanical and optical properties has been shown. The morphological properties of these structures have been studied with atomic force microscopy (AFM), ultrasonic force microscopy (UFM) and Raman spectroscopy. After initial optical microscopy observation of the graphene, a detailed description of the surface morphology, via AFM and nanomechanical UFM measurements, was obtained. Here, graphene nano-structures, domes and bubbles, ranging from a few tens of nanometres (150–200 nm) to a few μm in size have been identified. The AFM topographical and UFM stiffness data implied the freestanding nature of the graphene layer within the domes and bubbles, with heights on the order of 5–12 nm. Raman spectroscopy mappings of G and 2D bands and their ratio confirm not only the graphene composition of these structures but also the existence of step bunching, defect variations and the carrier density distribution. In particular, inside the bubbles and substrate there arises complex charge redistribution; in fact, the graphene bubble–substrate interface forms a charged capacitance. We have determined the strength of the electric field inside the bubble–substrate interface, which may lead to a minigap of the order of 5 meV opening for epitaxial graphene grown on 4H-SiC face-terminated carbon.

Approaching magnetic ordering in graphene materials by FeCl3 intercalation

We show the successful intercalation of large area (1 cm(2)) epitaxial few-layer graphene grown on 4H-SiC with FeCl3. Upon intercalation the resistivity of this system drops from an average value of ∼200 Ω/sq to ∼16 Ω/sq at room temperature. The magneto-conductance shows a weak localization feature with a temperature dependence typical of graphene Dirac fermions demonstrating the decoupling into parallel hole gases of each carbon layer composing the FeCl3 intercalated structure. The phase coherence length (∼1.2 μm at 280 mK) decreases rapidly only for temperatures higher than the 2D magnetic ordering in the intercalant layer while it tends to saturate for temperatures lower than the antiferromagnetic ordering between the planes of FeCl3 molecules providing the first evidence for magnetic ordering in the extreme two-dimensional limit of graphene.

A universal transfer route for graphene

Often synthetic graphene requires transfer onto an arbitrary substrate prior to use because the substrate it was originally synthesized on is inappropriate for either electrical measurement or characterization. While a variety of routes have been developed they are substrate dependant and often involve the use of harsh treatments. Here we present a facile and cheap route that can be applied to graphene over any substrate. This universal transfer route is based on a wet chemical reaction producing gaseous species which can intercalate between the substrate and the graphene and thus gently delaminate the two.

Epitaxy of MgO magnetic tunnel barriers on epitaxial graphene

Epitaxial growth of electrodes and tunnel barriers on graphene is one of the main technological bottlenecks for graphene spintronics. In this paper, we demonstrate that MgO(111) epitaxial tunnel barriers, one of the prime candidates for spintronic application, can be grown by molecular beam epitaxy on epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001). Ferromagnetic metals (Fe, Co, Fe20Ni80) were epitaxially grown on top of the MgO barrier, thus leading to monocrystalline electrodes on graphene. Structural and magnetic characterizations were performed on these ferromagnetic metals after annealing and dewetting: they form clusters with a 100 nm typical lateral width, which are mostly magnetic monodomains in the case of Fe. This epitaxial stack opens the way to graphene spintronic devices taking benefits from a coherent tunnelling current through the epitaxial MgO/graphene stack.

Synthesis of millimeter-size hexagon-shaped graphene single crystals on resolidified copper

We present a facile method to grow millimeter-size, hexagon-shaped, monolayer, single-crystal graphene domains on commercial metal foils. After a brief in situ treatment, namely, melting and subsequent resolidification of copper at atmospheric pressure, a smooth surface is obtained, resulting in the low nucleation density necessary for the growth of large-size single-crystal graphene domains. Comparison with other pretreatment methods reveals the importance of copper surface morphology and the critical role of the melting-resolidification pretreatment. The effect of important growth process parameters is also studied to determine their roles in achieving low nucleation density. Insight into the growth mechanism has thus been gained. Raman spectroscopy and selected area electron diffraction confirm that the synthesized millimeter-size graphene domains are high-quality monolayer single crystals with zigzag edge terminations.

Easy synthesis of hierarchical carbon spheres with superior capacitive performance in supercapacitors

An easy template-free approach to the fabrication of pure carbon microspheres has been achieved via direct pyrolysis of as-prepared polyaromatic hydrocarbons including polynaphthalene and polypyrene. The polyaromatics were synthesized from aromatic hydrocarbons (AHCs) using anhydrous zinc chloride as the Friedel-Crafts catalyst and chloromethyl methyl ether as a cross-linker. The experimental results show that the methylene bridges between phenyl rings generate a hierarchical porous polyaromatic precursor to form three-dimensionally (3D) interconnected micro-, meso-, and macroporous networks during carbonization. These hierarchical porous carbon aggregates of spherical carbon spheres exhibit faster ion transport/diffusion behavior and increased surface area usage in electric double-layer capacitors. Furthermore, micropores are present in the 3D interconnected network inside the cross-linked AHC-based carbon microspheres, thus imparting an exceptionally large, electrochemically accessible surface area for charge accumulation.

