51
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Caielli S, Cardenas J, de Jesus AA, Baisch J, Walters L, Blanck JP, Balasubramanian P, Stagnar C, Ohouo M, Hong S, Nassi L, Stewart K, Fuller J, Gu J, Banchereau JF, Wright T, Goldbach-Mansky R, Pascual V. Erythroid mitochondrial retention triggers myeloid-dependent type I interferon in human SLE. Cell 2021; 184:4464-4479.e19. [PMID: 34384544 PMCID: PMC8380737 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Emerging evidence supports that mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) pathogenesis. Here we show that programmed mitochondrial removal, a hallmark of mammalian erythropoiesis, is defective in SLE. Specifically, we demonstrate that during human erythroid cell maturation, a hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-mediated metabolic switch is responsible for the activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), which precedes and is necessary for the autophagic removal of mitochondria. A defect in this pathway leads to accumulation of red blood cells (RBCs) carrying mitochondria (Mito+ RBCs) in SLE patients and in correlation with disease activity. Antibody-mediated internalization of Mito+ RBCs induces type I interferon (IFN) production through activation of cGAS in macrophages. Accordingly, SLE patients carrying both Mito+ RBCs and opsonizing antibodies display the highest levels of blood IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) signatures, a distinctive feature of SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Caielli
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
| | | | - Adriana Almeida de Jesus
- Translational Autoinflammatory Diseases Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jeanine Baisch
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | - Preetha Balasubramanian
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Cristy Stagnar
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marina Ohouo
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Seunghee Hong
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorien Nassi
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Katie Stewart
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Julie Fuller
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jinghua Gu
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Tracey Wright
- Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, TX, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Raphaela Goldbach-Mansky
- Translational Autoinflammatory Diseases Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Virginia Pascual
- Drukier Institute for Children's Health, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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52
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Koyuncu S, Loureiro R, Lee HJ, Wagle P, Krueger M, Vilchez D. Rewiring of the ubiquitinated proteome determines ageing in C. elegans. Nature 2021; 596:285-290. [PMID: 34321666 PMCID: PMC8357631 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03781-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ageing is driven by a loss of cellular integrity1. Given the major role of ubiquitin modifications in cell function2, here we assess the link between ubiquitination and ageing by quantifying whole-proteome ubiquitin signatures in Caenorhabditis elegans. We find a remodelling of the ubiquitinated proteome during ageing, which is ameliorated by longevity paradigms such as dietary restriction and reduced insulin signalling. Notably, ageing causes a global loss of ubiquitination that is triggered by increased deubiquitinase activity. Because ubiquitination can tag proteins for recognition by the proteasome3, a fundamental question is whether deficits in targeted degradation influence longevity. By integrating data from worms with a defective proteasome, we identify proteasomal targets that accumulate with age owing to decreased ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. Lowering the levels of age-dysregulated proteasome targets prolongs longevity, whereas preventing their degradation shortens lifespan. Among the proteasomal targets, we find the IFB-2 intermediate filament4 and the EPS-8 modulator of RAC signalling5. While increased levels of IFB-2 promote the loss of intestinal integrity and bacterial colonization, upregulation of EPS-8 hyperactivates RAC in muscle and neurons, and leads to alterations in the actin cytoskeleton and protein kinase JNK. In summary, age-related changes in targeted degradation of structural and regulatory proteins across tissues determine longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seda Koyuncu
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Rute Loureiro
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hyun Ju Lee
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Prerana Wagle
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Marcus Krueger
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - David Vilchez
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
- Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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53
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Llamas E, Torres‐Montilla S, Lee HJ, Barja MV, Schlimgen E, Dunken N, Wagle P, Werr W, Zuccaro A, Rodríguez‐Concepción M, Vilchez D. The intrinsic chaperone network of Arabidopsis stem cells confers protection against proteotoxic stress. Aging Cell 2021; 20:e13446. [PMID: 34327811 PMCID: PMC8373342 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The biological purpose of plant stem cells is to maintain themselves while providing new pools of differentiated cells that form organs and rejuvenate or replace damaged tissues. Protein homeostasis or proteostasis is required for cell function and viability. However, the link between proteostasis and plant stem cell identity remains unknown. In contrast to their differentiated counterparts, we find that root stem cells can prevent the accumulation of aggregated proteins even under proteotoxic stress conditions such as heat stress or proteasome inhibition. Notably, root stem cells exhibit enhanced expression of distinct chaperones that maintain proteome integrity. Particularly, intrinsic high levels of the T-complex protein-1 ring complex/chaperonin containing TCP1 (TRiC/CCT) complex determine stem cell maintenance and their remarkable ability to suppress protein aggregation. Overexpression of CCT8, a key activator of TRiC/CCT assembly, is sufficient to ameliorate protein aggregation in differentiated cells and confer resistance to proteotoxic stress in plants. Taken together, our results indicate that enhanced proteostasis mechanisms in stem cells could be an important requirement for plants to persist under extreme environmental conditions and reach extreme long ages. Thus, proteostasis of stem cells can provide insights to design and breed plants tolerant to environmental challenges caused by the climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Llamas
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Salvador Torres‐Montilla
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC‐IRTA‐UAB‐UBCampus UAB Bellaterra Barcelona Spain
| | - Hyun Ju Lee
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - María Victoria Barja
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC‐IRTA‐UAB‐UBCampus UAB Bellaterra Barcelona Spain
| | - Elena Schlimgen
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Nick Dunken
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS) Institute for Plant Sciences University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Prerana Wagle
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Wolfgang Werr
- Developmental Biology Biocenter University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Alga Zuccaro
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS) Institute for Plant Sciences University of Cologne Cologne Germany
| | - Manuel Rodríguez‐Concepción
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC‐IRTA‐UAB‐UBCampus UAB Bellaterra Barcelona Spain
- Institute for Plant Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMCP) CSIC‐UPV Valencia Spain
| | - David Vilchez
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC) University of Cologne Cologne Germany
- Faculty of Medicine University Hospital Cologne Cologne Germany
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54
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Pecori F, Kondo N, Ogura C, Miura T, Kume M, Minamijima Y, Yamamoto K, Nishihara S. Site-specific O-GlcNAcylation of Psme3 maintains mouse stem cell pluripotency by impairing P-body homeostasis. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109361. [PMID: 34260942 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse embryonic stem cell (ESC) pluripotency is tightly regulated by a complex network composed of extrinsic and intrinsic factors that allow proper organismal development. O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) is the sole glycosylation mark found on cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins and plays a pivotal role in regulating fundamental cellular processes; however, its function in ESC pluripotency is still largely unexplored. Here, we identify O-GlcNAcylation of proteasome activator subunit 3 (Psme3) protein as a node of the ESC pluripotency network. Mechanistically, O-GlcNAc modification of serine 111 (S111) of Psme3 promotes degradation of Ddx6, which is essential for processing body (P-body) assembly, resulting in the maintenance of ESC pluripotent state. Conversely, loss of Psme3 S111 O-GlcNAcylation stabilizes Ddx6 and increases P-body levels, culminating in spontaneous exit of ESC from the pluripotent state. Our findings establish O-GlcNAcylation at S111 of Psme3 as a switch that regulates ESC pluripotency via control of P-body homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Pecori
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan
| | - Nanako Kondo
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Science and Engineering for Sustainable Innovation, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan
| | - Chika Ogura
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan
| | - Taichi Miura
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan
| | - Masahiko Kume
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Youhei Minamijima
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Kazuo Yamamoto
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Shoko Nishihara
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Department of Science and Engineering for Sustainable Innovation, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan; Glycan & Life System Integration Center (GaLSIC), Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-machi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan.
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55
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Naim N, Amrit FRG, Ratnappan R, DelBuono N, Loose JA, Ghazi A. Cell nonautonomous roles of NHR-49 in promoting longevity and innate immunity. Aging Cell 2021; 20:e13413. [PMID: 34156142 PMCID: PMC8282243 DOI: 10.1111/acel.13413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging and immunity are inextricably linked and many genes that extend life span also enhance immunoresistance. However, it remains unclear whether longevity-enhancing factors modulate immunity and longevity by discrete or shared mechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that the Caenorhabditis elegans pro-longevity factor, NHR-49, also promotes resistance against Pseudomonas aeruginosa but modulates immunity and longevity distinctly. NHR-49 expression increases upon germline ablation, an intervention that extends life span, but was lowered by Pseudomonas infection. The immunosusceptibility induced by nhr-49 loss of function was rescued by neuronal NHR-49 alone, whereas the longevity diminution was rescued by expression in multiple somatic tissues. The well-established NHR-49 target genes, acs-2 and fmo-2, were also differentially regulated following germline elimination or Pseudomonas exposure. Interestingly, neither gene conferred immunity toward Gram-negative Pseudomonas, unlike their known functions against gram-positive pathogens. Instead, genes encoding antimicrobial factors and xenobiotic-response proteins upregulated by NHR-49 contributed to resistance against Pseudomonas. Thus, NHR-49 is differentially regulated by interventions that bring about long-term changes (life span extension) versus short-term stress (pathogen exposure) and in response it orchestrates discrete outputs, including pathogen-specific transcriptional programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki Naim
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Francis R. G. Amrit
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Ramesh Ratnappan
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Nicholas DelBuono
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Julia A. Loose
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - Arjumand Ghazi
- Department of Pediatrics University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
- Departments of Developmental Biology and Cell Biology and Physiology University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh PA USA
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56
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Banfi F, Rubio A, Zaghi M, Massimino L, Fagnocchi G, Bellini E, Luoni M, Cancellieri C, Bagliani A, Di Resta C, Maffezzini C, Ianielli A, Ferrari M, Piazza R, Mologni L, Broccoli V, Sessa A. SETBP1 accumulation induces P53 inhibition and genotoxic stress in neural progenitors underlying neurodegeneration in Schinzel-Giedion syndrome. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4050. [PMID: 34193871 PMCID: PMC8245514 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24391-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The investigation of genetic forms of juvenile neurodegeneration could shed light on the causative mechanisms of neuronal loss. Schinzel-Giedion syndrome (SGS) is a fatal developmental syndrome caused by mutations in the SETBP1 gene, inducing the accumulation of its protein product. SGS features multi-organ involvement with severe intellectual and physical deficits due, at least in part, to early neurodegeneration. Here we introduce a human SGS model that displays disease-relevant phenotypes. We show that SGS neural progenitors exhibit aberrant proliferation, deregulation of oncogenes and suppressors, unresolved DNA damage, and resistance to apoptosis. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that high SETBP1 levels inhibit P53 function through the stabilization of SET, which in turn hinders P53 acetylation. We find that the inheritance of unresolved DNA damage in SGS neurons triggers the neurodegenerative process that can be alleviated either by PARP-1 inhibition or by NAD + supplementation. These results implicate that neuronal death in SGS originates from developmental alterations mainly in safeguarding cell identity and homeostasis.
