Mitochondrial control by DRP1 in brain tumor initiating cells

ALKBH5 attenuates mitochondrial fission and ameliorates liver fibrosis by reducing Drp1 methylation

Mitochondrial metabolism plays a pivotal role in various cellular processes and fibrosis. However, the mechanism underlying mitochondrial metabolic function and liver fibrosis remains poorly understood. In this study, we determined whether mitochondrial metabolism mediates liver fibrosis using cells, animal models, and clinical samples to elucidate the potential effects and underlying mechanism of mitochondrial metabolism in liver fibrosis. We report that AlkB Homolog 5 (ALKBH5) decreases mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and oxygen consumption rate (OCR), suppresses mitochondrial fission and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) proliferation and migration and ameliorates liver fibrosis. Enhancement of mitochondrial fission, an essential event during HSC proliferation and migration, is dependent on decreased ALKBH5 expression. Furthermore, we reveal that low ALKBH5 expression is associated with elevated N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) mRNA levels. Mechanistically, ALKBH5 mediates m⁶A demethylation in the 3'UTR of Drp1 mRNA and induces its translation in a YTH domain family proteins 1 (YTHDF1)-independent manner. Subsequently, in transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) induced HSC, Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) mediates mitochondrial fission and increases cell proliferation and migration. Decreased Drp1 expression inhibits mitochondrial fission and suppresses HSC proliferation and migration. Notably, human fibrotic liver and heart tissue exhibited enhanced mitochondrial fission; increased YTHDF1, Drp1, alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen I expression; decreased ALKBH5 expression and increased liver fibrosis. Our results highlight a novel mechanism by which ALKBH5 suppresses mitochondrial fission and HSC proliferation and migration by reducing Drp1 methylation in an m⁶A-YTHDF1-dependent manner, which may indicate a demethylation-based approach for liver fibrosis diagnosis and therapy.

An Overview: The Diversified Role of Mitochondria in Cancer Metabolism

Mitochondria are intracellular organelles involved in energy production, cell metabolism and cell signaling. They are essential not only in the process of ATP synthesis, lipid metabolism and nucleic acid metabolism, but also in tumor development and metastasis. Mutations in mtDNA are commonly found in cancer cells to promote the rewiring of bioenergetics and biosynthesis, various metabolites especially oncometabolites in mitochondria regulate tumor metabolism and progression. And mutation of enzymes in the TCA cycle leads to the unusual accumulation of certain metabolites and oncometabolites. Mitochondria have been demonstrated as the target for cancer treatment. Cancer cells rely on two main energy resources: oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and glycolysis. By manipulating OXPHOS genes or adjusting the metabolites production in mitochondria, tumor growth can be restrained. For example, enhanced complex I activity increases NAD⁺/NADH to prevent metastasis and progression of cancers. In this review, we discussed mitochondrial function in cancer cell metabolism and specially explored the unique role of mitochondria in cancer stem cells and the tumor microenvironment. Targeting the OXPHOS pathway and mitochondria-related metabolism emerging as a potential therapeutic strategy for various cancers.

CENP-F-dependent DRP1 function regulates APC/C activity during oocyte meiosis I

Chromosome segregation is initiated by cohesin degradation, which is driven by anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). Chromosome cohesin is removed by activated separase, with the degradation of securin and cyclinB1. Dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1), a component of the mitochondrial fission machinery, is related to cyclin dynamics in mitosis progression. Here, we show that DRP1 is recruited to the kinetochore by centromeric Centromere protein F (CENP-F) after nuclear envelope breakdown in mouse oocytes. Loss of DRP1 during prometaphase leads to premature cohesin degradation and chromosome segregation. Importantly, acute DRP1 depletion activates separase by initiating cyclinB1 and securin degradation during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. Finally, we demonstrate that DRP1 is bound to APC2 to restrain the E3 ligase activity of APC/C. In conclusion, DRP1 is a CENP-F-dependent atypical spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) protein that modulates metaphase-to-anaphase transition by controlling APC/C activity during meiosis I in oocytes.

Targeting CRL4 suppresses chemoresistant ovarian cancer growth by inducing mitophagy

Chemoresistance has long been the bottleneck of ovarian cancer (OC) prognosis. It has been shown that mitochondria play a crucial role in cell response to chemotherapy and that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics is intricately linked with diseases like OC, but the underlying mechanisms remain equivocal. Here, we demonstrate a new mechanism where CRL4^CUL4A/DDB1 manipulates OC cell chemoresistance by regulating mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. CRL4^CUL4A/DDB1 depletion enhanced mitochondrial fission by upregulating AMPKα^Thr172 and MFF^{Ser172/Ser146} phosphorylation, which in turn recruited DRP1 to mitochondria. CRL4^CUL4A/DDB1 loss stimulated mitophagy through the Parkin-PINK1 pathway to degrade the dysfunctional and fragmented mitochondria. Importantly, CRL4^CUL4A/DDB1 loss inhibited OC cell proliferation, whereas inhibiting autophagy partially reversed this disruption. Our findings provide novel insight into the multifaceted function of the CRL4 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex in regulating mitochondrial fission, mitophagy, and OC chemoresistance. Disruption of CRL4^CUL4A/DDB1 and mitophagy may be a promising therapeutic strategy to overcome chemoresistance in OC.

