Nuclear factor-κB1 controls the functional maturation of dendritic cells and prevents the activation of autoreactive T cells

Self-antigen presentation by dendritic cells in autoimmunity

The operation of both central and peripheral tolerance ensures the prevention of autoimmune diseases. The maintenance of peripheral tolerance requires self-antigen presentation by professional antigen presenting cells (APCs). Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered as major APCs involved in this process. The current review discusses the role of DCs in autoimmune diseases, the various factors involved in the induction and maintenance of tolerogenic DC phenotype, and pinpoints their therapeutic capacity as well as potential novel targets for future clinical studies.

Toso controls encephalitogenic immune responses by dendritic cells and regulatory T cells

The ability to mount a strong immune response against pathogens is crucial for mammalian survival. However, excessive and uncontrolled immune reactions can lead to autoimmunity. Unraveling how the reactive versus tolerogenic state is controlled might point toward novel therapeutic strategies to treat autoimmune diseases. The surface receptor Toso/Faim3 has been linked to apoptosis, IgM binding, and innate immune responses. In this study, we used Toso-deficient mice to investigate the importance of Toso in tolerance and autoimmunity. We found that Toso(-/-) mice do not develop severe experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model for the human disease multiple sclerosis. Toso(-/-) dendritic cells were less sensitive to Toll-like receptor stimulation and induced significantly lower levels of disease-associated inflammatory T-cell responses. Consistent with this observation, the transfer of Toso(-/-) dendritic cells did not induce autoimmune diabetes, indicating their tolerogenic potential. In Toso(-/-) mice subjected to EAE induction, we found increased numbers of regulatory T cells and decreased encephalitogenic cellular infiltrates in the brain. Finally, inhibition of Toso activity in vivo at either an early or late stage of EAE induction prevented further disease progression. Taken together, our data identify Toso as a unique regulator of inflammatory autoimmune responses and an attractive target for therapeutic intervention.

Combination of SLC administration and Tregs depletion is an attractive strategy for targeting hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine (SLC) is a key CC chemokine for chemotaxis of immune cells and has been an attractive candidate for anti-tumor treatments. However, among the immune cells recruited by SLC to tumors, the CD25⁺ Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) compromise the anti-tumor effects. In this study, we proposed the combination therapy of intratumoral co-administration of SLC and anti-CD25 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). We hypothesized that the intratumoral injections of SLC and depletion of Tregs would have stronger inhibition effects on the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in mice.

Methods

C57BL/6 mice were inoculated subcutaneously with the murine HCC cell line, and mice with visible tumors were treated intratumorally with SLC, SLC plus anti-CD25 mAbs or the control antibodies. The percentages of Tregs, effector CD8⁺ T cells and CD4⁺ T cells were checked in the tumors, lymph nodes, spleen and liver at regular intervals. The levels of intratumoral IL-12, IFN-γ, IL-10 and TGF-β1 were evaluated. The final anti-tumor effects were measured by the tumor volume and weight as well as the intratumoral activity of MMP2 and MMP9. Bone-marrow-derived dendritic cells were used to explore the mechanisms of maturation induced by SLC in vitro.

Results

Our experiments showed the combination therapy significantly decreased the frequency of Tregs, and increased CD8⁺ T cells and CD4⁺ T cells at tumor sites. These alterations were accompanied by an increased level of IL-12 and IFN-γ, and decreased level of IL-10 and TGF-β1. Unexpectedly, we observed a significantly decreased percentage of Tregs, and increased CD8⁺ T cells and CD4⁺ T cells in the lymph nodes, spleen and liver after the combination therapy. The growth and invasiveness of HCC was also maximally inhibited in the combination therapy compared with the SLC alone. Furthermore, we confirmed SLC induced the maturation of DCs via NF-κB p65 and this maturation would benefit the combination therapy.

Conclusions

Our data demonstrated that intratumoral co-administration of SLC and anti-CD25 mAbs was an effective treatment for HCC, which was correlated with the altered tumor microenvironment and systemically optimized percentages of Tregs, CD8⁺ T cells and CD4⁺ T cells in peripheral immune organs.