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MESH Headings
- Abnormalities, Multiple/genetics
- Abnormalities, Multiple/metabolism
- Abnormalities, Multiple/pathology
- Carrier Proteins/genetics
- Carrier Proteins/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Craniofacial Abnormalities/genetics
- Craniofacial Abnormalities/metabolism
- Craniofacial Abnormalities/pathology
- DNA Damage
- Hand Deformities, Congenital/genetics
- Hand Deformities, Congenital/metabolism
- Hand Deformities, Congenital/pathology
- Heredodegenerative Disorders, Nervous System/genetics
- Heredodegenerative Disorders, Nervous System/metabolism
- Heredodegenerative Disorders, Nervous System/pathology
- Humans
- Intellectual Disability/genetics
- Intellectual Disability/metabolism
- Intellectual Disability/pathology
- Mutation
- Nails, Malformed/genetics
- Nails, Malformed/metabolism
- Nails, Malformed/pathology
- Neural Stem Cells/metabolism
- Neural Stem Cells/pathology
- Nuclear Proteins/genetics
- Nuclear Proteins/metabolism
- Organoids
- Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/antagonists & inhibitors
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Banfi
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Alicia Rubio
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Mattia Zaghi
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Massimino
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Fagnocchi
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Edoardo Bellini
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Mirko Luoni
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Cinzia Cancellieri
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells service, Istituto Italiano di Oncologia Molecolare (IFOM), Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Bagliani
- Medical Oncology Unit, ASST Ovest Milanese, Legnano Hospital, Legnano, Italy
| | - Chiara Di Resta
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- Unit of Genomics for human disease diagnosis, Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Camilla Maffezzini
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Ianielli
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Rocco Piazza
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Luca Mologni
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Vania Broccoli
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Sessa
- Stem Cell and Neurogenesis Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.
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57
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Mitochondrial Regulation of the 26S Proteasome. Cell Rep 2021; 32:108059. [PMID: 32846138 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The proteasome is the main proteolytic system for targeted protein degradation in the cell and is fine-tuned according to cellular needs. Here, we demonstrate that mitochondrial dysfunction and concomitant metabolic reprogramming of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle reduce the assembly and activity of the 26S proteasome. Both mitochondrial mutations in respiratory complex I and treatment with the anti-diabetic drug metformin impair 26S proteasome activity. Defective 26S assembly is reversible and can be overcome by supplementation of aspartate or pyruvate. This metabolic regulation of 26S activity involves specific regulation of proteasome assembly factors via the mTORC1 pathway. Of note, reducing 26S activity by metformin confers increased resistance toward the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, which is reversible upon pyruvate supplementation. Our study uncovers unexpected consequences of defective mitochondrial metabolism for proteasomal protein degradation in the cell, which has important pathophysiological and therapeutic implications.
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58
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Podvin S, Jones A, Liu Q, Aulston B, Mosier C, Ames J, Winston C, Lietz CB, Jiang Z, O’Donoghue AJ, Ikezu T, Rissman RA, Yuan SH, Hook V. Mutant Presenilin 1 Dysregulates Exosomal Proteome Cargo Produced by Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Neurons. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:13033-13056. [PMID: 34056454 PMCID: PMC8158845 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation and propagation of hyperphosphorylated tau (p-Tau) is a neuropathological hallmark occurring with neurodegeneration of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Extracellular vesicles, exosomes, have been shown to initiate tau propagation in the brain. Notably, exosomes from human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) neurons expressing the AD familial A246E mutant form of presenilin 1 (mPS1) are capable of inducing tau deposits in the mouse brain after in vivo injection. To gain insights into the exosome proteome cargo that participates in propagating tau pathology, this study conducted proteomic analysis of exosomes produced by human iPSC neurons expressing A246E mPS1. Significantly, mPS1 altered the profile of exosome cargo proteins to result in (1) proteins present only in mPS1 exosomes and not in controls, (2) the absence of proteins in the mPS1 exosomes which were present only in controls, and (3) shared proteins which were upregulated or downregulated in the mPS1 exosomes compared to controls. These results show that mPS1 dysregulates the proteome cargo of exosomes to result in the acquisition of proteins involved in the extracellular matrix and protease functions, deletion of proteins involved in RNA and protein translation systems along with proteasome and related functions, combined with the upregulation and downregulation of shared proteins, including the upregulation of amyloid precursor protein. Notably, mPS1 neuron-derived exosomes displayed altered profiles of protein phosphatases and kinases involved in regulating the status of p-tau. The dysregulation of exosome cargo proteins by mPS1 may be associated with the ability of mPS1 neuron-derived exosomes to propagate tau pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Podvin
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Alexander Jones
- Biomedical
Sciences Graduate Program, University of
California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Qing Liu
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Brent Aulston
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Charles Mosier
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Janneca Ames
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Charisse Winston
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Christopher B. Lietz
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Zhenze Jiang
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Anthony J. O’Donoghue
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Tsuneya Ikezu
- Department
of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Department of Neurology,
Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Boston University, School of Medicine, Boston 02118, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Robert A. Rissman
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Veterans
Affairs San Diego Healthcare System,
La Jolla, San Diego 92161, California, United States
| | - Shauna H. Yuan
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
| | - Vivian Hook
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego,
La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Biomedical
Sciences Graduate Program, University of
California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
- Department
of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, San Diego 92093, California, United States
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59
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Mechanisms That Activate 26S Proteasomes and Enhance Protein Degradation. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11060779. [PMID: 34067263 PMCID: PMC8224753 DOI: 10.3390/biom11060779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although ubiquitination is widely assumed to be the only regulated step in the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway, recent studies have demonstrated several important mechanisms that regulate the activities of the 26S proteasome. Most proteasomes in cells are inactive but, upon binding a ubiquitinated substrate, become activated by a two-step mechanism requiring an association of the ubiquitin chain with Usp14 and then a loosely folded protein domain with the ATPases. The initial activation step is signaled by Usp14’s UBL domain, and many UBL-domain-containing proteins (e.g., Rad23, Parkin) also activate the proteasome. ZFAND5 is a distinct type of activator that binds ubiquitin conjugates and the proteasome and stimulates proteolysis during muscle atrophy. The proteasome’s activities are also regulated through subunit phosphorylation. Agents that raise cAMP and activate PKA stimulate within minutes Rpn6 phosphorylation and enhance the selective degradation of short-lived proteins. Likewise, hormones, fasting, and exercise, which raise cAMP, activate proteasomes and proteolysis in target tissues. Agents that raise cGMP and activate PKG also stimulate 26S activities but modify different subunit(s) and stimulate also the degradation of long-lived cell proteins. Both kinases enhance the selective degradation of aggregation-prone proteins that cause neurodegenerative diseases. These new mechanisms regulating proteolysis thus have clear physiological importance and therapeutic potential.
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60
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Allmeroth K, Kim CS, Annibal A, Pouikli A, Koester J, Derisbourg MJ, Andrés Chacón-Martínez C, Latza C, Antebi A, Tessarz P, Wickström SA, Denzel MS. N1-acetylspermidine is a determinant of hair follicle stem cell fate. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:261953. [PMID: 33973637 PMCID: PMC8182411 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.252767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cell differentiation is accompanied by increased mRNA translation. The rate of protein biosynthesis is influenced by the polyamines putrescine, spermidine and spermine, which are essential for cell growth and stem cell maintenance. However, the role of polyamines as endogenous effectors of stem cell fate and whether they act through translational control remains obscure. Here, we investigate the function of polyamines in stem cell fate decisions using hair follicle stem cell (HFSC) organoids. Compared to progenitor cells, HFSCs showed lower translation rates, correlating with reduced polyamine levels. Surprisingly, overall polyamine depletion decreased translation but did not affect cell fate. In contrast, specific depletion of natural polyamines mediated by spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase (SSAT; also known as SAT1) activation did not reduce translation but enhanced stemness. These results suggest a translation-independent role of polyamines in cell fate regulation. Indeed, we identified N1-acetylspermidine as a determinant of cell fate that acted through increasing self-renewal, and observed elevated N1-acetylspermidine levels upon depilation-mediated HFSC proliferation and differentiation in vivo. Overall, this study delineates the diverse routes of polyamine metabolism-mediated regulation of stem cell fate decisions. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper. Summary: Reduced protein synthesis is required for stem cell functions. Here, we delineate a complex interplay of polyamines and mRNA translation that determines hair follicle stem cell fate decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kira Allmeroth
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Christine S Kim
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Andrea Annibal
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Andromachi Pouikli
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Janis Koester
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,CECAD - Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Maxime J Derisbourg
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Christian Latza
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Adam Antebi
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,CECAD - Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Peter Tessarz
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,CECAD - Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sara A Wickström
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,CECAD - Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,Helsinki Institute for Life Science, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland.,Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland.,Stem Cells and Metabolism Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, Biomedicum Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Martin S Denzel
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 9b, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,CECAD - Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 26, D-50931 Cologne, Germany.,Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Robert-Koch-Str. 21, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
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61
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Ilyinsky NS, Nesterov SV, Shestoperova EI, Fonin AV, Uversky VN, Gordeliy VI. On the Role of Normal Aging Processes in the Onset and Pathogenesis of Diseases Associated with the Abnormal Accumulation of Protein Aggregates. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2021; 86:275-289. [PMID: 33838629 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297921030056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Aging is a prime systemic cause of various age-related diseases, in particular, proteinopathies. In fact, most diseases associated with protein misfolding are sporadic, and their incidence increases with aging. This review examines the process of protein aggregate formation, the toxicity of such aggregates, the organization of cellular systems involved in proteostasis, and the impact of protein aggregates on important cellular processes leading to proteinopathies. We also analyze how manifestations of aging (mitochondrial dysfunction, dysfunction of signaling systems, changes in the genome and epigenome) facilitate pathogenesis of various proteinopathies either directly, by increasing the propensity of key proteins for aggregation, or indirectly, through dysregulation of stress responses. Such analysis might help in outlining approaches for treating proteinopathies and extending healthy longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay S Ilyinsky
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia.