Hubbing the Cancer Cell

Oncogenic transformation drives adaptive changes in a growing tumor that affect the cellular organization of cancerous cells, resulting in the loss of specialized cellular functions in the polarized compartmentalization of cells. The resulting altered metabolic and morphological patterns are used clinically as diagnostic markers. This review recapitulates the known functions of actin, microtubules and the γ-tubulin meshwork in orchestrating cell metabolism and functional cellular asymmetry.

Mitophagy: A novel perspective for insighting into cancer and cancer treatment

BACKGROUND

Mitophagy refers to the selective self-elimination of mitochondria under damaged or certain developmental conditions. As an important regulatory mechanism to remove damaged mitochondria and maintain the internal and external cellular balance, mitophagy plays pivotal roles in carcinogenesis and progression as well as treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Here, we combined data from recent years to comprehensively describe the regulatory mechanisms of mitophagy and its multifaceted significance in cancer, and discusse the potential of targeted mitophagy as a cancer treatment strategy.

RESULTS

The molecular mechanisms regulating mitophagy are complex, diverse, and cross-talk. Inducing or blocking mitophagy has the same or completely different effects in different cancer contexts. Mitophagy plays an indispensable role in regulating cancer metabolic reprogramming, cell stemness, and chemotherapy resistance for better adaptation to tumor microenvironment. In cancer cell biology, mitophagy is considered to be a double-edged sword. And to fully understand the role of mitophagy in cancer development can provide new targets for cancer treatment in clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

This review synthesizes a large body of data to comprehensively describe the molecular mechanisms of mitophagy and its multidimensional significance in cancer and cancer treatment, which will undoubtedly deepen the understanding of mitophagy.

Identification of SSBP1 as a ferroptosis-related biomarker of glioblastoma based on a novel mitochondria-related gene risk model and in vitro experiments

Background

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor that leads to lethality. Several studies have demonstrated that mitochondria play an important role in GBM and that mitochondria-related genes (MRGs) are potential therapeutic targets. However, the role of MRGs in GBM remains unclear.

Methods

Differential expression and univariate Cox regression analyses were combined to screen for prognostic differentially-expressed (DE)-MRGs in GBM. Based on LASSO Cox analysis, 12 DE-MRGs were selected to construct a risk score model. Survival, time dependent ROC, and stratified analyses were performed to evaluate the performance of this risk model. Mutation and functional enrichment analyses were performed to determine the potential mechanism of the risk score. Immune cell infiltration analysis was used to determine the association between the risk score and immune cell infiltration levels. CCK-8 and transwell assays were performed to evaluate cell proliferation and migration, respectively. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and morphology were measured using a confocal laser scanning microscope. Genes and proteins expression levels were investigated by quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively.

Results

We identified 21 prognostic DE-MRGs, of which 12 DE-MRGs were selected to construct a prognostic risk score model for GBM. This model presented excellent performance in predicting the prognosis of patients with GBM and acted as an independent predictive factor. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that the risk score was enriched in the inflammatory response, extracellular matrix, and pro-cancer-related and immune related pathways. Additionally, the risk score was significantly associated with gene mutations and immune cell infiltration in GBM. Single-stranded DNA-binding protein 1 (SSBP1) was considerably upregulated in GBM and associated with poor prognosis. Furthermore, SSBP1 knockdown inhibited GBM cell progression and migration. Mechanistically, SSBP1 knockdown resulted in mitochondrial dysfunction and increased ROS levels, which, in turn, increased temozolomide (TMZ) sensitivity in GBM cells by enhancing ferroptosis.

Conclusion

Our 12 DE-MRGs-based prognostic model can predict the GBM patients prognosis and 12 MRGs are potential targets for the treatment of GBM. SSBP1 was significantly upregulated in GBM and protected U87 cells from TMZ-induced ferroptosis, which could serve as a prognostic and therapeutic target/biomarker for GBM.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03657-4.

β2-Microglobulin Maintains Glioblastoma Stem Cells and Induces M2-like Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a complex ecosystem that includes a heterogeneous tumor population and the tumor-immune microenvironment (TIME), prominently containing tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) and microglia. Here, we demonstrated that β2-microglobulin (B2M), a subunit of the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I), promotes the maintenance of stem-like neoplastic populations and reprograms the TIME to an anti-inflammatory, tumor-promoting state. B2M activated PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling by interacting with PIP5K1A in GBM stem cells (GSC) and promoting MYC-induced secretion of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1). Inhibition of B2M attenuated GSC survival, self-renewal, and tumor growth. B2M-induced TGFβ1 secretion activated paracrine SMAD and PI3K/AKT signaling in TAMs and promoted an M2-like macrophage phenotype. These findings reveal tumor-promoting functions of B2M and suggest that targeting B2M or its downstream axis may provide an effective approach for treating GBM.

SIGNIFICANCE

β2-microglobulin signaling in glioblastoma cells activates a PI3K/AKT/MYC/TGFβ1 axis that maintains stem cells and induces M2-like macrophage polarization, highlighting potential therapeutic strategies for targeting tumor cells and the immunosuppressive microenvironment in glioblastoma.

