51
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Drasler B, Vanhecke D, Rodriguez-Lorenzo L, Petri-Fink A, Rothen-Rutishauser B. Quantifying nanoparticle cellular uptake: which method is best? Nanomedicine (Lond) 2017; 12:1095-1099. [PMID: 28447906 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2017-0071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Drasler
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Vanhecke
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Laura Rodriguez-Lorenzo
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Alke Petri-Fink
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Museé 9, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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52
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Jiang BP, Zhang L, Guo XL, Shen XC, Wang Y, Zhu Y, Liang H. Poly(N-phenylglycine)-Based Nanoparticles as Highly Effective and Targeted Near-Infrared Photothermal Therapy/Photodynamic Therapeutic Agents for Malignant Melanoma. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2017; 13:1602496. [PMID: 27982516 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201602496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 11/06/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is a highly aggressive tumor resistant to chemotherapy. Therefore, the development of new highly effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of malignant melanoma is highly desirable. In this study, a new class of polymeric photothermal agents based on poly(N-phenylglycine) (PNPG) suitable for use in near-infrared (NIR) phototherapy of malignant melanoma is designed and developed. PNPG is obtained via polymerization of N-phenylglycine (NPG). Carboxylate functionality of NPG allows building multifunctional systems using covalent bonding. This approach avoids complicated issues typically associated with preparation of polymeric photothermal agents. Moreover, PNPG skeleton exhibits pH-responsive NIR absorption and an ability to generate reactive oxygen species, which makes its derivatives attractive photothermal therapy (PTT)/photodynamic therapy (PDT) dual-modal agents with pH-responsive features. PNPG is modified using hyaluronic acid (HA) and polyethylene glycol diamine (PEG-diamine) acting as the coupling agent. The resultant HA-modified PNPG (PNPG-PEG-HA) shows negligible cytotoxicity and effectively targets CD44-overexpressing cancer cells. Furthermore, the results of in vitro and in vivo experiments reveal that PNPG-PEG-HA selectively kills B16 cells and suppresses malignant melanoma tumor growth upon exposure to NIR light (808 nm), indicating that PNPG-PEG-HA can serve as a very promising nanoplatform for targeted dual-modality PTT/PDT of melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang-Ping Jiang
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Li Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Lu Guo
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Xing-Can Shen
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Yan Wang
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Yang Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
| | - Hong Liang
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Science, Key Laboratory for the Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, 541004, P. R. China
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53
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Johnston APR. Life Under the Microscope: Quantifying Live Cell Interactions to Improve Nanoscale Drug Delivery. ACS Sens 2017; 2:4-9. [PMID: 28722440 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The behavior of cells and how they react to stimuli is critically important for drug development, drug delivery, and understanding the molecular basis of many diseases. However, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of these interactions, particularly in relation to drug delivery from nanoparticles. This Sensors Issues article discusses the importance of quantifying these interactions and highlights some key areas where advances in sensor technology have the potential to transform our understanding of drug delivery and cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus P. R. Johnston
- Drug Delivery, Disposition
and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano
Science and Technology, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
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54