| | - Semen V Nesterov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia.,Institute of Cytochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Moscow, 115404, Russia
| | - Elizaveta I Shestoperova
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia
| | - Alexander V Fonin
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia.,Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, 194064, Russia
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia.,Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Valentin I Gordeliy
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia.,Forschungszentrum Juelich, Juelich, 52428, Germany.,Institut de Biologie Structurale, Grenoble, 38000, France
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62
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Cheng ZL, Zhang ML, Lin HP, Gao C, Song JB, Zheng Z, Li L, Zhang Y, Shen X, Zhang H, Huang Z, Zhan W, Zhang C, Hu X, Sun YP, Jiang L, Sun L, Xu Y, Yang C, Ge Y, Zhao Y, Liu X, Yang H, Liu P, Guo X, Guan KL, Xiong Y, Zhang M, Ye D. The Zscan4-Tet2 Transcription Nexus Regulates Metabolic Rewiring and Enhances Proteostasis to Promote Reprogramming. Cell Rep 2021; 32:107877. [PMID: 32668244 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionarily conserved SCAN (named after SRE-ZBP, CTfin51, AW-1, and Number 18 cDNA)-domain-containing zinc finger transcription factors (ZSCAN) have been found in both mouse and human genomes. Zscan4 is transiently expressed during zygotic genome activation (ZGA) in preimplantation embryos and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) reprogramming. However, little is known about the mechanism of Zscan4 underlying these processes of cell fate control. Here, we show that Zscan4f, a representative of ZSCAN proteins, is able to recruit Tet2 through its SCAN domain. The Zscan4f-Tet2 interaction promotes DNA demethylation and regulates the expression of target genes, particularly those encoding glycolytic enzymes and proteasome subunits. Zscan4f regulates metabolic rewiring, enhances proteasome function, and ultimately promotes iPSC generation. These results identify Zscan4f as an important partner of Tet2 in regulating target genes and promoting iPSC generation and suggest a possible and common mechanism shared by SCAN family transcription factors to recruit ten-eleven translocation (TET) DNA dioxygenases to regulate diverse cellular processes, including reprogramming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhou-Li Cheng
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Meng-Li Zhang
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Huai-Peng Lin
- Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Chao Gao
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jun-Bin Song
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhihong Zheng
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, Women's Hospital and Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310029, China
| | - Linpeng Li
- The Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, South China Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Yanan Zhang
- Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiaoqi Shen
- Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhenghui Huang
- Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Wuqiang Zhan
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Hu
- Department of Histoembryology, Genetics and Developmental Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi-Ping Sun
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Lubing Jiang
- Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Lei Sun
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Yanhui Xu
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Yang
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yuanlong Ge
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yong Zhao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Gene Function and Regulation, State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xingguo Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, South China Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Hui Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Pengyuan Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital and Institute of Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310016, China
| | - Xing Guo
- Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Kun-Liang Guan
- Department of Pharmacology and Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yue Xiong
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Mingliang Zhang
- Department of Histoembryology, Genetics and Developmental Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Dan Ye
- Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, and Molecular and Cell Biology Lab, the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Medical Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, and the Key Laboratory of Metabolism and Molecular, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China; The International Co-laboratory of Medical Epigenetics and Metabolism, Ministry of Science and Technology, Beijing, China; Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China.
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63
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Tain LS, Sehlke R, Meilenbrock RL, Leech T, Paulitz J, Chokkalingam M, Nagaraj N, Grönke S, Fröhlich J, Atanassov I, Mann M, Beyer A, Partridge L. Tissue-specific modulation of gene expression in response to lowered insulin signalling in Drosophila. eLife 2021; 10:e67275. [PMID: 33879316 PMCID: PMC8060030 DOI: 10.7554/elife.67275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Reduced activity of the insulin/IGF signalling network increases health during ageing in multiple species. Diverse and tissue-specific mechanisms drive the health improvement. Here, we performed tissue-specific transcriptional and proteomic profiling of long-lived Drosophila dilp2-3,5 mutants, and identified tissue-specific regulation of >3600 transcripts and >3700 proteins. Most expression changes were regulated post-transcriptionally in the fat body, and only in mutants infected with the endosymbiotic bacteria, Wolbachia pipientis, which increases their lifespan. Bioinformatic analysis identified reduced co-translational ER targeting of secreted and membrane-associated proteins and increased DNA damage/repair response proteins. Accordingly, age-related DNA damage and genome instability were lower in fat body of the mutant, and overexpression of a minichromosome maintenance protein subunit extended lifespan. Proteins involved in carbohydrate metabolism showed altered expression in the mutant intestine, and gut-specific overexpression of a lysosomal mannosidase increased autophagy, gut homeostasis, and lifespan. These processes are candidates for combatting ageing-related decline in other organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Sehlke
- Max-Planck Institute for Biology of AgeingCologneGermany
- CECAD Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated DiseasesCologneGermany
| | | | - Thomas Leech
- Max-Planck Institute for Biology of AgeingCologneGermany
| | - Jonathan Paulitz
- Max-Planck Institute for Biology of AgeingCologneGermany
- CECAD Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated DiseasesCologneGermany
| | - Manopriya Chokkalingam
- CECAD Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated DiseasesCologneGermany
| | - Nagarjuna Nagaraj
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute of BiochemistryMartinsriedGermany
| | | | - Jenny Fröhlich
- Max-Planck Institute for Biology of AgeingCologneGermany
| | | | - Matthias Mann
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute of BiochemistryMartinsriedGermany
| | - Andreas Beyer
- CECAD Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging Associated DiseasesCologneGermany
- Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC) & Cologne School for Computational Biology (CSCB), University of CologneCologneGermany
| | - Linda Partridge
- Max-Planck Institute for Biology of AgeingCologneGermany
- Institute of Healthy Ageing, and GEE, UCLLondonUnited Kingdom
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64
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Tian W, Maresh ME, Trader DJ. Approaches to Evaluate the Impact of a Small-Molecule Binder to a Noncatalytic Site of the Proteasome. Chembiochem 2021; 22:1961-1965. [PMID: 33617657 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Proteasome activity is crucial for cell survival and proliferation. In recent years, small molecules have been discovered that can affect the catalytic activity of the proteasome. Rather than targeting the active sites of the proteasome, it might be possible to affect ubiquitin-dependent degradation of proteins by limiting the association of the 19S regulatory particle (19S RP) with the 20S core particle (20S CP) of the proteasome. We recently described the discovery of TXS-8, a peptoid that binds to Rpn-6. Rpn-6 is a proteasome-associated protein that makes critical contacts with the 19S RP and the 20S CP. Herein, we present a general workflow to evaluate the impact of a small-molecule binder on proteasome activity by using TXS-8 as an example. This workflow contains three steps in which specific probes or overexpressed proteins in cells are used to determine whether the hydrolysis activity of the proteasome is affected. Although, in our case, TXS-8 did not affect proteasome activity, our workflow is highly amenable to studying a variety of small-molecule-proteasome subunit interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhi Tian
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
| | - Marianne E Maresh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
| | - Darci J Trader
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
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65
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Lv Y, Bu C, Meng J, Ward C, Volpe G, Hu J, Jiang M, Guo L, Chen J, Esteban MA, Bao X, Cheng Z. Global Profiling of the Lysine Crotonylome in Different Pluripotent States. GENOMICS PROTEOMICS & BIOINFORMATICS 2021; 19:80-93. [PMID: 33746086 PMCID: PMC8498919 DOI: 10.1016/j.gpb.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) can be expanded in vitro in different culture conditions, resulting in a spectrum of cell states with distinct properties. Understanding how PSCs transition from one state to another, ultimately leading to lineage-specific differentiation, is important for developmental biology and regenerative medicine. Although there is significant information regarding gene expression changes controlling these transitions, less is known about post-translational modifications of proteins. Protein crotonylation is a newly discovered post-translational modification where lysine residues are modified with a crotonyl group. Here, we employed affinity purification of crotonylated peptides and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) to systematically profile protein crotonylation in mouse PSCs in different states including ground, metastable, and primed states, as well as metastable PSCs undergoing early pluripotency exit. We successfully identified 3628 high-confidence crotonylated sites in 1426 proteins. These crotonylated proteins are enriched for factors involved in functions/processes related to pluripotency such as RNA biogenesis, central carbon metabolism, and proteasome function. Moreover, we found that increasing the cellular levels of crotonyl-coenzyme A (crotonyl-CoA) through crotonic acid treatment promotes proteasome activity in metastable PSCs and delays their differentiation, consistent with previous observations showing that enhanced proteasome activity helps to sustain pluripotency. Our atlas of protein crotonylation will be valuable for further studies of pluripotency regulation and may also provide insights into the role of metabolism in other cell fate transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Lv
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chen Bu
- Jingjie PTM BioLab (Hangzhou) Co. Ltd, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Jin Meng
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health and Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Carl Ward
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Giacomo Volpe
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Jieyi Hu
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Mengling Jiang
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Lin Guo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Jiekai Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health and Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou 510005, China
| | - Miguel A Esteban
- Laboratory of Integrative Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health and Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou 510005, China; Institute of Stem Cells and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Xichen Bao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou 510005, China; Laboratory of RNA Molecular Biology, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China.
| | - Zhongyi Cheng
- Jingjie PTM BioLab (Hangzhou) Co. Ltd, Hangzhou 310018, China.