Mitochondrial fragmentation in liver cancer: Emerging player and promising therapeutic opportunities

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Enhanced mitochondrial fragmentation (MF) is associated with poor prognosis in HCC patients. However, its molecular mechanism in HCC remains elusive. Although enhanced MF activates effector T cells and dendritic cells, it induces immunoescape by decreasing the number and cytotoxicity of natural killer cells in the HCC immune microenvironment. Therefore, the influence of MF on the activity of different immune cells is a great challenge. Enhanced MF contributes to maintaining stemness by promoting the asymmetric division of liver cancer stem cells (LCSCs), suggesting that MF may become a potential target for HCC recurrence, metastasis, and chemotherapy resistance. Moreover, mechanistic studies suggest that MF may promote tumour progression through autophagy, oxidative stress, and metabolic reprogramming. Human-induced hepatocyte organoids are a recently developed system that can be genetically manipulated to mimic cancer initiation and identify potential preventive treatments. We can use it to screen MF-related candidate inhibitors of HCC progression and further explore the role of MF in hepatocarcinogenesis. We herein describe the mechanisms by which MF contributes to HCC development, discuss potential therapeutic approaches, and highlight the possibility that MF modulation has a synergistic effect with immunotherapy.

Impairment of Neuronal Mitochondrial Quality Control in Prion-Induced Neurodegeneration

Mitochondrial dynamics continually maintain cell survival and bioenergetics through mitochondrial quality control processes (fission, fusion, and mitophagy). Aberrant mitochondrial quality control has been implicated in the pathogenic mechanism of various human diseases, including cancer, cardiac dysfunction, and neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and prion disease. However, the mitochondrial dysfunction-mediated neuropathological mechanisms in prion disease are still uncertain. Here, we used both in vitro and in vivo scrapie-infected models to investigate the involvement of mitochondrial quality control in prion pathogenesis. We found that scrapie infection led to the induction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), resulting in enhanced phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) at Ser616 and its subsequent translocation to the mitochondria, which was followed by excessive mitophagy. We also confirmed decreased expression levels of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complexes and reduced ATP production by scrapie infection. In addition, scrapie-infection-induced aberrant mitochondrial fission and mitophagy led to increased apoptotic signaling, as evidenced by caspase 3 activation and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. These results suggest that scrapie infection induced mitochondrial dysfunction via impaired mitochondrial quality control processes followed by neuronal cell death, which may have an important role in the neuropathogenesis of prion diseases.

Off the Clock: the Non-canonical Roles of Cyclin-Dependent Kinases in Neural and Glioma Stem Cell Self-Renewal

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) are thought to drive growth and therapy resistance in glioblastoma (GBM) by "hijacking" at least a subset of signaling pathways active in normal neural stem cells (NSCs). Though the origins of GSCs still remain elusive, uncovering the mechanisms of self-renewing division and cell differentiation in normal NSCs has shed light on their dysfunction in GSCs. However, the distinction between self-renewing division pathways utilized by NSC and GSC becomes critical when considering options for therapeutically targeting signaling pathways that are specifically active or altered in GSCs. It is well-established that cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) regulate the cell cycle, yet more recent studies have shown that CDKs also play important roles in the regulation of neuronal survival, metabolism, differentiation, and self-renewal. The intimate relationship between cell cycle regulation and the cellular programs that determine self-renewing division versus cell differentiation is only beginning to be understood, yet seems to suggest potential differential vulnerabilities in GSCs. In this timely review, we focus on the role of CDKs in regulating the self-renewal properties of normal NSCs and GSCs, highlighting novel opportunities to therapeutically target self-renewing signaling pathways specifically in GBM.

Oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial fission promotes hepatic stellate cell activation via stimulating oxidative phosphorylation

Previous studies have demonstrated dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics in fibrotic livers and hepatocytes. Little is currently known about how mitochondrial dynamics are involved, nor is it clear how mitochondrial dynamics participate in hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. In the present study, we investigated the role of mitochondrial dynamics in HSC activation and the underlying mechanisms. We verified that mitochondrial fission was enhanced in human and mouse fibrotic livers and active HSCs. Moreover, increased mitochondrial fission driven by fis1 overexpression could promote HSC activation. Inhibiting mitochondrial fission using mitochondrial fission inhibitor-1 (Mdivi-1) could inhibit activation and induce apoptosis of active HSCs, indicating that increased mitochondrial fission is essential for HSC activation. Mdivi-1 treatment also induced apoptosis in active HSCs in vivo and thus ameliorated CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis. We also found that oxidative phosphorylation (OxPhos) was increased in active HSCs, and OxPhos inhibitors inhibited activation and induced apoptosis in active HSCs. Moreover, increasing mitochondrial fission upregulated OxPhos, while inhibiting mitochondrial fission downregulated OxPhos, suggesting that mitochondrial fission stimulates OxPhos during HSC activation. Next, we found that inhibition of oxidative stress using mitoquinone mesylate (mitoQ) and Tempol inhibited mitochondrial fission and OxPhos and induced apoptosis in active HSCs, suggesting that oxidative stress contributes to excessive mitochondrial fission during HSC activation. In conclusion, our study revealed that oxidative stress contributes to enhanced mitochondrial fission, which triggers OxPhos during HSC activation. Importantly, inhibiting mitochondrial fission has huge prospects for alleviating liver fibrosis by eliminating active HSCs.