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Tian C, Qian W, Shao X, Xie Z, Cheng X, Liu S, Cheng Q, Liu B, Wang X. Plasmonic Nanoparticles with Quantitatively Controlled Bioconjugation for Photoacoustic Imaging of Live Cancer Cells. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2016; 3:1600237. [PMID: 27981012 PMCID: PMC5157183 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201600237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Detection and imaging of single cancer cells is critical for cancer diagnosis and understanding of cellular dynamics. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) provides a potential tool for the study of cancer cell dynamics, but faces the challenge that most cancer cells lack sufficient endogenous contrast. Here, a type of colloidal gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are physically fabricated and are precisely functionalized with quantitative amounts of functional ligands (i.e., polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and (Arginine(R)-Glycine(G)-Aspartic(D))4 (RGD) peptides) to serve as an exogenous contrast agent for PAI of single cells. The functionalized AuNPs, with a fixed number of PEG but different RGD densities, are delivered into human prostate cancer cells. Radioactivity and photoacoustic analyses show that, although cellular uptake efficiency of the AuNPs linearly increases along with RGD density, photoacoustic signal generation efficiency does not and only maximize at a moderate RGD density. The functionalization of the AuNPs is in turn optimized based on the experimental finding, and single cancer cells are imaged using a custom photoacoustic microscopy with high-resolution. The quantitatively functionalized AuNPs together with the high-resolution PAI system provide a unique platform for the detection and imaging of single cancer cells, and may impact not only basic science but also clinical diagnostics on a range of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Tian
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Wei Qian
- IMRA America, IncAnn ArborMI48105USA
| | - Xia Shao
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Zhixing Xie
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Xu Cheng
- Department of UrologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
| | - Shengchun Liu
- College of Physical Science and TechnologyHeilongjiang UniversityHarbin150080China
| | - Qian Cheng
- Institute of AcousticsTongji UniversityShanghai200092China
| | - Bing Liu
- IMRA America, IncAnn ArborMI48105USA
| | - Xueding Wang
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Department of RadiologyUniversity of MichiganAnn ArborMI48109USA
- Institute of AcousticsTongji UniversityShanghai200092China
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55
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A high-throughput bioimaging study to assess the impact of chitosan-based nanoparticle degradation on DNA delivery performance. Acta Biomater 2016; 46:129-140. [PMID: 27686038 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
By using imaging flow cytometry as a powerful statistical high-throughput technique we investigated the impact of degradation on the biological performance of trimethyl chitosan (TMC)-based nanoparticles (NPs). In order to achieve high transfection efficiencies, a precise balance between NP stability and degradation must occur. We altered the biodegradation rate of the TMC NPs by varying the degree of acetylation (DA) of the polymer (DA ranged from 4 to 21%), giving rise to NPs with different enzymatic degradation profiles. While this parameter did not affect NP size, charge or ability to protect plasmid DNA, NPs based on TMC with an intermediate DA (16%) showed the highest transfection efficiency. Subsequently, by means of a single quantitative technique, we were able to follow, for each tested formulation, major steps of the NP-mediated gene delivery process - NP cell membrane association, internalization and intracellular trafficking, including plasmid DNA transport towards the nucleus. NP cytotoxicity was also possible to determine by quantification of cell apoptosis. Overall, the obtained data revealed that the biodegradation rate of these NPs affects their intracellular trafficking and, consequently, their efficiency to transfect cells. Thus, one can use the polymer DA to modulate the NPs towards attaining different degradation rates and tune their bioactivity according to the desired application. Furthermore, this novel technical approach revealed to be a valuable tool for the initial steps of nucleic acid vector design. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE By changing the biodegradation rate of trimethyl chitosan-based nanoparticles (NPs) one was able to alter the NP ability to protect or efficiently release DNA and consequently, to modulate their intracellular dynamics. To address the influence of NP degradation rate in their transfection efficiency we took advantage of imaging flow cytometry, a high-throughput bioimaging technique, to unravel some critical aspects about NP formulation such as the distinction between internalized versus cell-associated/adsorbed NP, and even explore NP intracellular localization. Overall, our work provides novel information about the importance of vector degradation rate for gene delivery into cells, as a way to tune gene expression as a function of the desired application, and advances novel approaches to optimize nanoparticle formulation.