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66
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p97/VCP is highly expressed in the stem-like cells of breast cancer and controls cancer stemness partly through the unfolded protein response. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:286. [PMID: 33731668 PMCID: PMC7969628 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03555-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
p97/VCP, an evolutionarily concerned ATPase, partakes in multiple cellular proteostatic processes, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated protein degradation (ERAD). Elevated expression of p97 is common in many cancers and is often associated with poor survival. Here we report that the levels of p97 positively correlated with the histological grade, tumor size, and lymph node metastasis in breast cancers. We further examined p97 expression in the stem-like cancer cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs), a cell population that purportedly underscores cancer initiation, therapeutic resistance, and recurrence. We found that p97 was consistently at a higher level in the CD44+/CD24-, ALDH+, or PKH26+ CSC populations than the respective non-CSC populations in human breast cancer tissues and cancer cell lines and p97 expression also positively correlated with that of SOX2, another CSC marker. To assess the role of p97 in breast cancers, cancer proliferation, mammosphere, and orthotopic growth were analyzed. Similarly as p97 depletion, two pharmacological inhibitors, which targets the ER-associated p97 or globally inhibits p97's ATPase activity, markedly reduced cancer growth and the CSC population. Importantly, depletion or inhibition of p97 greatly suppressed the proliferation of the ALDH+ CSCs and the CSC-enriched mammospheres, while exhibiting much less or insignificant inhibitory effects on the non-CSC cancer cells. Comparable phenotypes produced by blocking ERAD suggest that ER proteostasis is essential for the CSC integrity. Loss of p97 gravely activated the unfolded protein response (UPR) and modulated the expression of multiple stemness and pluripotency regulators, including C/EBPδ, c-MYC, SOX2, and SKP2, which collectively contributed to the demise of CSCs. In summary, p97 controls the breast CSC integrity through multiple targets, many of which directly affect cancer stemness and are induced by UPR activation. Our findings highlight the importance of p97 and ER proteostasis in CSC biology and anticancer therapy.
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67
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Pras A, Nollen EAA. Regulation of Age-Related Protein Toxicity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:637084. [PMID: 33748125 PMCID: PMC7973223 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.637084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteome damage plays a major role in aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Under healthy conditions, molecular quality control mechanisms prevent toxic protein misfolding and aggregation. These mechanisms include molecular chaperones for protein folding, spatial compartmentalization for sequestration, and degradation pathways for the removal of harmful proteins. These mechanisms decline with age, resulting in the accumulation of aggregation-prone proteins that are harmful to cells. In the past decades, a variety of fast- and slow-aging model organisms have been used to investigate the biological mechanisms that accelerate or prevent such protein toxicity. In this review, we describe the most important mechanisms that are required for maintaining a healthy proteome. We describe how these mechanisms decline during aging and lead to toxic protein misassembly, aggregation, and amyloid formation. In addition, we discuss how optimized protein homeostasis mechanisms in long-living animals contribute to prolonging their lifespan. This knowledge might help us to develop interventions in the protein homeostasis network that delay aging and age-related pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ellen A. A. Nollen
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ageing, European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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68
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Qin X, Liu J, Pan D, Ma W, Cheng P, Jin F. Corilagin induces human glioblastoma U251 cell apoptosis by impeding activity of (immuno)proteasome. Oncol Rep 2021; 45:34. [PMID: 33649855 PMCID: PMC7905533 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.7985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma is a type of common primary intracranial tumor, which is difficult to treat. It has been confirmed by research that corilagin (the primary active constituent of the matsumura leafflower herb) has significant antitumor effect. In particular, our previous research demonstrated that corilagin effectively promotes apoptosis of glioma U251 cells and has a synergistic effect when used with temozolomide. However, the mechanism by which corilagin causes apoptosis in U251 cells has yet to be investigated. Proteasomes are catalytic centers of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, which is the major protein degradation pathway in eukaryotic cells; they are primarily responsible for the degradation of signal molecules, tumor suppressors, cyclins and apoptosis inhibitors and serve an important role in tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis. The present study investigated the pro-apoptotic effect of corilagin on glioma U251 cells and confirmed that decreased proteasome activity and expression levels serve an important role in corilagin-induced U251 cell apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianyun Qin
- Medical Research Center, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong 272029, P.R. China
| | - Jilan Liu
- Medical Research Center, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong 272029, P.R. China
| | - Dongfeng Pan
- Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
| | - Wenyuan Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University and Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neuro‑Oncology, Jining, Shandong 272029, P.R. China
| | - Panpan Cheng
- Department of Hematology Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Jining Medical University, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong 272029, P.R. China
| | - Feng Jin
- Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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Abstract
The 26S proteasome is the most complex ATP-dependent protease machinery, of ~2.5 MDa mass, ubiquitously found in all eukaryotes. It selectively degrades ubiquitin-conjugated proteins and plays fundamentally indispensable roles in regulating almost all major aspects of cellular activities. To serve as the sole terminal "processor" for myriad ubiquitylation pathways, the proteasome evolved exceptional adaptability in dynamically organizing a large network of proteins, including ubiquitin receptors, shuttle factors, deubiquitinases, AAA-ATPase unfoldases, and ubiquitin ligases, to enable substrate selectivity and processing efficiency and to achieve regulation precision of a vast diversity of substrates. The inner working of the 26S proteasome is among the most sophisticated, enigmatic mechanisms of enzyme machinery in eukaryotic cells. Recent breakthroughs in three-dimensional atomic-level visualization of the 26S proteasome dynamics during polyubiquitylated substrate degradation elucidated an extensively detailed picture of its functional mechanisms, owing to progressive methodological advances associated with cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM). Multiple sites of ubiquitin binding in the proteasome revealed a canonical mode of ubiquitin-dependent substrate engagement. The proteasome conformation in the act of substrate deubiquitylation provided insights into how the deubiquitylating activity of RPN11 is enhanced in the holoenzyme and is coupled to substrate translocation. Intriguingly, three principal modes of coordinated ATP hydrolysis in the heterohexameric AAA-ATPase motor were discovered to regulate intermediate functional steps of the proteasome, including ubiquitin-substrate engagement, deubiquitylation, initiation of substrate translocation and processive substrate degradation. The atomic dissection of the innermost working of the 26S proteasome opens up a new era in our understanding of the ubiquitin-proteasome system and has far-reaching implications in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youdong Mao
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02215, Massachusetts, USA. .,School of Physics, Center for Quantitative Biology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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70
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Kapetanou M, Nespital T, Tain LS, Pahl A, Partridge L, Gonos ES. FoxO1 Is a Novel Regulator of 20S Proteasome Subunits Expression and Activity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:625715. [PMID: 33634126 PMCID: PMC7901890 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.625715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteostasis collapses during aging resulting, among other things, in the accumulation of damaged and aggregated proteins. The proteasome is the main cellular proteolytic system and plays a fundamental role in the maintenance of protein homeostasis. Our previous work has demonstrated that senescence and aging are related to a decline in proteasome content and activities, while its activation extends lifespan in vitro and in vivo in various species. However, the mechanisms underlying this age-related decline of proteasome function and the down-regulation in expression of its subunits remain largely unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the Forkhead box-O1 (FoxO1) transcription factor directly regulates the expression of a 20S proteasome catalytic subunit and, hence, proteasome activity. Specifically, we demonstrate that knockout of FoxO1, but not of FoxO3, in mice severely impairs proteasome activity in several tissues, while depletion of IRS1 enhances proteasome function. Importantly, we show that FoxO1 directly binds on the promoter region of the rate-limiting catalytic β5 proteasome subunit to regulate its expression. In summary, this study reveals the direct role of FoxO factors in the regulation of proteasome function and provides new insight into how FoxOs affect proteostasis and, in turn, longevity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianna Kapetanou
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Aging, Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece
| | - Tobias Nespital
- Department of Biological Mechanisms of Ageing, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Luke S Tain
- Department of Biological Mechanisms of Ageing, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Andre Pahl
- Department of Biological Mechanisms of Ageing, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Linda Partridge
- Department of Biological Mechanisms of Ageing, Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Efstathios S Gonos
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Aging, Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece
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71
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Expanding the role of proteasome homeostasis in Parkinson's disease: beyond protein breakdown. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:154. [PMID: 33542205 PMCID: PMC7862491 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03441-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Proteasome is the principal hydrolytic machinery responsible for the great majority of protein degradation. The past three decades have testified prominent advances about proteasome involved in almost every aspect of biological processes. Nonetheless, inappropriate increase or decrease in proteasome function is regarded as a causative factor in several diseases. Proteasome abundance and proper assembly need to be precisely controlled. Indeed, various neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease (PD) share a common pathological feature, intracellular protein accumulation such as α-synuclein. Proteasome activation may effectively remove aggregates and prevent the neurodegeneration in PD, which provides a potential application for disease-modifying treatment. In this review, we build on the valuable discoveries related to different types of proteolysis by distinct forms of proteasome, and how its regulatory and catalytic particles promote protein elimination. Additionally, we summarize the emerging ideas on the proteasome homeostasis regulation by targeting transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels. Given the imbalanced proteostasis in PD, the strategies for intensifying proteasomal degradation are advocated as a promising approach for PD clinical intervention.