The role of Cdk5 in neurological disorders

Neurological disorders are a group of disorders with motor, sensory or cognitive damage, caused by dysfunction of the central or peripheral nervous system. Cyclin-dependent kinases 5 (Cdk5) is of vital significance for the development of the nervous system, including the migration and differentiation of neurons, the formation of synapses, and axon regeneration. However, when the nervous system is subject to pathological stimulation, aberrant activation of Cdk5 will induce abnormal phosphorylation of a variety of substrates, resulting in a cascade signaling pathway, and thus lead to pathological changes. Cdk5 is intimately related to the pathological mechanism of a variety of neurological disorders, such as A-β protein formation in Alzheimer’s disease, mitochondrial fragmentation in cerebral ischemia, and apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease. It is worth noting that Cdk5 inhibitors have been reported to have neuroprotective effects by inhibiting related pathological processes. Therefore, in this review, we will briefly introduce the physiological and pathological mechanisms of Cdk5 in the nervous system, focusing on the recent advances of Cdk5 in neurological disorders and the prospect of targeted Cdk5 for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Super-Resolution Quantification of T2DM-Induced Mitochondrial Morphology Changes and Their Implications in Pharmacodynamics of Metformin and Sorafenib

Mitochondria, as the powerhouse of cells, are involved in various processes of cellular homeostasis, especially energy metabolism. The morphology of mitochondria is a critical indicator for their functions, referring to mitochondrial fusion and fission. Here, we performed structured illumination microscopy (SIM) to measure the mitochondrial morphology in living cells. Benefitting from its nano-scale resolution, this SIM-based strategy can quantify the fusion and fission of mitochondria with high sensitivity. Furthermore, as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is caused by a disorder of energy substrate utilization, this strategy has the potential to study T2DM by analyzing the mitochondrial morphology of insulin-resistant (IR) cells. With SIM, we found that mitochondrial fission was increased in IR MRC-5, LO2, FHs 74 Int, and HepG2 cells but not in IR Huh7 cells with high-invasiveness ability. Furthermore, we found that metformin could inhibit mitochondrial fission in IR cells, and sorafenib could promote mitochondrial fusion in HepG2 cancer cells, especially in those IR cells. To conclude, mitochondrial fission is involved in T2DM, and cancer cells with high-invasiveness ability may be equipped with stronger resistance to energy metabolism disorder. In addition, the pharmacodynamics of metformin and sorafenib in cancer may be related to the inhibition of mitochondrial fission, especially for patients with T2DM.

Mitochondrial Elongation and OPA1 Play Crucial Roles during the Stemness Acquisition Process in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Simple Summary

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly lethal neoplasia and the currently used treatments are not effective in a wide range of patients. Presently, the evidence points out that cancer stem cells (CSCs) are key players during tumor development, metastasis, chemoresistance, and tumor relapse. The study of the metabolism of CSCs, specifically the mitochondrial alterations, could pave the way to the discovery of new therapeutical targets. In this study, we show that during progressive de-differentiation, pancreatic CSCs undergo changes in mitochondrial mass, dynamics, and function. Interestingly, the silencing of OPA1, a protein involved in mitochondrial fusion, significantly inhibits the formation of CSCs. These results reveal new insight into mitochondria and stemness acquisition that could be useful for the design of novel potential therapies in PDAC.

Abstract

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the most common type of pancreatic cancer with an overall 5-year survival rate of less than 9%. The high aggressiveness of PDAC is linked to the presence of a subpopulation of cancer cells with a greater tumorigenic capacity, generically called cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSCs present a heterogeneous metabolic profile that might be supported by an adaptation of mitochondrial function; however, the role of this organelle in the development and maintenance of CSCs remains controversial. To determine the role of mitochondria in CSCs over longer periods, which may reflect more accurately their quiescent state, we studied the mitochondrial physiology in CSCs at short-, medium-, and long-term culture periods. We found that CSCs show a significant increase in mitochondrial mass, more mitochondrial fusion, and higher mRNA expression of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis than parental cells. These changes are accompanied by a regulation of the activities of OXPHOS complexes II and IV. Furthermore, the protein OPA1, which is involved in mitochondrial dynamics, is overexpressed in CSCs and modulates the tumorsphere formation. Our findings indicate that CSCs undergo mitochondrial remodeling during the stemness acquisition process, which could be exploited as a promising therapeutic target against pancreatic CSCs.

Mitochondrial fission induces immunoescape in solid tumors through decreasing MHC-I surface expression

Mitochondrial dynamics can regulate Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)-I antigen expression by cancer cells and their immunogenicity in mice and in patients with malignancies. A crucial role in the mitochondrial fragmentation connection with immunogenicity is played by the IRE1α-XBP-1s axis. XBP-1s is a transcription factor for aminopeptidase TPP2, which inhibits MHC-I complex cell surface expression likely by degrading tumor antigen peptides. Mitochondrial fission inhibition with Mdivi-1 upregulates MHC-I expression on cancer cells and enhances the efficacy of adoptive T cell therapy in patient-derived tumor models. Therefore mitochondrial fission inhibition might provide an approach to enhance the efficacy of T cell-based immunotherapy.