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56
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Tian C, Qian W, Shao X, Xie Z, Cheng X, Liu S, Cheng Q, Liu B, Wang X. Plasmonic Nanoparticles with Quantitatively Controlled Bioconjugation for Photoacoustic Imaging of Live Cancer Cells. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2016. [PMID: 27981012 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201600237/full] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Detection and imaging of single cancer cells is critical for cancer diagnosis and understanding of cellular dynamics. Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) provides a potential tool for the study of cancer cell dynamics, but faces the challenge that most cancer cells lack sufficient endogenous contrast. Here, a type of colloidal gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are physically fabricated and are precisely functionalized with quantitative amounts of functional ligands (i.e., polyethyleneglycol (PEG) and (Arginine(R)-Glycine(G)-Aspartic(D))4 (RGD) peptides) to serve as an exogenous contrast agent for PAI of single cells. The functionalized AuNPs, with a fixed number of PEG but different RGD densities, are delivered into human prostate cancer cells. Radioactivity and photoacoustic analyses show that, although cellular uptake efficiency of the AuNPs linearly increases along with RGD density, photoacoustic signal generation efficiency does not and only maximize at a moderate RGD density. The functionalization of the AuNPs is in turn optimized based on the experimental finding, and single cancer cells are imaged using a custom photoacoustic microscopy with high-resolution. The quantitatively functionalized AuNPs together with the high-resolution PAI system provide a unique platform for the detection and imaging of single cancer cells, and may impact not only basic science but also clinical diagnostics on a range of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Tian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Wei Qian
- IMRA America, Inc Ann Arbor MI 48105 USA
| | - Xia Shao
- Department of Radiology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Zhixing Xie
- Department of Radiology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Xu Cheng
- Department of Urology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Shengchun Liu
- College of Physical Science and Technology Heilongjiang University Harbin 150080 China
| | - Qian Cheng
- Institute of Acoustics Tongji University Shanghai 200092 China
| | - Bing Liu
- IMRA America, Inc Ann Arbor MI 48105 USA
| | - Xueding Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA; Department of Radiology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA; Institute of Acoustics Tongji University Shanghai 200092 China
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57
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Wolf S, Feldmann C. Mikroemulsionen: neue Möglichkeiten zur Erweiterung der Synthese anorganischer Nanopartikel. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201604263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silke Wolf
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT); Engesserstraße 15 76131 Karlsruhe Deutschland
| | - Claus Feldmann
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT); Engesserstraße 15 76131 Karlsruhe Deutschland
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58
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Wolf S, Feldmann C. Microemulsions: Options To Expand the Synthesis of Inorganic Nanoparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:15728-15752. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201604263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silke Wolf
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Engesserstrasse 15 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
| | - Claus Feldmann
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Engesserstrasse 15 76131 Karlsruhe Germany
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59
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Marega R, Prasetyanto EA, Michiels C, De Cola L, Bonifazi D. Fast Targeting and Cancer Cell Uptake of Luminescent Antibody-Nanozeolite Bioconjugates. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2016; 12:5431-5441. [PMID: 27510846 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201601447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the targeted cellular uptake of nanomaterials is an essential step to engineer and program functional and effective biomedical devices. In this respect, the targeting and ultrafast uptake of zeolite nanocrystals functionalized with Cetuximab antibodies (Ctxb) by cells overexpressing the epidermal growth factor receptor are described here. Biochemical assays show that the cellular uptake of the bioconjugate in the targeted cancer cells already begins 15 min after incubation, at a rate around tenfold faster than that observed in the negative control cells. These findings further show the role of Ctxb exposed at the surfaces of the zeolite nanocrystals in mediating the targeted and rapid cellular uptake. By using temperature and pharmacological inhibitors as modulators of the internalization pathways, the results univocally suggest a dissipative uptake mechanism of these nanomaterials, which seems to occur using different internalization pathways, according to the targeting properties of these nanocrystals. Owing to the ultrafast uptake process, harmless for the cell viability, these results further pave the way for the design of novel theranostic tools based on nanozeolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Marega
- Namur Research College (NARC) and Department of Chemistry, University of Namur, Rue de Bruxelles 61, Namur, B-5000, Belgium
| | - Eko Adi Prasetyanto
- Institut de science et d'Ingénierie Supramoléculaire (ISIS), Université de Strasbourg, 8 Rue Gaspard Monge, BP 70028, Strasbourg, F-67000, France
- Karlsruher Institut für Technologie KIT-INT, Karlsruhe, D-76131, Germany
| | - Carine Michiels
- Cellular Biology Research Unit - NARILIS, University of Namur, Rue de Bruxelles 61, Namur, B-5000, Belgium
| | - Luisa De Cola
- Institut de science et d'Ingénierie Supramoléculaire (ISIS), Université de Strasbourg, 8 Rue Gaspard Monge, BP 70028, Strasbourg, F-67000, France.