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72
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Zhao L, Zhao J, Zhang Y, Wang L, Zuo L, Niu A, Zhang W, Xue X, Zhao S, Sun C, Li K, Wang J, Bian Z, Zhao X, Saur D, Seidler B, Wang C, Qi T. Generation and identification of a conditional knockout allele for the PSMD11 gene in mice. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2021; 21:4. [PMID: 33517884 PMCID: PMC7849139 DOI: 10.1186/s12861-020-00233-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our previous study have shown that the PSMD11 protein was an important survival factor for cancer cells except for its key role in regulation of assembly and activity of the 26S proteasome. To further investigate the role of PSMD11 in carcinogenesis, we constructed a conditional exon 5 floxed allele of PSMD11 (PSMD11flx) in mice. RESULTS It was found that homozygous PSMD11 flx/flx mice showed normal and exhibited a normal life span and fertility, and showed roughly equivalent expression of PSMD11 in various tissues, suggesting that the floxed allele maintained the wild-type function. Cre recombinase could induce efficient knockout of the floxed PSMD11 allele both in vitro and in vivo. Mice with constitutive single allele deletion of PSMD11 derived from intercrossing between PSMD11flx/flx and CMV-Cre mice were all viable and fertile, and showed apparent growth retardation, suggesting that PSMD11 played a significant role in the development of mice pre- or postnatally. No whole-body PSMD11 deficient embryos (PSMD11-/-) were identified in E7.5-8.5 embryos in uteros, indicating that double allele knockout of PSMD11 leads to early embryonic lethality. To avoid embryonic lethality produced by whole-body PSMD11 deletion, we further developed conditional PSMD11 global knockout mice with genotype Flp;FSF-R26CAG - CreERT2/+; PSMD11 flx/flx, and demonstrated that PSMD11 could be depleted in a temporal and tissue-specific manner. Meanwhile, it was found that depletion of PSMD11 could induce massive apoptosis in MEFs. CONCLUSIONS In summary, our data demonstrated that we have successfully generated a conditional knockout allele of PSMD11 in mice, and found that PSMD11 played a key role in early and postnatal development in mice, the PSMD11 flx/flx mice will be an invaluable tool to explore the functions of PSMD11 in development and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Zhao
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Jinming Zhao
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Yingying Zhang
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Lele Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Longyan Zuo
- Department of Pathology, Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng, 252000, China
| | - Airu Niu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Sanhe Yanjiao No.23 Hospital, Beijing, 065201, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Xia Xue
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Suhong Zhao
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Chao Sun
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Kailin Li
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Jue Wang
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Zhimin Bian
- Comprehensive Department, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Xiaogang Zhao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery/Key Laboratory of Thoracic Cancer in Universities of Shandong, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Dieter Saur
- The II. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik der Technischen Universität München, Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Barbara Seidler
- The II. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik der Technischen Universität München, Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Chuanxin Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China
| | - Tonggang Qi
- Institute of Medical Sciences, The Second Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250033, China.
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73
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Wu Y, Zhang W. The Role of E3s in Regulating Pluripotency of Embryonic Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1168. [PMID: 33503896 PMCID: PMC7865285 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are derived from early embryos and can differentiate into any type of cells in living organisms. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) resemble ESCs, both of which serve as excellent sources to study early embryonic development and realize cell replacement therapies for age-related degenerative diseases and other cell dysfunction-related illnesses. To achieve these valuable applications, comprehensively understanding of the mechanisms underlying pluripotency maintenance and acquisition is critical. Ubiquitination modifies proteins with Ubiquitin (Ub) at the post-translational level to monitor protein stability and activity. It is extensively involved in pluripotency-specific regulatory networks in ESCs and iPSCs. Ubiquitination is achieved by sequential actions of the Ub-activating enzyme E1, Ub-conjugating enzyme E2, and Ub ligase E3. Compared with E1s and E2s, E3s are most abundant, responsible for substrate selectivity and functional diversity. In this review, we focus on E3 ligases to discuss recent progresses in understanding how they regulate pluripotency and somatic cell reprogramming through ubiquitinating core ESC regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China;
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74
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The aging proteostasis decline: From nematode to human. Exp Cell Res 2021; 399:112474. [PMID: 33434530 PMCID: PMC7868887 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2021.112474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The aging proteostasis decline manifests in a failure of aging cells and organisms to properly respond to proteotoxic challenges. This proteostasis collapse has long been considered a hallmark of aging in nematodes, and has recently been shown to occur also in human cells upon entry to senescence, opening the way to exploring the phenomenon in the broader context of human aging. Cellular senescence is part of the normal human physiology of aging, with senescent cell accumulation as a prominent feature of aged tissues. Being highly resistant to cell death, senescent cells, as they accumulate, become pro-inflammatory and promote disease. Here we discuss the causes of human senescence proteostasis decline, in view of the current literature on nematodes, on the one hand, and senescence, on the other hand. We review two major aspects of the phenomenon: (1) the decline in transcriptional activation of stress-response pathways, and (2) impairments in proteasome function. We further outline potential underlying mechanisms of transcriptional proteostasis decline, focusing on reduced chromatin dynamics and compromised nuclear integrity. Finally, we discuss potential strategies for reinforcing proteostasis as a means to improve organismal health and address the relationship to senolytics.
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75
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Build-UPS and break-downs: metabolism impacts on proteostasis and aging. Cell Death Differ 2021; 28:505-521. [PMID: 33398091 PMCID: PMC7862225 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-020-00682-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Perturbation of metabolism elicits cellular stress which profoundly modulates the cellular proteome and thus protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Consequently, changes in the cellular proteome due to metabolic shift require adaptive mechanisms by molecular protein quality control. The mechanisms vitally controlling proteostasis embrace the entire life cycle of a protein involving translational control at the ribosome, chaperone-assisted native folding, and subcellular sorting as well as proteolysis by the proteasome or autophagy. While metabolic imbalance and proteostasis decline have been recognized as hallmarks of aging and age-associated diseases, both processes are largely considered independently. Here, we delineate how proteome stability is governed by insulin/IGF1 signaling (IIS), mechanistic target of Rapamycin (TOR), 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and NAD-dependent deacetylases (Sir2-like proteins known as sirtuins). This comprehensive overview is emphasizing the regulatory interconnection between central metabolic pathways and proteostasis, indicating the relevance of shared signaling nodes as targets for future therapeutic interventions. ![]()
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76
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Mohan HM, Yang B, Dean NA, Raghavan M. Calreticulin enhances the secretory trafficking of a misfolded α-1-antitrypsin. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:16754-16772. [PMID: 32978262 PMCID: PMC7864070 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra120.014372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
α1-antitrypsin (AAT) regulates the activity of multiple proteases in the lungs and liver. A mutant of AAT (E342K) called ATZ forms polymers that are present at only low levels in the serum and induce intracellular protein inclusions, causing lung emphysema and liver cirrhosis. An understanding of factors that can reduce the intracellular accumulation of ATZ is of great interest. We now show that calreticulin (CRT), an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) glycoprotein chaperone, promotes the secretory trafficking of ATZ, enhancing the media:cell ratio. This effect is more pronounced for ATZ than with AAT and is only partially dependent on the glycan-binding site of CRT, which is generally relevant to substrate recruitment and folding by CRT. The CRT-related chaperone calnexin does not enhance ATZ secretory trafficking, despite the higher cellular abundance of calnexin-ATZ complexes. CRT deficiency alters the distributions of ATZ-ER chaperone complexes, increasing ATZ-BiP binding and inclusion body formation and reducing ATZ interactions with components required for ER-Golgi trafficking, coincident with reduced levels of the protein transport protein Sec31A in CRT-deficient cells. These findings indicate a novel role for CRT in promoting the secretory trafficking of a protein that forms polymers and large intracellular inclusions. Inefficient secretory trafficking of ATZ in the absence of CRT is coincident with enhanced accumulation of ER-derived ATZ inclusion bodies. Further understanding of the factors that control the secretory trafficking of ATZ and their regulation by CRT could lead to new therapies for lung and liver diseases linked to AAT deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harihar Milaganur Mohan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109 USA
| | - Boning Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109 USA
| | - Nicole A Dean
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109 USA
| | - Malini Raghavan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109 USA.
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77
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The dialogue between the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy: Implications in ageing. Ageing Res Rev 2020; 64:101203. [PMID: 33130248 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2020.101203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Dysregulated proteostasis is one of the hallmarks of ageing. Damaged proteins may impair cellular function and their accumulation may lead to tissue dysfunction and disease. This is why protective mechanisms to safeguard the cell proteome have evolved. These mechanisms consist of cellular machineries involved in protein quality control, including regulators of protein translation, folding, trafficking and degradation. In eukaryotic cells, protein degradation occurs via two main pathways: the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the autophagy-lysosome pathway. Although distinct pathways, they are not isolated systems and have a complementary nature, as evidenced by recent studies. These findings raise the question of how autophagy and the proteasome crosstalk. In this review we address how the two degradation pathways impact each other, thereby adding a new layer of regulation to protein degradation. We also analyze the implications of the UPS and autophagy in ageing.
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78
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Bhattacharya K, Weidenauer L, Luengo TM, Pieters EC, Echeverría PC, Bernasconi L, Wider D, Sadian Y, Koopman MB, Villemin M, Bauer C, Rüdiger SGD, Quadroni M, Picard D. The Hsp70-Hsp90 co-chaperone Hop/Stip1 shifts the proteostatic balance from folding towards degradation. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5975. [PMID: 33239621 PMCID: PMC7688965 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19783-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hop/Stip1/Sti1 is thought to be essential as a co-chaperone to facilitate substrate transfer between the Hsp70 and Hsp90 molecular chaperones. Despite this proposed key function for protein folding and maturation, it is not essential in a number of eukaryotes and bacteria lack an ortholog. We set out to identify and to characterize its eukaryote-specific function. Human cell lines and the budding yeast with deletions of the Hop/Sti1 gene display reduced proteasome activity due to inefficient capping of the core particle with regulatory particles. Unexpectedly, knock-out cells are more proficient at preventing protein aggregation and at promoting protein refolding. Without the restraint by Hop, a more efficient folding activity of the prokaryote-like Hsp70-Hsp90 complex, which can also be demonstrated in vitro, compensates for the proteasomal defect and ensures the proteostatic equilibrium. Thus, cells may act on the level and/or activity of Hop to shift the proteostatic balance between folding and degradation. Hop, also known as Stip1 or Sti1, facilitates substrate transfer between the Hsp70 and Hsp90 molecular chaperones. Characterization of proteostasis-related pathways in STIP1 knock-out cell lines reveals that in eukaryotes Stip1 modulates the balance between protein folding and degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushik Bhattacharya
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Lorenz Weidenauer
- Protein Analysis Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, Université de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tania Morán Luengo
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ellis C Pieters
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pablo C Echeverría
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland.,European Association for the Study of the Liver, 1203, Genève, Switzerland
| | - Lilia Bernasconi
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Diana Wider
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Yashar Sadian
- Bioimaging Center, Université de Genève, Sciences II, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Margreet B Koopman
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Matthieu Villemin
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Bauer
- Bioimaging Center, Université de Genève, Sciences II, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland
| | - Stefan G D Rüdiger
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Science for Life, Utrecht University, 3584, CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Manfredo Quadroni
- Protein Analysis Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, Université de Lausanne, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Didier Picard
- Département de Biologie Cellulaire, Université de Genève, Sciences III, 1211, Genève 4, Switzerland.