Express optical analysis of epitaxial graphene on SiC: impact of morphology on quantum transport

We show that inspection with an optical microscope allows surprisingly simple and accurate identification of single and multilayer graphene domains in epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide (SiC/G) and is informative about nanoscopic details of the SiC topography, making it ideal for rapid and noninvasive quality control of as-grown SiC/G. As an illustration of the power of the method, we apply it to demonstrate the correlations between graphene morphology and its electronic properties by quantum magneto-transport.

Robust graphene membranes in a silicon carbide frame

We present a fabrication process for freely suspended membranes consisting of bi- and trilayer graphene grown on silicon carbide. The procedure, involving photoelectrochemical etching, enables the simultaneous fabrication of hundreds of arbitrarily shaped membranes with an area up to 500 μm(2) and a yield of around 90%. Micro-Raman and atomic force microscopy measurements confirm that the graphene layer withstands the electrochemical etching and show that the membranes are virtually unstrained. The process delivers membranes with a cleanliness suited for high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) at atomic scale. The membrane, and its frame, is very robust with respect to thermal cycling above 1000 °C as well as harsh acidic or alkaline treatment.

Catalyst-free direct growth of a single to a few layers of graphene on a germanium nanowire for the anode material of a lithium battery

Direct growth of a single to a few layers of graphene on a germanium nanowire (Gr/Ge NW; see picture) was achieved by a metal-catalyst-free chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. The Gr/Ge NW was used as anode in a lithium ion battery. This material has a specific capacity of 1059 mA h g(-1) at 4.0 C, a long cycle life over 200 cycles, and a high capacity retention of 90%.

Delaminated graphene at silicon carbide facets: atomic scale imaging and spectroscopy

Atomic-resolution structural and spectroscopic characterization techniques (scanning transmission electron microscopy and electron energy loss spectroscopy) are combined with nanoscale electrical measurements (conductive atomic force microscopy) to study at the atomic scale the properties of graphene grown epitaxially through the controlled graphitization of a hexagonal SiC(0001) substrate by high temperature annealing. This growth technique is known to result in a pronounced electron-doping (∼10(13) cm(-2)) of graphene, which is thought to originate from an interface carbon buffer layer strongly bound to the substrate. The scanning transmission electron microscopy analysis, carried out at an energy below the knock-on threshold for carbon to ensure no damage is imparted to the film by the electron beam, demonstrates that the buffer layer present on the planar SiC(0001) face delaminates from it on the (112n) facets of SiC surface steps. In addition, electron energy loss spectroscopy reveals that the delaminated layer has a similar electronic configuration to purely sp2-hybridized graphene. These observations are used to explain the local increase of the graphene sheet resistance measured around the surface steps by conductive atomic force microscopy, which we suggest is due to significantly lower substrate-induced doping and a resonant scattering mechanism at the step regions. A first-principles-calibrated theoretical model is proposed to explain the structural instability of the buffer layer on the SiC facets and the resulting delamination.

Optical probing of the electronic interaction between graphene and hexagonal boron nitride

Even weak van der Waals (vdW) adhesion between two-dimensional solids may perturb their various materials properties owing to their low dimensionality. Although the electronic structure of graphene has been predicted to be modified by the vdW interaction with other materials, its optical characterization has not been successful. In this report, we demonstrate that Raman spectroscopy can be utilized to detect a few percent decrease in the Fermi velocity (v(F)) of graphene caused by the vdW interaction with underlying hexagonal boron nitride (hBN). Our study also establishes Raman spectroscopic analysis which enables separation of the effects by the vdW interaction from those by mechanical strain or extra charge carriers. The analysis reveals that spectral features of graphene on hBN are mainly affected by change in v(F) and mechanical strain but not by charge doping, unlike graphene supported on SiO₂ substrates. Graphene on hBN was also found to be less susceptible to thermally induced hole doping.