- Karlsruher Institut für Technologie KIT-INT, Karlsruhe, D-76131, Germany.
| | - Davide Bonifazi
- Namur Research College (NARC) and Department of Chemistry, University of Namur, Rue de Bruxelles 61, Namur, B-5000, Belgium.
- School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, United Kingdom.
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60
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Real-time and label-free monitoring of nanoparticle cellular uptake using capacitance-based assays. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33668. [PMID: 27641838 PMCID: PMC5027564 DOI: 10.1038/srep33668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles have shown great potential as vehicles for the delivery of drugs, nucleic acids, and therapeutic proteins; an efficient, high-throughput screening method to analyze nanoparticle interaction with the cytomembrane would substantially improve the efficiency and accuracy of the delivery. Here, we developed a capacitance sensor array that monitored the capacitance values of nanoparticle-treated cells in a real-time manner, without the need for labeling. Upon cellular uptake of the nanoparticles, a capacitance peak was observed at a low frequency (e.g., 100 Hz) as a function of time based on zeta potential changes. In the high frequency region (e.g., 15-20 kHz), the rate of decreasing capacitance slowed as a function of time compared to the cell growth control group, due to increased cytoplasm resistance and decreased membrane capacitance and resistance. The information provided by our capacitance sensor array will be a powerful tool for scientists designing nanoparticles for specific purposes.
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61
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Ananta JS, Paulmurugan R, Massoud TF. Tailored Nanoparticle Codelivery of antimiR-21 and antimiR-10b Augments Glioblastoma Cell Kill by Temozolomide: Toward a “Personalized” Anti-microRNA Therapy. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:3164-75. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeyarama S. Ananta
- Laboratory of Experimental
and Molecular Neuroimaging, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford
(MIPS), and Bio-X Program, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5427, United States
| | - Ramasamy Paulmurugan
- Laboratory of Experimental
and Molecular Neuroimaging, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford
(MIPS), and Bio-X Program, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5427, United States
| | - Tarik F. Massoud
- Laboratory of Experimental
and Molecular Neuroimaging, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford
(MIPS), and Bio-X Program, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5427, United States
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62
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X-ray Diffraction: A Powerful Technique for the Multiple-Length-Scale Structural Analysis of Nanomaterials. CRYSTALS 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst6080087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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63
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Coxon TP, Fallows TW, Gough JE, Webb SJ. A versatile approach towards multivalent saccharide displays on magnetic nanoparticles and phospholipid vesicles. Org Biomol Chem 2016; 13:10751-61. [PMID: 26360423 DOI: 10.1039/c5ob01591j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A simple synthetic route has been devised for the production of coating agents that can give multivalent displays of saccharides on the surface of magnetite nanoparticles and phospholipid vesicles. A versatile and potentially high-throughput condensation reaction allowed the rapid synthesis of a variety of glycosylhydrazide conjugates with lipid, resorcinol or catechol termini, each in good yield and high anomeric purity. The hydrolytic stability of these adducts was assessed in D2O at different pD values using (1)H-NMR spectroscopy, whilst quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) confirmed that the saccharide functionality on bilayers and on nanoparticles was still available to lectins. These multivalent saccharide displays promoted nanoparticle interactions with cells, for example N-acetylglucosamine-coated nanoparticles interacted much more effectively with 3T3 fibroblasts than uncoated nanoparticles with these cells. Despite potential sensitivity to oxidation, catechol coatings on magnetite nanoparticles were found to be more stable and generate better nanoparticle interactions with fibroblasts than resorcinol coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas P Coxon
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. and School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Thomas W Fallows
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. and School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Julie E Gough
- School of Materials, University of Manchester, MSS Tower, M13 9PL, Manchester, UK.