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79
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Feng H, Gui Q, Wu G, Zhu W, Dong X, Shen M, Fu X, Shi G, Luo H, Yang X, Xue S, Cheng Q. Long noncoding RNA Nespas inhibits apoptosis of epileptiform hippocampal neurons by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Exp Cell Res 2020; 398:112384. [PMID: 33212147 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.112384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological diseases with spontaneous recurrent seizures. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are crucial modulators in numerous diseases, including epilepsy. However, the functional role and potential mechanism of lncRNA Nespas in epilepsy remain unknown. Our study clarified that Nespas was underexpressed in epileptiform hippocampal tissues and neurons. Furthermore, Nespas promoted hippocampal neuron viability and proliferation, and inhibited hippocampal neuron apoptosis. Mechanistically, Nespas interacted with microRNA 615-3p (miR-615-3p) in epileptiform hippocampal neurons. 26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 11 (Psmd11) was a downstream target of miR-615-3p, and Nespas elevated Psmd11 expression via competitively binding to miR-615-3p in epileptiform hippocampal neurons. In addition, rescue assays suggested that Nespas promoted hippocampal neuron viability and proliferation, and suppressed hippocampal neuron apoptosis by upregulation of Psmd11. Furthermore, Nespas suppressed the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway via upregulating Psmd11 in epileptiform hippocampal neurons. This report explored the function and regulatory mechanism of Nespas in epileptiform hippocampal neurons for the first time. Our findings revealed that Nespas suppressed the apoptosis of epileptiform hippocampal neurons by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway via upregulation of Psmd11 at a miR-615-3p dependent way, indicating that Nespas may offer a new direction for the treatment of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxuan Feng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu, China; Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qian Gui
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guanhui Wu
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaofeng Dong
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mingqiang Shen
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xuetao Fu
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225001, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guomei Shi
- Department of Neurology, Taixing People's Hospital, Taixing, 225400, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hailong Luo
- Department of Neurology, Hongqi Hospital Affiliated to Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, 157011, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Xiaoyan Yang
- Department of Neurology, The People's Hospital of SND, Suzhou, 215129, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shouru Xue
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Qingzhang Cheng
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University (Suzhou Municipal Hospital), Suzhou, 215002, Jiangsu, China.
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80
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Yan P, Ren J, Zhang W, Qu J, Liu GH. Protein quality control of cell stemness. CELL REGENERATION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2020; 9:22. [PMID: 33179756 PMCID: PMC7658286 DOI: 10.1186/s13619-020-00064-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Protein quality control (PQC) systems play essential roles in the recognition, refolding and clearance of aberrant proteins, thus ensuring cellular protein homeostasis, or proteostasis. Especially, continued proliferation and differentiation of stem cells require a high rate of translation; therefore, accurate PQC systems are essential to maintain stem cell function. Growing evidence suggested crucial roles of PQC systems in regulating the stemness and differentiation of stem cells. This review focuses on current knowledge regarding the components of the proteostasis network in stem cells, and the importance of proteostasis in maintaining stem cell identity and regenerative functions. A complete understanding of this process might uncover potential applications in aging intervention and aging-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengze Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jie Ren
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing, 100101, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Institute for Stem cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Weiqi Zhang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing, 100101, China.
- CAS Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Genetics and Development, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- Institute for Stem cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Jing Qu
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Institute for Stem cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Guang-Hui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Institute for Stem cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xuanwu Hospital Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100053, China.
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81
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Abstract
Vimentin is one of the first cytoplasmic intermediate filaments to be expressed in mammalian cells during embryogenesis, but its role in cellular fitness has long been a mystery. Vimentin is acknowledged to play a role in cell stiffness, cell motility, and cytoplasmic organization, yet it is widely considered to be dispensable for cellular function and organismal development. Here, we show that Vimentin plays a role in cellular stress response in differentiating cells, by recruiting aggregates, stress granules, and RNA-binding proteins, directing their elimination and asymmetric partitioning. In the absence of Vimentin, pluripotent embryonic stem cells fail to differentiate properly, with a pronounced deficiency in neuronal differentiation. Our results uncover a novel function for Vimentin, with important implications for development, tissue homeostasis, and in particular, stress response.
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82
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Goswami S, Kareem O, Goyal RK, Mumtaz SM, Tonk RK, Gupta R, Pottoo FH. Role of Forkhead Transcription Factors of the O Class (FoxO) in Development and Progression of Alzheimer's Disease. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2020; 19:709-721. [PMID: 33001019 DOI: 10.2174/1871527319666201001105553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the Central Nervous System (CNS), a specific loss of focal neurons leads to mental and neurological disorders like dementia, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, etc. AD is a neurological degenerative disorder, which is progressive and irreversible in nature and is the widely recognized reason for dementia in the geriatric populace. It affects 10% of people above the age of 65 and is the fourth driving reason for death in the United States. Numerous evidence suggests that the neuronal compartment is not the only genesis of AD, but transcription factors also hold significant importance in the occurrence and advancement of the disease. It is the need of the time to find the novel molecular targets and new techniques for treating or slowing down the progression of neurological disorders, especially AD. In this article, we summarised a conceivable association between transcriptional factors and their defensive measures against neurodegeneration and AD. The mammalian forkhead transcription factors of the class O (FoxO) illustrate one of the potential objectives for the development of new methodologies against AD and other neurocognitive disorders. The presence of FoxO is easily noticeable in the "cognitive centers" of the brain, specifically in the amygdala, hippocampus, and the nucleus accumbens. FoxO proteins are the prominent and necessary factors in memory formation and cognitive functions. FoxO also assumes a pertinent role in the protection of multiple cells in the brain by controlling the involving mechanism of autophagy and apoptosis and also modulates the process of phosphorylation of the targeted protein, thus FoxO must be a putative target in the mitigation of AD. This review features the role of FoxO as an important biomarker and potential new targets for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Goswami
- Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, Mehrauli- Badarpur Rd, Sector 3, PushpVihar, New Delhi, India
| | - Ozaifa Kareem
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, JK, India
| | - Ramesh K Goyal
- Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, Mehrauli- Badarpur Rd, Sector 3, PushpVihar, New Delhi, India
| | - Sayed M Mumtaz
- Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, Mehrauli- Badarpur Rd, Sector 3, PushpVihar, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajiv K Tonk
- Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, Mehrauli- Badarpur Rd, Sector 3, PushpVihar, New Delhi, India
| | - Rahul Gupta
- Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, Mehrauli- Badarpur Rd, Sector 3, PushpVihar, New Delhi, India
| | - Faheem H Pottoo
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University P.O.BOX 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
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83
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Trash Talk: Mammalian Proteasome Regulation at the Transcriptional Level. Trends Genet 2020; 37:160-173. [PMID: 32988635 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2020.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The key to a healthy mammalian cell lies in properly functioning proteolytic machineries called proteasomes. The proteasomes are multisubunit complexes that catalyze the degradation of unwanted proteins and also control half-lives of key cellular regulatory factors. Aberrant proteasome activity is often associated with human diseases such as cancer and neurodegeneration, and so an in-depth understanding of how it is regulated has implications for potential disease interventions. Transcriptional regulation of the proteasome can dictate its abundance and also influence its function, assembly, and location. This ensures proper proteasomal activity in response to developmental cues and to physiological conditions such as starvation and oxidative stress. In this review, we highlight and discuss the roles of the transcription factors that are involved in the regulation of the mammalian proteasome.