Biomarkers of mitochondrial origin: a futuristic cancer diagnostic

Cancer is a highly fatal disease without effective early-stage diagnosis and proper treatment. Along with the oncoproteins and oncometabolites, several organelles from cancerous cells are also emerging as potential biomarkers. Mitochondria isolated from cancer cells are one such biomarker candidates. Cancerous mitochondria exhibit different profiles compared with normal ones in morphology, genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolic landscape. Here, the possibilities of exploring such characteristics as potential biomarkers through single-cell omics and Artificial Intelligence (AI) are discussed. Furthermore, the prospects of exploiting the biomarker-based diagnosis and its futuristic utilization through circulatory tumor cell technology are analyzed. A successful alliance of circulatory tumor cell isolation protocols and a single-cell omics platform can emerge as a next-generation diagnosis and personalized treatment procedure.

Overexpression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A promotes mitochondrial fusion and differentiation of glioblastoma stem cells

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) are self-renewing tumor cells with multi-lineage differentiation potential and the capacity of construct glioblastoma (GBM) heterogenicity. Mitochondrial morphology is associated with the metabolic plasticity of GBM cells. Previous studies have revealed distinct mitochondrial morphologies and metabolic phenotypes between GSCs and non-stem tumor cells (NSTCs), whereas the molecules regulating mitochondrial dynamics in GBM cells are largely unknown. Herein, we report that carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A) is preferentially expressed in NSTCs, and governs mitochondrial dynamics and GSC differentiation. Expressions of CPT1A and GSC marker CD133 were mutually exclusive in human GBMs. Overexpression of CPT1A inhibited GSC self-renewal but promoted mitochondrial fusion. In contrast, disruption of CPT1A in NSTCs promoted mitochondrial fission and reprogrammed NSTCs toward GSC feature. Mechanistically, CPT1A overexpression increased the phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein 1 at Ser-637 to promote mitochondrial fusion. In vivo, CPT1A overexpression decreased the percentage of GSCs, impaired GSC-derived xenograft growth and prolonged tumor-bearing mice survival. Our work identified CPT1A as a critical regulator of mitochondrial dynamics and GSC differentiation, indicating that CPT1A could be developed as a molecular target for GBM cell-differentiation strategy.

Targeting HOTAIRM1 Ameliorates Glioblastoma by Disrupting Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation and Serine Metabolism

Serine hydroxymethyltransferase 2 (SHMT2), which catalyzes the conversion of serine to glycine and one-carbon transfer reactions in mitochondria, is significantly upregulated in glioblastoma (GBM). However, the mechanism by which the stability of SHMT2 gene expression is maintained to drive GBM tumorigenesis has not been clarified. Herein, through microarray screening, we identified that HOXA Transcript Antisense RNA, Myeloid-Specific 1 (HOTAIRM1) modulates the SHMT2 level in various GBM cell lines. Serine catabolism and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation activities were decreased by HOTAIRM1 inhibition. Mechanistically, according to our mass spectrometry and eCLIP-seq results, HOTAIRM1 can bind to PTBP1 and IGF2BP2. Furthermore, HOTAIRM1 maintains the stability of SHMT2 by promoting the recognition of an m⁶A site and the interaction of PTBP1/IGF2BP2 with SHMT2 mRNA. The stability of HOTAIRM1 can also be enhanced and results in positive feedback regulation to support the progression of GBM. Thus, targeting HOTAIRM1 could be a promising metabolic therapy for GBM.

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HOTAIRM1 regulates mitochondrial activity in GBM

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The target genes of HOTAIRM1 and the interacting RBPs were screened and identified

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SHMT2 mRNA has an m⁶A site that can be recognized by IGF2BP2

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HOTAIRM1 regulates the stability of SHMT2 by binding to PTBP1 and IGF2BP2

FUNDC2 promotes liver tumorigenesis by inhibiting MFN1-mediated mitochondrial fusion

Mitochondria generate ATP and play regulatory roles in various cellular activities. Cancer cells often exhibit fragmented mitochondria. However, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here we report that a mitochondrial protein FUN14 domain containing 2 (FUNDC2) is transcriptionally upregulated in primary mouse liver tumors, and in approximately 40% of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Importantly, elevated FUNDC2 expression inversely correlates with patient survival, and its knockdown inhibits liver tumorigenesis in mice. Mechanistically, the amino-terminal region of FUNDC2 interacts with the GTPase domain of mitofusin 1 (MFN1), thus inhibits its activity in promoting fusion of outer mitochondrial membrane. As a result, loss of FUNDC2 leads to mitochondrial elongation, decreased mitochondrial respiration, and reprogrammed cellular metabolism. These results identified a mechanism of mitochondrial fragmentation in cancer through MFN1 inhibition by FUNDC2, and suggested FUNDC2 as a potential therapeutic target of HCC.

Fragmented mitochondria are a frequent hallmark of cancer, but the cause and consequence are less clear. The authors demonstrate that elevated FUNDC2 causes mitochondrial fragmentation through inhibition of MFN1 in hepatocellular carcinoma and that knockdown of FUNDC2 inhibits liver tumorigenesis in mice.