| | - Simon J Webb
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK. and School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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64
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Scarpa E, Bailey JL, Janeczek AA, Stumpf PS, Johnston AH, Oreffo ROC, Woo YL, Cheong YC, Evans ND, Newman TA. Quantification of intracellular payload release from polymersome nanoparticles. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29460. [PMID: 27404770 PMCID: PMC4941396 DOI: 10.1038/srep29460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymersome nanoparticles (PMs) are attractive candidates for spatio-temporal controlled delivery of therapeutic agents. Although many studies have addressed cellular uptake of solid nanoparticles, there is very little data available on intracellular release of molecules encapsulated in membranous carriers, such as polymersomes. Here, we addressed this by developing a quantitative assay based on the hydrophilic dye, fluorescein. Fluorescein was encapsulated stably in PMs of mean diameter 85 nm, with minimal leakage after sustained dialysis. No fluorescence was detectable from fluorescein PMs, indicating quenching. Following incubation of L929 cells with fluorescein PMs, there was a gradual increase in intracellular fluorescence, indicating PM disruption and cytosolic release of fluorescein. By combining absorbance measurements with flow cytometry, we quantified the real-time intracellular release of a fluorescein at a single-cell resolution. We found that 173 ± 38 polymersomes released their payload per cell, with significant heterogeneity in uptake, despite controlled synchronisation of cell cycle. This novel method for quantification of the release of compounds from nanoparticles provides fundamental information on cellular uptake of nanoparticle-encapsulated compounds. It also illustrates the stochastic nature of population distribution in homogeneous cell populations, a factor that must be taken into account in clinical use of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Scarpa
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Joanne L Bailey
- Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Agnieszka A Janeczek
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick S Stumpf
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander H Johnston
- Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Richard O C Oreffo
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Yin L Woo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.,University of Malaya Cancer Research Institute (UMCRI), University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Ying C Cheong
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas D Evans
- Centre for Human Development, Stem Cells and Regeneration, University of Southampton Faculty of Medicine, Tremona Road, Southampton, SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.,Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom.,Bioengineering Sciences Group, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Tracey A Newman
- Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Biological Sciences, B85, University Road, University of Southampton, United Kingdom.,Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Medicine, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
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65
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Parumasivam T, Chang RYK, Abdelghany S, Ye TT, Britton WJ, Chan HK. Dry powder inhalable formulations for anti-tubercular therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 102:83-101. [PMID: 27212477 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is an intracellular infectious disease caused by the airborne bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Despite considerable research efforts, the treatment of TB continues to be a great challenge in part due to the requirement of prolonged therapy with multiple high-dose drugs and associated side effects. The delivery of pharmacological agents directly to the respiratory system, following the natural route of infection, represents a logical therapeutic approach for treatment or vaccination against TB. Pulmonary delivery is non-invasive, avoids first-pass metabolism in the liver and enables targeting of therapeutic agents to the infection site. Inhaled delivery also potentially reduces the dose requirement and the accompanying side effects. Dry powder is a stable formulation of drug that can be stored without refrigeration compared to liquids and suspensions. The dry powder inhalers are easy to use and suitable for high-dose formulations. This review focuses on the current innovations of inhalable dry powder formulations of drug and vaccine delivery for TB, including the powder production method, preclinical and clinical evaluations of inhaled dry powder over the last decade. Finally, the risks associated with pulmonary therapy are addressed. A novel dry powder formulation with high percentages of respirable particles coupled with a cost effective inhaler device is an appealing platform for TB drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaigarajan Parumasivam