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84
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Finkbeiner S. Functional genomics, genetic risk profiling and cell phenotypes in neurodegenerative disease. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 146:105088. [PMID: 32977020 PMCID: PMC7686089 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Human genetics provides unbiased insights into the causes of human disease, which can be used to create a foundation for effective ways to more accurately diagnose patients, stratify patients for more successful clinical trials, discover and develop new therapies, and ultimately help patients choose the safest and most promising therapeutic option based on their risk profile. But the process for translating basic observations from human genetics studies into pathogenic disease mechanisms and treatments is laborious and complex, and this challenge has particularly slowed the development of interventions for neurodegenerative disease. In this review, we discuss the many steps in the process, the important considerations at each stage, and some of the latest tools and technologies that are available to help investigators translate insights from human genetics into diagnostic and therapeutic strategies that will lead to the sort of advances in clinical care that make a difference for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Finkbeiner
- Center for Systems and Therapeutics, USA; Taube/Koret Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; Departments of Neurology and Physiology, University of Califorina, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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85
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Kobayashi T, Kageyama R. Lysosomes and signaling pathways for maintenance of quiescence in adult neural stem cells. FEBS J 2020; 288:3082-3093. [PMID: 32902139 PMCID: PMC8246936 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Quiescence is a cellular strategy for maintaining somatic stem cells in a specific niche in a low metabolic state without senescence for a long period of time. During development, neural stem cells (NSCs) actively proliferate and self-renew, and their progeny differentiate into both neurons and glial cells to form mature brain tissues. On the other hand, most NSCs in the adult brain are quiescent and arrested in G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Quiescence is essential in order to avoid the precocious exhaustion of NSCs, ensuring a sustainable source of available stem cells in the brain throughout the lifespan. After receiving activation signals, quiescent NSCs reenter the cell cycle and generate new neurons. This switching between quiescence and proliferation is tightly regulated by diverse signaling pathways. Recent studies suggest significant involvement of cellular proteostasis (homeostasis of the proteome) in the quiescent state of NSCs. Proteostasis is the result of integrated regulation of protein synthesis, folding, and degradation. In this review, we discuss regulation of quiescence by multiple signaling pathways, especially bone morphogenetic protein and Notch signaling, and focus on the functional involvement of the lysosome, an organelle governing cellular degradation, in quiescence of adult NSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taeko Kobayashi
- Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ryoichiro Kageyama
- Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (iCeMS), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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86
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Heitmeier T, Sydykov A, Lukas C, Vroom C, Korfei M, Petrovic A, Klingel K, Günther A, Eickelberg O, Weissmann N, Ghofrani HA, Seeger W, Grimminger F, Schermuly RT, Meiners S, Kosanovic D. Altered proteasome function in right ventricular hypertrophy. Cardiovasc Res 2020; 116:406-415. [PMID: 31020333 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvz103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS In patients with pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) is a detrimental condition that ultimately results in right heart failure and death. The ubiquitin proteasome system has been identified as a major protein degradation system to regulate cardiac remodelling in the left heart. Its role in right heart hypertrophy, however, is still ambiguous. METHODS AND RESULTS RVH was induced in mice by pulmonary artery banding (PAB). Both, expression and activity of the proteasome was found to be up-regulated in the hypertrophied right ventricle (RV) compared to healthy controls. Catalytic inhibition of the proteasome by the two proteasome inhibitors Bortezomib (BTZ) and ONX-0912 partially improved RVH both in preventive and therapeutic applications. Native gel analysis revealed that specifically the 26S proteasome complexes were activated in experimental RVH. Increased assembly of 26S proteasomes was accompanied by elevated expression of Rpn6, a rate-limiting subunit of 26S proteasome assembly, in hypertrophied cardiomyocytes of the right heart. Intriguingly, patients with RVH also showed increased expression of Rpn6 in hypertrophied cardiomyocytes of the RV as identified by immunohistochemical staining. CONCLUSION Our data demonstrate that alterations in expression and activity of proteasomal subunits play a critical role in the development of RVH. Moreover, this study provides an improved understanding on the selective activation of the 26S proteasome in RVH that might be driven by the rate-limiting subunit Rpn6. In RVH, Rpn6 therefore represents a more specific target to interfere with proteasome function than the commonly used catalytic proteasome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Heitmeier
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Akylbek Sydykov
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Christina Lukas
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center (CPC), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Max-Lebsche-Platz 31, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christina Vroom
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Martina Korfei
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Aleksandar Petrovic
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Karin Klingel
- Institute for Pathology and Neuropathology, University of Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Günther
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Agaplesion Lung Clinic Waldhof Elgershausen, Greifenstein, Germany
| | - Oliver Eickelberg
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center (CPC), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Max-Lebsche-Platz 31, 81377 Munich, Germany.,University of Colorado at Denver - Anschutz Medical Campus, 129263, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine University, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | | | - Werner Seeger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Friedrich Grimminger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Ralph Theo Schermuly
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Silke Meiners
- Comprehensive Pneumology Center (CPC), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Max-Lebsche-Platz 31, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Djuro Kosanovic
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, Russia
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87
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The intrinsic proteostasis network of stem cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2020; 67:46-55. [PMID: 32890906 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2020.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The proteostasis network adjusts protein composition and maintains protein integrity, which are essential processes for cell function and viability. Current efforts, given their intrinsic characteristics, regenerative potential and fundamental biological functions, have been directed to define proteostasis of stem cells. These insights demonstrate that embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells exhibit an endogenous proteostasis network that not only modulates their pluripotency and differentiation but also provides a striking ability to suppress aggregation of disease-related proteins. Moreover, recent findings establish a central role of enhanced proteostasis to prevent the aging of somatic stem cells in adult organisms. Notably, proteostasis is also required for the biological purpose of adult germline stem cells, that is to be passed from one generation to the next. Beyond these links between proteostasis and stem cell function, we also discuss the implications of these findings for disease, aging, and reproduction.
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88
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Kiwada T, Katakasu H, Okumura S, Odani A. Characterization of platinum(II) complexes exhibiting inhibitory activity against the 20S proteasome. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200545. [PMID: 32968518 PMCID: PMC7481701 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Proteasome inhibitors are useful for biochemical research and clinical treatment. In our previous study, we reported that the 4N-coordinated platinum complexes with anthracenyl ring and heterocycle exhibited proteasome-inhibitory activity. In the present study, the structure-activity relationships and characterization of these complexes were determined for the elucidation of the role of aromatic ligands. Lineweaver-Burk analysis revealed that the chemical structure of heterocycles affects the binding mode of platinum complexes. Platinum complexes with anthracenyl ring and pyridine showed competitive inhibition, although platinum complexes with anthracenyl ring and phenanthroline showed non-competitive inhibition. The structure-activity relationships demonstrated that anthracenyl moiety plays a crucial role in proteasome-inhibitory activity. The platinum complexes with naphthyl or phenyl rings exhibited lower inhibitory activities than the platinum complex with anthracenyl ring. The reactivity with N-acetylcysteine varied according to the chemical structure of complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuto Kiwada
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hiromu Katakasu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Serina Okumura
- School of Pharmacy, College of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Akira Odani
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
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89
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Cakouros D, Gronthos S. The changing epigenetic landscape of Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells during aging. Bone 2020; 137:115440. [PMID: 32445894 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2020.115440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
There is mounting evidence in the literature that mesenchymal stromal/stem cell (MSC) like populations derived from different tissues, undergo epigenetic changes during aging, leading to compromised connective tissue integrity and function. This body of work has linked the biological aging of MSC to changes in their epigenetic signatures affecting growth, lifespan, self-renewal and multi-potential, due to deregulation of processes such as cellular senescence, oxidative stress, DNA damage, telomere shortening and DNA damage. This review addresses recent findings examining DNA methylation, histone modifications and miRNA changes in aging MSC populations. Moreover, we explore how epigenetic factors alter cellular pathways and associated biological networks, contributing to the MSC aging phenotype. Finally we discuss the crucial areas requiring a greater understanding of these processes, in order to piece together a global picture of the changing epigenetic landscape in MSC during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Cakouros
- Mesenchymal Stem Cell Laboratory, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Stan Gronthos
- Mesenchymal Stem Cell Laboratory, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
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90
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Molzahn CM, Mayor T. Protein Aggregation Triggered by Rewired Protein Homeostasis during Neuronal Differentiation. Mol Cell 2020; 78:195-196. [PMID: 32302540 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2020.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this issue of Molecular Cell, Vonk et al. (2020) and Thiruvalluvan et al. (2020) identify key chaperones that confer resistance to protein aggregation in neural stem cells and become reduced upon differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristen M Molzahn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Thibault Mayor
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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91
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Navarro Negredo P, Yeo RW, Brunet A. Aging and Rejuvenation of Neural Stem Cells and Their Niches. Cell Stem Cell 2020; 27:202-223. [PMID: 32726579 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2020.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Aging has a profound and devastating effect on the brain. Old age is accompanied by declining cognitive function and enhanced risk of brain diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. A key question is whether cells with regenerative potential contribute to brain health and even brain "rejuvenation." This review discusses mechanisms that regulate neural stem cells (NSCs) during aging, focusing on the effect of metabolism, genetic regulation, and the surrounding niche. We also explore emerging rejuvenating strategies for old NSCs. Finally, we consider how new technologies may help harness NSCs' potential to restore healthy brain function during physiological and pathological aging.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robin W Yeo
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Anne Brunet
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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92
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Liu K, Cao J, Shi X, Wang L, Zhao T. Cellular metabolism and homeostasis in pluripotency regulation. Protein Cell 2020; 11:630-640. [PMID: 32643102 PMCID: PMC7452966 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-020-00755-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) can immortally self-renew in culture with a high proliferation rate, and they possess unique metabolic characteristics that facilitate pluripotency regulation. Here, we review recent progress in understanding the mechanisms that link cellular metabolism and homeostasis to pluripotency regulation, with particular emphasis on pathways involving amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy. Metabolism of amino acids and lipids is tightly coupled to epigenetic modification, organelle remodeling and cell signaling pathways for pluripotency regulation. PSCs harness enhanced proteasome and autophagy activity to meet the material and energy requirements for cellular homeostasis. These regulatory events reflect a fine balance between the intrinsic cellular requirements and the extrinsic environment. A more complete understanding of this balance will pave new ways to manipulate PSC fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jiani Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xingxing Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Liang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Tongbiao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China. .,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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93
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The ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBE2K determines neurogenic potential through histone H3 in human embryonic stem cells. Commun Biol 2020; 3:262. [PMID: 32451438 PMCID: PMC7248108 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-0984-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Histones modulate gene expression by chromatin compaction, regulating numerous processes such as differentiation. However, the mechanisms underlying histone degradation remain elusive. Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) have a unique chromatin architecture characterized by low levels of trimethylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me3), a heterochromatin-associated modification. Here we assess the link between the intrinsic epigenetic landscape and ubiquitin-proteasome system of hESCs. We find that hESCs exhibit high expression of the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBE2K. Loss of UBE2K upregulates the trimethyltransferase SETDB1, resulting in H3K9 trimethylation and repression of neurogenic genes during differentiation. Besides H3K9 trimethylation, UBE2K binds histone H3 to induce its polyubiquitination and degradation by the proteasome. Notably, ubc-20, the worm orthologue of UBE2K, also regulates histone H3 levels and H3K9 trimethylation in Caenorhabditis elegans germ cells. Thus, our results indicate that UBE2K crosses evolutionary boundaries to promote histone H3 degradation and reduce H3K9me3 repressive marks in immortal cells. Azra Fatima et al. show that ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBE2K regulates neurogenic potential through its target histone H3 in human embryonic stem cells. This study suggests that UBE2K promotes histone H3 degradation, reducing the H3K9me3 repressive marks in immortal cells of both worms and humans.
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94
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Hamazaki J, Murata S. ER-Resident Transcription Factor Nrf1 Regulates Proteasome Expression and Beyond. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103683. [PMID: 32456207 PMCID: PMC7279161 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein folding is a substantively error prone process, especially when it occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The highly exquisite machinery in the ER controls secretory protein folding, recognizes aberrant folding states, and retrotranslocates permanently misfolded proteins from the ER back to the cytosol; these misfolded proteins are then degraded by the ubiquitin–proteasome system termed as the ER-associated degradation (ERAD). The 26S proteasome is a multisubunit protease complex that recognizes and degrades ubiquitinated proteins in an ATP-dependent manner. The complex structure of the 26S proteasome requires exquisite regulation at the transcription, translation, and molecular assembly levels. Nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 1 (Nrf1; NFE2L1), an ER-resident transcription factor, has recently been shown to be responsible for the coordinated expression of all the proteasome subunit genes upon proteasome impairment in mammalian cells. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the transcriptional regulation of the proteasome, as well as recent findings concerning the regulation of Nrf1 transcription activity in ER homeostasis and metabolic processes.