Protein phosphatase 2A-B56γ-Drp1-Rab7 signaling axis regulates mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk to sensitize the anti-cancer therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

Mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk is an intercellular communication platform regulating mitochondrial quality control (MQC). Activated dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with phosphorylation at serine 616 (p-Drp1^Ser616) plays a critical role in mitophagy-dependent cell survival and anti-cancer therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the underlying mechanisms that p-Drp1^Ser616 involved in regulating mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk and mediating anti-HCC therapy remain unknown. HCC cells and mouse xenograft models were conducted to evaluate the relationship between p-Drp1^Ser616 and Ras-associated protein 7 (Rab7) and the underlying mechanism by protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-B56γ regulating mitophagy via dephosphorylation of p-Drp1^Ser616 in HCC. Herein, we found that Drp1 was frequently upregulated and was associated with poor prognosis in HCC. Mitochondrial p-Drp1^Ser616 was a novel inter-organelle tethering protein localized to mitochondrion and lysosome membrane contact sites (MCSs) via interaction with Rab7 to trigger an increase in the mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk, resulting in PINK1-Parkin-dependent mitophagy and anti-apoptosis in HCC cells under the treatment of chemotherapy drugs. Moreover, we demonstrate that B56γ-mediated direct dephosphorylation of p-Drp1^Ser616 inhibited mitophagy and thus increased mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. Overall, our findings demonstrated that activation of B56γ sensitizes the anti-cancer effect of HCC chemoprevention via dephosphorylated regulation of p-Drp1^Ser616 in inhibiting the interaction between p-Drp1^Ser616 and Rab7, which may provide a novel mechanism underlying the theranostics for targeting intervention in HCC.

DRP1 levels determine the apoptotic threshold during embryonic differentiation through a mitophagy-dependent mechanism

The changes that drive differentiation facilitate the emergence of abnormal cells that need to be removed before they contribute to further development or the germline. Consequently, in mice in the lead-up to gastrulation, ∼35% of embryonic cells are eliminated. This elimination is caused by hypersensitivity to apoptosis, but how it is regulated is poorly understood. Here, we show that upon exit of naive pluripotency, mouse embryonic stem cells lower their mitochondrial apoptotic threshold, and this increases their sensitivity to cell death. We demonstrate that this enhanced apoptotic response is induced by a decrease in mitochondrial fission due to a reduction in the activity of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1). Furthermore, we show that in naive pluripotent cells, DRP1 prevents apoptosis by promoting mitophagy. In contrast, during differentiation, reduced mitophagy levels facilitate apoptosis. Together, these results indicate that during early mammalian development, DRP1 regulation of mitophagy determines the apoptotic response.

Drp1 Regulated Mitochondrial Hypofission Promotes the Invasion and Proliferation of Growth Hormone-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas via Activating STAT3

The invasiveness and high proliferation rate of growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas (GHPAs) are closely related to poor prognosis in patients. We previously reported that abnormal glycolysis participates in this process; however, the role of mitochondria in the invasion and proliferation of GHPAs remains unknown. In the current study, stereological methods were first used to quantitatively calculate the number and morphology of mitochondria. The results revealed that the numbers, volumes and membrane areas of mitochondria were decreased in invasive GHPAs (IGHPAs) samples compared to noninvasive GHPAs (NIGHPAs) samples. Furthermore, significantly downregulated mRNA and protein levels of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) were detected in IGHPAs, but no notable changes in fusion related molecules (Mfn1, Mfn2 and OPA1) were detected, suggesting that the abnormal mitochondrial dynamics in IGHPAs are characterized by hypofission. Mitochondrial hypofission caused by Mdivi-1, a specific Drp1 inhibitor, enhanced the invasion and proliferation of GH3 cell lines and primary cells from patients with GHPAs in vitro and in vivo, while overexpression of Drp1 reversed these processes. Mechanistically, mitochondrial hypofission might activate signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Specifically, elevated nuclear pSTAT3^Y705 may promote GH3 cell invasion by upregulating the activity of matrix metalloproteinase 2/9, and elevated mitochondrial pSTAT3^S727 may promote GH3 cell proliferation by inhibiting the mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway. Taken together, our findings suggest that mitochondrial hypofission induced by Drp1 might strengthen the invasion and proliferation of GHPA tumor cells by activating STAT3, providing us with a new perspective on how mitochondria regulate the development of IGHPAs.

Impact of Drp1-Mediated Mitochondrial Dynamics on T Cell Immune Modulation

In recent years, various breakthroughs have been made in tumor immunotherapy that have contributed to prolonging the survival of tumor patients. However, only a subset of patients respond to immunotherapy, which limits its use. One reason for this is that the tumor microenvironment (TME) hinders the migration and infiltration of T cells and affects their continuous functioning, resulting in an exhausted phenotype. Therefore, clarifying the mechanism by which T cells become exhausted is of significance for improving the efficacy of immunotherapy. Several recent studies have shown that mitochondrial dynamics play an important role in the immune surveillance function of T cells. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is a key protein that mediates mitochondrial fission and maintains the mitochondrial dynamic network. Drp1 regulates various activities of T cells in vivo by mediating the activation of a series of pathways. In addition, abnormal mitochondrial dynamics were observed in exhausted T cells in the TME. As a potential target for immunotherapy, in this review, we describe in detail how Drp1 regulates various physiological functions of T cells and induces changes in mitochondrial dynamics in the TME, providing a theoretical basis for further research.