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Rachel Yoon Kyung Chang
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Sharif Abdelghany
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman 1192, Jordan
| | - Tian Tian Ye
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Warwick John Britton
- Tuberculosis Research Program, Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Hak-Kim Chan
- Advanced Drug Delivery Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Snipstad S, Hak S, Baghirov H, Sulheim E, Mørch Ý, Lélu S, von Haartman E, Bäck M, Nilsson KPR, Klymchenko AS, de Lange Davies C, Åslund AKO. Labeling nanoparticles: Dye leakage and altered cellular uptake. Cytometry A 2016; 91:760-766. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Snipstad
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Sjoerd Hak
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Habib Baghirov
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Einar Sulheim
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; Trondheim Norway
| | - Ýrr Mørch
- SINTEF Materials and Chemistry; Trondheim Norway
| | - Sylvie Lélu
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
| | - Eva von Haartman
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Laboratory; Åbo Akademi University; Turku Finland
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry; Åbo Akademi University; Turku Finland
| | - Marcus Bäck
- Department of Physics; Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University; Linköping Sweden
| | - K. Peter R. Nilsson
- Department of Physics; Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University; Linköping Sweden
| | - Andrey S. Klymchenko
- Laboratoire de Biophotonique et Pharmacologie, UMR CNRS 7213, Université de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
| | | | - Andreas K. O. Åslund
- Department of Physics; Norwegian University of Science and Technology; Trondheim Norway
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67
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Tammam SN, Azzazy HME, Lamprecht A. How successful is nuclear targeting by nanocarriers? J Control Release 2016; 229:140-153. [PMID: 26995759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 03/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The nucleus is ultimately the final target for many therapeutics treating various disorders including cancers, heart dysfunction and brain disorders. Owing to their specialized cell uptake and trafficking mechanisms, nanoparticles (NPs) allow drug targeting where degradation sensitive therapeutics could be delivered to their target tissues and cell in active form and sufficient concentration. However, it has recently become increasingly obvious that cytosolic internalization of a drug molecule does not entail its interaction with its subcellular target and hence careful nanoparticle design and optimization is required to enable nuclear targeting. This review, discusses the barriers to NP nuclear delivery; crossing the cell membrane, endo/lysosomal escape, cytoplasmic trafficking and finally nuclear entry focusing on how NP synthesis and modification could allow for bypassing each of the aforementioned barriers and successfully reaching the nucleus. Examples of nuclear targeted NPs are also discussed, stressing on the critical aspects of nuclear targeting and pointing out how the disease state might change the normal NP path and how such change could be exploited to increase efficiency of nuclear targeting. Finally, the criteria set for the evaluation of nanocarriers for nuclear delivery are discussed highlighting that quantitative rather than qualitative evaluation is required to evaluate how successful nanocarriers for nuclear delivery are, particularly with regards to the amount of drug delivered and released in the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salma N Tammam
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bonn, 53121, Germany; Department of Chemistry, The American University in Cairo, 11835, Egypt.