Psychobiotics: a novel class of psychotropic

Here, we define a psychobiotic as a live organism that, when ingested in adequate amounts, produces a health benefit in patients suffering from psychiatric illness. As a class of probiotic, these bacteria are capable of producing and delivering neuroactive substances such as gamma-aminobutyric acid and serotonin, which act on the brain-gut axis. Preclinical evaluation in rodents suggests that certain psychobiotics possess antidepressant or anxiolytic activity. Effects may be mediated via the vagus nerve, spinal cord, or neuroendocrine systems. So far, psychobiotics have been most extensively studied in a liaison psychiatric setting in patients with irritable bowel syndrome, where positive benefits have been reported for a number of organisms including Bifidobacterium infantis. Evidence is emerging of benefits in alleviating symptoms of depression and in chronic fatigue syndrome. Such benefits may be related to the anti-inflammatory actions of certain psychobiotics and a capacity to reduce hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Results from large scale placebo-controlled studies are awaited.

Molecular programming of steady-state dendritic cells: impact on autoimmunity and tumor immune surveillance

Dendritic cells are master regulators of immunity. Immature dendritic cells are essential for maintaining self-tolerance, while mature dendritic cells initiate a variety of specialized immune responses. Dendritic cell quiescence is often viewed as a default state that requires exogenous stimuli to induce maturation. However, recent studies have identified dendritic cell quiescence factors that actively program dendritic cells to an immature state. In the absence of these factors, dendritic cells spontaneously become immunogenic and can induce autoimmune responses. Herein we discuss two such factors, NF-κB1 and A20, that preserve dendritic cell immaturity through their regulation of NF-κB signaling. Loss of either of these factors increases dendritic cell immunogenicity, suggesting that they may be important targets for enhancing dendritic cell-based cancer immunotherapies. Alternatively, defects in molecules critical for maintaining steady-state DCs may provide novel biomarkers that identify patients who have enhanced natural antitumor immunity or that correlate with better responses to various immunotherapies.

Regulation of nuclear factor-κB in autoimmunity

Nuclear factor (NF)-κB transcription factors are pivotal regulators of innate and adaptive immune responses, and perturbations of NF-κB signaling contribute to the pathogenesis of immunological disorders. NF-κB is a well-known proinflammatory mediator, and its deregulated activation is associated with the chronic inflammation of autoimmune diseases. Paradoxically, NF-κB plays a crucial role in the establishment of immune tolerance, including both central tolerance and the peripheral function of regulatory T (Treg) cells. Thus, defective or deregulated activation of NF-κB may contribute to autoimmunity and inflammation, highlighting the importance of tightly controlled NF-κB signaling. This review focuses on recent progress regarding NF-κB regulation and its association with autoimmunity.

Molecular control of steady-state dendritic cell maturation and immune homeostasis

Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialized sentinels responsible for coordinating adaptive immunity. This function is dependent upon coupled sensitivity to environmental signs of inflammation and infection to cellular maturation-the programmed alteration of DC phenotype and function to enhance immune cell activation. Although DCs are thus well equipped to respond to pathogens, maturation triggers are not unique to infection. Given that immune cells are exquisitely sensitive to the biological functions of DCs, we now appreciate that multiple layers of suppression are required to restrict the environmental sensitivity, cellular maturation, and even life span of DCs to prevent aberrant immune activation during the steady state. At the same time, steady-state DCs are not quiescent but rather perform key functions that support homeostasis of numerous cell types. Here we review these functions and molecular mechanisms of suppression that control steady-state DC maturation. Corruption of these steady-state operatives has diverse immunological consequences and pinpoints DCs as potent drivers of autoimmune and inflammatory disease.

The p50 subunit of NF-κB orchestrates dendritic cell lifespan and activation of adaptive immunity

Dendritic cells play a central role in keeping the balance between immunity and immune tolerance. A key factor in this equilibrium is the lifespan of DC, as its reduction restrains antigen availability leading to termination of immune responses. Here we show that lipopolysaccharide-driven DC maturation is paralleled by increased nuclear levels of p50 NF-κB, an event associated with DC apoptosis. Lack of p50 in murine DC promoted increased lifespan, enhanced level of maturation associated with increased expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-18 and IFN-β, enhanced capacity of activating and expanding CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in vivo and decreased ability to induce differentiation of FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells. In agreement, vaccination of melanoma-bearing mice with antigen-pulsed LPS-treated p50^−/− BM-DC boosted antitumor immunity and inhibition of tumor growth. We propose that nuclear accumulation of the p50 NF-κB subunit in DC, as occurring during lipopolysaccharide-driven maturation, is a homeostatic mechanism tuning the balance between uncontrolled activation of adaptive immunity and immune tolerance.