The Interplay of Microtubules with Mitochondria–ER Contact Sites (MERCs) in Glioblastoma

Gliomas are heterogeneous neoplasms, classified into grade I to IV according to their malignancy and the presence of specific histological/molecular hallmarks. The higher grade of glioma is known as glioblastoma (GB). Although progress has been made in surgical and radiation treatments, its clinical outcome is still unfavorable. The invasive properties of GB cells and glioma aggressiveness are linked to the reshaping of the cytoskeleton. Recent works suggest that the different susceptibility of GB cells to antitumor immune response is also associated with the extent and function of mitochondria–ER contact sites (MERCs). The presence of MERCs alterations could also explain the mitochondrial defects observed in GB models, including abnormalities of energy metabolism and disruption of apoptotic and calcium signaling. Based on this evidence, the question arises as to whether a MERCs–cytoskeleton crosstalk exists, and whether GB progression is linked to an altered cytoskeleton–MERCs interaction. To address this possibility, in this review we performed a meta-analysis to compare grade I and grade IV GB patients. From this preliminary analysis, we found that GB samples (grade IV) are characterized by altered expression of cytoskeletal and MERCs related genes. Among them, the cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 (CKAP4 or CLIMP-63) appears particularly interesting as it encodes a MERCs protein controlling the ER anchoring to microtubules (MTs). Although further in-depth analyses remain necessary, this perspective review may provide new hints to better understand GB molecular etiopathogenesis, by suggesting that cytoskeletal and MERCs alterations cooperate to exacerbate the cellular phenotype of high-grade GB and that MERCs players can be exploited as novel biomarkers/targets to enhance the current therapy for GB.

Metformin Protects Against Diabetes-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction by Inhibiting Mitochondrial Fission Protein DRP1

Objectives: Diabetes is an independent risk factor for dementia. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a critical player in diabetes and diabetic complications. The present study aimed to investigate the role of mitochondrial dynamic changes in diabetes-associated cognitive impairment.

Methods: Cognitive functions were examined by novel object recognition and T-maze tests. Mice hippocampi were collected for electron microscopy and immunofluorescence examination. Neuron cell line HT22 and primary hippocampal neurons were challenged with high glucose in vitro. Mitotracker-Red CM-H2X ROS was used to detect mitochondrial-derived free radicals.

Results: Diabetic mice exhibited memory loss and spatial disorientation. Electron microscopy revealed that diabetic mice had larger synaptic gaps, attenuated postsynaptic density and fewer dendritic spines in the hippocampus. More round-shape mitochondria were observed in hippocampal neurons in diabetic mice than those in control mice. In cultured neurons, high glucose induced a high phosphorylated level of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) and increased oxidative stress, resulting in cell apoptosis. Inhibition of mitochondrial fission by Mdivi-1 and metformin significantly decreased oxidative stress and prevented cell apoptosis in cultured cells. Treatment of Mdivi-1 and metformin restored cognitive function in diabetic mice.

Conclusion: Metformin restores cognitive function by inhibiting mitochondrial fission, reducing mitochondrial-derived oxidative stress, and mitigating neuron loss in hippocampi of diabetic mice. The protective effects of metformin shed light on the therapeutic strategy of cognitive impairment.

Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Mitochondrial Reprogramming in Cancer

Simple Summary

Mitochondria are important organelles involved in several key cellular processes including energy production and cell death regulation. For this reason, it is unsurprising that mitochondrial function and structure are altered in several pathological states including cancer. Cancer cells present variate strategies to generate sufficient energy to sustain their high proliferation rates. These adaptative strategies can be mediated by extracellular signals such as extracellular vesicles. These vesicles can alter recipient cellular behavior by delivering their molecular cargo. This review explores the different EV-mediated mitochondrial reprogramming mechanisms supporting cancer survival and progression.

Abstract

Altered metabolism is a defining hallmark of cancer. Metabolic adaptations are often linked to a reprogramming of the mitochondria due to the importance of these organelles in energy production and biosynthesis. Cancer cells present heterogeneous metabolic phenotypes that can be modulated by signals originating from the tumor microenvironment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are recognized as key players in intercellular communications and mediate many of the hallmarks of cancer via the delivery of their diverse biological cargo molecules. Firstly, this review introduces the most characteristic changes that the EV-biogenesis machinery and mitochondria undergo in the context of cancer. Then, it focuses on the EV-driven processes which alter mitochondrial structure, composition, and function to provide a survival advantage to cancer cells in the context of the hallmarks of cancers, such as altered metabolic strategies, migration and invasiveness, immune surveillance escape, and evasion of apoptosis. Finally, it explores the as yet untapped potential of targeting mitochondria using EVs as delivery vectors as a promising cancer therapeutic strategy.