| | - Hassan M E Azzazy
- Department of Chemistry, The American University in Cairo, 11835, Egypt
| | - Alf Lamprecht
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bonn, 53121, Germany; Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Engineering, University of Franche-Comté, Besançon 25000, France
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68
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Margineanu MB, Julfakyan K, Sommer C, Perez JE, Contreras MF, Khashab N, Kosel J, Ravasi T. Semi-automated quantification of living cells with internalized nanostructures. J Nanobiotechnology 2016; 14:4. [PMID: 26768888 PMCID: PMC4714438 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-015-0153-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanostructures fabricated by different methods have become increasingly important for various applications in biology and medicine, such as agents for medical imaging or cancer therapy. In order to understand their interaction with living cells and their internalization kinetics, several attempts have been made in tagging them. Although methods have been developed to measure the number of nanostructures internalized by the cells, there are only few approaches aimed to measure the number of cells that internalize the nanostructures, and they are usually limited to fixed-cell studies. Flow cytometry can be used for live-cell assays on large populations of cells, however it is a single time point measurement, and does not include any information about cell morphology. To date many of the observations made on internalization events are limited to few time points and cells. RESULTS In this study, we present a method for quantifying cells with internalized magnetic nanowires (NWs). A machine learning-based computational framework, CellCognition, is adapted and used to classify cells with internalized and no internalized NWs, labeled with the fluorogenic pH-dependent dye pHrodo™ Red, and subsequently to determine the percentage of cells with internalized NWs at different time points. In a "proof-of-concept", we performed a study on human colon carcinoma HCT 116 cells and human epithelial cervical cancer HeLa cells interacting with iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) NWs. CONCLUSIONS This study reports a novel method for the quantification of cells that internalize a specific type of nanostructures. This approach is suitable for high-throughput and real-time data analysis and has the potential to be used to study the interaction of different types of nanostructures in live-cell assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bogdan Margineanu
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, KAUST Environmental Epigenetic Program (KEEP), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. .,Division of Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Khachatur Julfakyan
- Division of Physical Science and Engineering, Smart Hybrid Materials Laboratory (SHMs), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology,, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Christoph Sommer
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA), Dr. Bohr-Gasse 3, Vienna, 1030, Austria.
| | - Jose Efrain Perez
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, KAUST Environmental Epigenetic Program (KEEP), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. .,Division of Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Maria Fernanda Contreras
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, KAUST Environmental Epigenetic Program (KEEP), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Niveen Khashab
- Division of Physical Science and Engineering, Smart Hybrid Materials Laboratory (SHMs), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology,, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Jürgen Kosel
- Division of Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Timothy Ravasi
- Division of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, KAUST Environmental Epigenetic Program (KEEP), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, 23955, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. .,Division of Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
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69
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Sanders AW, Jeerage KM, Schwartz CL, Curtin AE, Chiaramonti AN. Gold Nanoparticle Quantitation by Whole Cell Tomography. ACS NANO 2015; 9:11792-9. [PMID: 26563983 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b03815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Many proposed biomedical applications for engineered gold nanoparticles require their incorporation by mammalian cells in specific numbers and locations. Here, the number of gold nanoparticles inside of individual mammalian stem cells was characterized using fast focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy based tomography. Enhanced optical microscopy was used to provide a multiscale map of the in vitro sample, which allows cells of interest to be identified within their local environment. Cells were then serially sectioned using a gallium ion beam and imaged using a scanning electron beam. To confirm the accuracy of single cross sections, nanoparticles in similar cross sections were imaged using transmission electron microscopy and scanning helium ion microscopy. Complete tomographic series were then used to count the nanoparticles inside of each cell and measure their spatial distribution. We investigated the influence of slice thickness on counting single particles and clusters as well as nanoparticle packing within clusters. For 60 nm citrate stabilized particles, the nanoparticle cluster packing volume is 2.15 ± 0.20 times the volume of the bare gold nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aric W Sanders
- Quantum Electronics and Photonics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
| | - Kavita M Jeerage
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
| | - Cindi L Schwartz
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
| | - Alexandra E Curtin
- Quantum Electronics and Photonics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
| | - Ann N Chiaramonti
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) , Boulder, Colorado 59840, United States