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95
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Wu H, Sun H, He Z, Chen X, Li Y, Zhao X, Kong W, Kong W. The effect and mechanism of 19S proteasome PSMD11/Rpn6 subunit in D-Galactose induced mimetic aging models. Exp Cell Res 2020; 394:112093. [PMID: 32450067 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.112093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Regulating proteasome activity is a potent therapeutic aspect of age-related hearing loss, which has been proven to protect neurons from age-related damaging. PSMD11, subunit of the 19S proteasome regulatory particle, is known to mainly up-regulate proteasome activity and prolong aging. However, the mechanism of PSMD11 in age-related hearing loss has not been deeply explored. In the present study, we explore the function and mechanism of PSMD11 protecting neurons in d-Galactose (D-Gal) mimetic aging models. Age-related pathologies were detected by Taq-PCR, ABR, Transmission electron microscopy, toluidine blue and β-galactosidase staining. The relative expressions of the proteins were explored by Western blotting, oxyblot, immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence. Flow cytometry was used to manifest the oxidative state. We discovered that proteasome activity was impaired with aging, and that ROS and toxic protein accumulated in D-Gal induced aging models. PSMD11 changed with aging, and was associated with the metabolism of proteasome activity in the D-Gal treated models. Moreover, the knockdown or overexpression of PSMD11 was sufficient to change the oxidative state caused by D-Gal. Our results also demonstrated that PSMD11 could bond to AMPKα1/2 in the auditory cortex and PC12 cells, and AMPKα2 but not AMPKα1 was efficient to regulate the function of PSMD11. Deeper insights into the mechanisms of regulating PSMD11 for the anti-aging process are needed, and may offer novel therapeutic methods for central presbycusis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Wu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Haiying Sun
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Zuhong He
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Yongqin Li
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Xueyan Zhao
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
| | - Wen Kong
- Departments of Endocrinology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430022, China.
| | - Weijia Kong
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430022, China.
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96
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Snoeck HW. Calcium regulation of stem cells. EMBO Rep 2020; 21:e50028. [PMID: 32419314 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202050028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent and post-natal, tissue-specific stem cells share functional features such as the capacity to differentiate into multiple lineages and to self-renew, and are endowed with specific cell maintenance mechanism as well as transcriptional and epigenetic signatures that determine stem cell identity and distinguish them from their progeny. Calcium is a highly versatile and ubiquitous second messenger that regulates a wide variety of cellular functions. Specific roles of calcium in stem cell niches and stem cell maintenance mechanisms are only beginning to be explored, however. In this review, I discuss stem cell-specific regulation and roles of calcium, focusing on its potential involvement in the intertwined metabolic and epigenetic regulation of stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Willem Snoeck
- Columbia Center of Human Development, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.,Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Allergy and Critical Care, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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97
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Das A, Bell CM, Berlinicke CA, Marsh-Armstrong N, Zack DJ. Programmed switch in the mitochondrial degradation pathways during human retinal ganglion cell differentiation from stem cells is critical for RGC survival. Redox Biol 2020; 34:101465. [PMID: 32473993 PMCID: PMC7327961 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) degeneration is the root cause for vision loss in glaucoma as well as in other forms of optic neuropathy. A variety of studies have implicated abnormal mitochondrial quality control (MQC) as contributing to RGC damage and degeneration in optic neuropathies. The ability to differentiate human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into RGCs provides an opportunity to study RGC MQC in great detail. Degradation of damaged mitochondria is a critical step of MQC, and here we have used hPSC-derived RGCs (hRGCs) to analyze how altered mitochondrial degradation pathways in hRGCs affect their survival. Using pharmacological methods, we have investigated the role of the proteasomal and endo-lysosomal pathways in degrading damaged mitochondria in hRGCs and their precursor stem cells. We found that upon mitochondrial damage induced by the proton uncoupler carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP), hRGCs more efficiently degraded mitochondria than did their precursor stem cells. We further identified that for degrading damaged mitochondria, stem cells predominantly use the ubiquitine-proteasome system (UPS) while hRGCs use the endo-lysosomal pathway. UPS inhibition causes apoptosis and cell death in stem cells, while hRGC viability is dependent on the endo-lysosomal pathway but not on the UPS pathway. These findings suggest that manipulation of the endo-lysosomal pathway could be therapeutically relevant for RGC protection in treating optic neuropathies associated with mitophagy defects. Endo-lysosome dependent cell survival is also conserved in other human neurons as we found that differentiated human cerebral cortical neurons also degenerated upon endo-lysosomal inhibition but not with proteasome inhibition. Human retinal ganglion cells (hRGCs) degrade damaged mitochondria more efficiently than the origin stem cells. Human stem cells rely on the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) for damaged mitochondrial clearance and survival. hRGCs rely on the endo-lysosomal pathway for mitochondrial clearance and survival. Unlike stem cells, proteasomal inhibition did not cause severe cell death for hRGCs. Transition from the UPS to endo-lysosomal pathway during differentiation was also observed for cerebral cortical neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arupratan Das
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA.
| | - Claire M Bell
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA
| | - Cynthia A Berlinicke
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA
| | | | - Donald J Zack
- Department of Ophthalmology, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA; The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA; Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21231, USA.
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98
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Vonk WIM, Rainbolt TK, Dolan PT, Webb AE, Brunet A, Frydman J. Differentiation Drives Widespread Rewiring of the Neural Stem Cell Chaperone Network. Mol Cell 2020; 78:329-345.e9. [PMID: 32268122 PMCID: PMC7288733 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2020.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) are critical for continued cellular replacement in the adult brain. Lifelong maintenance of a functional NSPC pool necessitates stringent mechanisms to preserve a pristine proteome. We find that the NSPC chaperone network robustly maintains misfolded protein solubility and stress resilience through high levels of the ATP-dependent chaperonin TRiC/CCT. Strikingly, NSPC differentiation rewires the cellular chaperone network, reducing TRiC/CCT levels and inducing those of the ATP-independent small heat shock proteins (sHSPs). This switches the proteostasis strategy in neural progeny cells to promote sequestration of misfolded proteins into protective inclusions. The chaperone network of NSPCs is more effective than that of differentiated cells, leading to improved management of proteotoxic stress and amyloidogenic proteins. However, NSPC proteostasis is impaired by brain aging. The less efficient chaperone network of differentiated neural progeny may contribute to their enhanced susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases characterized by aberrant protein misfolding and aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - T Kelly Rainbolt
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Patrick T Dolan
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ashley E Webb
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Carney Institute for Brain Science, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA; Center on the Biology of Aging, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Anne Brunet
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Judith Frydman
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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99
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Thiruvalluvan A, de Mattos EP, Brunsting JF, Bakels R, Serlidaki D, Barazzuol L, Conforti P, Fatima A, Koyuncu S, Cattaneo E, Vilchez D, Bergink S, Boddeke EHWG, Copray S, Kampinga HH. DNAJB6, a Key Factor in Neuronal Sensitivity to Amyloidogenesis. Mol Cell 2020; 78:346-358.e9. [PMID: 32268123 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2020.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
CAG-repeat expansions in at least eight different genes cause neurodegeneration. The length of the extended polyglutamine stretches in the corresponding proteins is proportionally related to their aggregation propensity. Although these proteins are ubiquitously expressed, they predominantly cause toxicity to neurons. To understand this neuronal hypersensitivity, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 and Huntington's disease patients. iPSC generation and neuronal differentiation are unaffected by polyglutamine proteins and show no spontaneous aggregate formation. However, upon glutamate treatment, aggregates form in neurons but not in patient-derived neural progenitors. During differentiation, the chaperone network is drastically rewired, including loss of expression of the anti-amyloidogenic chaperone DNAJB6. Upregulation of DNAJB6 in neurons antagonizes glutamate-induced aggregation, while knockdown of DNAJB6 in progenitors results in spontaneous polyglutamine aggregation. Loss of DNAJB6 expression upon differentiation is confirmed in vivo, explaining why stem cells are intrinsically protected against amyloidogenesis and protein aggregates are dominantly present in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Thiruvalluvan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Eduardo P de Mattos
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jeanette F Brunsting
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rob Bakels
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Despina Serlidaki
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Lara Barazzuol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Paola Conforti
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Istituto Nazionale di Genetica Molecolare, Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Milan, Italy
| | - Azra Fatima
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Seda Koyuncu
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Elena Cattaneo
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Istituto Nazionale di Genetica Molecolare, Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Milan, Italy
| | - David Vilchez
- Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Steven Bergink
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Erik H W G Boddeke
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Sjef Copray
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Harm H Kampinga
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
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100
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Cell cycle-dependent localization of the proteasome to chromatin. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5801. [PMID: 32242037 PMCID: PMC7118148 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62697-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
An integrative understanding of nuclear events including transcription in normal and cancer cells requires comprehensive and quantitative measurement of protein dynamics that underlie such events. However, the low abundance of most nuclear proteins hampers their detailed functional characterization. We have now comprehensively quantified the abundance of nuclear proteins with the use of proteomics approaches in both normal and transformed human diploid fibroblasts. We found that subunits of the 26S proteasome complex were markedly down-regulated in the nuclear fraction of the transformed cells compared with that of the wild-type cells. The intranuclear proteasome abundance appeared to be inversely related to the rate of cell cycle progression, with restraint of the cell cycle being associated with an increase in the amount of proteasome subunits in the nucleus, suggesting that the nuclear proteasome content is dependent on the cell cycle. Furthermore, chromatin enrichment for proteomics (ChEP) analysis revealed enrichment of the proteasome in the chromatin fraction of quiescent cells and its apparent dissociation from chromatin in transformed cells. Our results thus suggest that translocation of the nuclear proteasome to chromatin may play an important role in control of the cell cycle and oncogenesis through regulation of chromatin-associated transcription factors.
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