Two-stage metal-catalyst-free growth of high-quality polycrystalline graphene films on silicon nitride substrates

By using two-stage, metal-catalyst-free chemical vapor deposition (CVD), it is demonstrated that high-quality polycrystalline graphene films can directly grow on silicon nitride substrates. The carrier mobility can reach about 1500 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) , which is about three times the value of those grown on SiO(2) /Si substrates, and also is better than some examples of metal-catalyzed graphene, reflecting the good quality of the graphene lattice.

van der Waals epitaxial growth of graphene on sapphire by chemical vapor deposition without a metal catalyst

van der Waals epitaxial growth of graphene on c-plane (0001) sapphire by CVD without a metal catalyst is presented. The effects of CH(4) partial pressure, growth temperature, and H(2)/CH(4) ratio were investigated and growth conditions optimized. The formation of monolayer graphene was shown by Raman spectroscopy, optical transmission, grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD), and low voltage transmission electron microscopy (LVTEM). Electrical analysis revealed that a room temperature Hall mobility above 2000 cm(2)/V·s was achieved, and the mobility and carrier type were correlated to growth conditions. Both GIXRD and LVTEM studies confirm a dominant crystal orientation (principally graphene [10-10] || sapphire [11-20]) for about 80-90% of the material concomitant with epitaxial growth. The initial phase of the nucleation and the lateral growth from the nucleation seeds were observed using atomic force microscopy. The initial nuclei density was ~24 μm(-2), and a lateral growth rate of ~82 nm/min was determined. Density functional theory calculations reveal that the binding between graphene and sapphire is dominated by weak dispersion interactions and indicate that the epitaxial relation as observed by GIXRD is due to preferential binding of small molecules on sapphire during early stages of graphene formation.

Nanoscale perturbations of room temperature ionic liquid structure at charged and uncharged interfaces

The nanoscale interactions of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) at uncharged (graphene) and charged (muscovite mica) solid surfaces were evaluated with high resolution X-ray interface scattering and fully atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. At uncharged graphene surfaces, the imidazolium-based RTIL ([bmim(+)][Tf(2)N(-)]) exhibits a mixed cation/anion layering with a strong interfacial densification of the first RTIL layer. The first layer density observed via experiment is larger than that predicted by simulation and the apparent discrepancy can be understood with the inclusion of, dominantly, image charge and π-stacking interactions between the RTIL and the graphene sheet. In contrast, the RTIL structure adjacent to the charged mica surface exhibits an alternating cation-anion layering extending 3.5 nm into the bulk fluid. The associated charge density profile demonstrates a pronounced charge overscreening (i.e., excess first-layer counterions with respect to the adjacent surface charge), highlighting the critical role of charge-induced nanoscale correlations of the RTIL. These observations confirm key aspects of a predicted electric double layer structure from an analytical Landau-Ginzburg-type continuum theory incorporating ion correlation effects, and provide a new baseline for understanding the fundamental nanoscale response of RTILs at charged interfaces.

Graphene transfer: key for applications

The first micrometer-sized graphene flakes extracted from graphite demonstrated outstanding electrical, mechanical and chemical properties, but they were too small for practical applications. However, the recent advances in graphene synthesis and transfer techniques have enabled various macroscopic applications such as transparent electrodes for touch screens and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and thin-film transistors for flexible electronics in particular. With such exciting potential, a great deal of effort has been put towards producing larger size graphene in the hopes of industrializing graphene production. Little less than a decade after the first discovery, graphene now can be synthesized up to 30 inches in its diagonal size using chemical vapour deposition methods. In making this possible, it was not only the advances in the synthesis techniques but also the transfer methods that deliver graphene onto target substrates without significant mechanical damage. In this article, the recent advancements in transferring graphene to arbitrary substrates will be extensively reviewed. The methods are categorized into mechanical exfoliation, polymer-assisted transfer, continuous transfer by roll-to-roll process, and transfer-free techniques including direct synthesis on insulating substrates.

Lithographically defined three-dimensional graphene structures

A simple and facile method to fabricate 3D graphene architectures is presented. Pyrolyzed photoresist films (PPF) can easily be patterned into a variety of 2D and 3D structures. We demonstrate how prestructured PPF can be chemically converted into hollow, interconnected 3D multilayered graphene structures having pore sizes around 500 nm. Electrodes formed from these structures exhibit excellent electrochemical properties including high surface area and steady-state mass transport profiles due to a unique combination of 3D pore structure and the intrinsic advantages of electron transport in graphene, which makes this material a promising candidate for microbattery and sensing applications.

Long spin relaxation times in wafer scale epitaxial graphene on SiC(0001)

We developed an easy, upscalable process to prepare lateral spin-valve devices on epitaxially grown monolayer graphene on SiC(0001) and perform nonlocal spin transport measurements. We observe the longest spin relaxation times τ(S) in monolayer graphene, while the spin diffusion coefficient D(S) is strongly reduced compared to typical results on exfoliated graphene. The increase of τ(S) is probably related to the changed substrate, while the cause for the small value of D(S) remains an open question.