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70
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A high throughput method for quantification of cell surface bound and internalized chitosan nanoparticles. Int J Biol Macromol 2015; 81:858-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 08/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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71
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Leidinger P, Treptow J, Hagens K, Eich J, Zehethofer N, Schwudke D, Oehlmann W, Lünsdorf H, Goldmann O, Schaible UE, Dittmar KEJ, Feldmann C. Isoniazid@Fe2O3Nanocontainers and Their Antibacterial Effect on Tuberculosis Mycobacteria. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:12597-601. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201505493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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72
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Leidinger P, Treptow J, Hagens K, Eich J, Zehethofer N, Schwudke D, Oehlmann W, Lünsdorf H, Goldmann O, Schaible UE, Dittmar KEJ, Feldmann C. Isoniazid@Fe2O3-Nanocontainer mit antibakterieller Wirkung auf Tuberkulose-Mykobakterien. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201505493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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73
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Quantification of Internalized Silica Nanoparticles via STED Microscopy. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:961208. [PMID: 26125028 PMCID: PMC4466362 DOI: 10.1155/2015/961208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The development of safe engineered nanoparticles (NPs) requires a detailed understanding of their interaction mechanisms on a cellular level. Therefore, quantification of NP internalization is crucial to predict the potential impact of intracellular NP doses, providing essential information for risk assessment as well as for drug delivery applications. In this study, the internalization of 25 nm and 85 nm silica nanoparticles (SNPs) in alveolar type II cells (A549) was quantified by application of super-resolution STED (stimulated emission depletion) microscopy. Cells were exposed to equal particle number concentrations (9.2 × 1010 particles mL−1) of each particle size and the sedimentation of particles during exposure was taken into account. Microscopy images revealed that particles of both sizes entered the cells after 5 h incubation in serum supplemented and serum-free medium. According to the in vitro sedimentation, diffusion, and dosimetry (ISDD) model 20–27% of the particles sedimented. In comparison, 102-103 NPs per cell were detected intracellularly serum-containing medium. Furthermore, in the presence of serum, no cytotoxicity was induced by the SNPs. In serum-free medium, large agglomerates of both particle sizes covered the cells whereas only high concentrations (≥ 3.8 × 1012 particles mL−1) of the smaller particles induced cytotoxicity.
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74
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Vanhecke D, Rodriguez-Lorenzo L, D. Clift MJ, Blank F, Petri-Fink A, Rothen-Rutishauser B. Quantification of nanoparticles at the single-cell level: an overview about state-of-the-art techniques and their limitations. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2014; 9:1885-900. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.14.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
With the increasing production and use of engineered nanoparticles it is crucial that their interaction with biological systems is understood. Due to the small size of nanoparticles, their identification and localization within single cells is extremely challenging. Therefore, various cutting-edge techniques are required to detect and to quantify metals, metal oxides, magnetic, fluorescent, as well as electron-dense nanoparticles. Several techniques will be discussed in detail, such as inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, flow cytometry, laser scanning microscopy combined with digital image restoration, as well as quantitative analysis by means of stereology on transmission electron microscopy images. An overview will be given regarding the advantages of those visualization/quantification systems, including a thorough discussion about limitations and pitfalls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitri Vanhecke
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Fabian Blank
- Respiratory Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alke Petri-Fink
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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Markman JL, Rekechenetskiy A, Holler E, Ljubimova JY. Nanomedicine therapeutic approaches to overcome cancer drug resistance. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:1866-79. [PMID: 24120656 PMCID: PMC5812459 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 477] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nanomedicine is an emerging form of therapy that focuses on alternative drug delivery and improvement of the treatment efficacy while reducing detrimental side effects to normal tissues. Cancer drug resistance is a complicated process that involves multiple mechanisms. Here we discuss the major forms of drug resistance and the new possibilities that nanomedicines offer to overcome these treatment obstacles. Novel nanomedicines that have a high ability for flexible, fast drug design and production based on tumor genetic profiles can be created making drug selection for personal patient treatment much more intensive and effective. This review aims to demonstrate the advantage of the young medical science field, nanomedicine, for overcoming cancer drug resistance. With the advanced design and alternative mechanisms of drug delivery known for different nanodrugs including liposomes, polymer conjugates, micelles, dendrimers, carbon-based, and metallic nanoparticles, overcoming various forms of multi-drug resistance looks promising and opens new horizons for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet L Markman
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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