BMI1 Silencing Induces Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Lung Epithelial Cells Exposed to Hyperoxia

Acute Lung Injury (ALI), characterized by bilateral pulmonary infiltrates that restrict gas exchange, leads to respiratory failure. It is caused by an innate immune response with white blood cell infiltration of the lungs, release of cytokines, an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial function. Mitochondrial alterations, changes in respiration, ATP production and the unbalancing fusion and fission processes are key events in ALI pathogenesis and increase mitophagy. Research indicates that BMI1 (B cell-specific Moloney murine leukemia virus integration site 1), a protein of the Polycomb repressive complex 1, is a cell cycle and survival regulator that plays a role in mitochondrial function. BMI1-silenced cultured lung epithelial cells were exposed to hyperoxia to determine the role of BMI1 in mitochondrial metabolism. Its expression significantly decreases in human lung epithelial cells (H441) following hyperoxic insult, as determined by western blot, Qrt-PCR, and functional analysis. This decrease correlates with an increase in mitophagy proteins, PINK1, Parkin, and DJ1; an increase in the expression of tumor suppressor PTEN; changes in the expression of mitochondrial biomarkers; and decreases in the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and tricarboxylic acid enzyme activity. Our bioinformatics analysis suggested that the BMI1 multifunctionality is determined by its high level of intrinsic disorder that defines the ability of this protein to bind to numerous cellular partners. These results demonstrate a close relationship between BMI1 expression and mitochondrial health in hyperoxia-induced acute lung injury (HALI) and indicate that BMI1 is a potential therapeutic target to treat ALI and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.

Drp1-Mediated Mitochondrial Metabolic Dysfunction Inhibits the Tumor Growth of Pituitary Adenomas

Metabolic changes have been suggested to be a hallmark of tumors and are closely associated with tumorigenesis. In a previous study, we demonstrated the role of lactate dehydrogenase in regulating abnormal glucose metabolism in pituitary adenomas (PA). As the key organelle of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), mitochondria play a vital role in the energy supply for tumor cells. However, few attempts have been made to elucidate mitochondrial metabolic homeostasis in PA. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is a member of the dynamin superfamily of GTPases, which mediates mitochondrial fission. This study is aimed at investigating whether Drp1 affects the progression of PA through abnormal mitochondrial metabolism. We analyzed the expression of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) in 20 surgical PA samples. The effects of Drp1 on PA growth were assessed in vitro and in xenograft models. We found an upregulation of Drp1 in PA samples with a low proliferation index. Knockdown or inhibition of Drp1 enhanced the proliferation of PA cell lines in vitro, while overexpression of Drp1 could reversed such effects. Mechanistically, overexpressed Drp1 damaged mitochondria by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which induced mitochondrial OXPHOS inhibition and decline of ATP production. The energy deficiency inhibited proliferation of PA cells. In addition, overexpressed Drp1 promoted cytochrome c release from damaged mitochondria into the cytoplasm and then activated the downstream caspase apoptotic cascade reaction, which induced apoptosis of PA cells. Moreover, the decreased ATP production induced by Drp1 overexpressing activated the AMPK cellular energy stress sensor and enhanced autophagy through the AMPK-ULK1 pathway, which might play a protective role in PA growth. Furthermore, overexpression of Drp1 repressed PA growth in vivo. Our data indicates that Drp1-mediated mitochondrial metabolic dysfunction inhibits PA growth by affecting cell proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy. Selectively targeting mitochondrial metabolic homeostasis stands out as a promising antineoplastic strategy for PA therapy.

DRP1 contributes to head and neck cancer progression and induces glycolysis through modulated FOXM1/MMP12 axis

Abnormal DRP1 expression has been identified in a variety of human cancers. However, the prognostic potential and mechanistic role of DRP1 in head and neck cancer (HNC) are currently poorly understood. Here, we demonstrated a significant upregulation of DRP1 in HNC tissues, and that DRP1 expression correlates with poor survival of HNC patients. Diminished DRP1 expression suppressed tumor growth and metastasis in both in vitro and in vivo models. DRP1 expression was positively correlated with FOXM1 and MMP12 expression in HNC patient samples, suggesting pathological relevance in the context of HNC development. Moreover, DRP1 depletion affected aerobic glycolysis through the downregulation of glycolytic genes, and overexpression of MMP12 in DRP1‐depleted cells could help restore glucose consumption and lactate production. Using ChIP‐qPCR, we showed that DRP1 modulates FOXM1 expression, which can enhance MMP12 transcription by binding to its promoter. We also showed that miR‐575 could target 3’UTR of DRP1 mRNA and suppress DRP1 expression. Collectively, our study provides mechanistic insights into the role of DRP1 in HNC and highlights the potential of targeting the miR‐575/DRP1/FOXM1/MMP12 axis as a novel therapy for the prevention of HNC progression.

Mitochondrial Fission Complex Is Required for Long-Term Heat Tolerance of Arabidopsis

Plants are often exposed not only to short-term (S) heat stress but also to long-term (L) heat stress over several consecutive days. A few Arabidopsis mutants defective in L-heat tolerance have been identified, but the molecular mechanisms involved are less well understood than those involved in S-heat tolerance. To elucidate the mechanisms, we isolated the new sensitive to long-term heat5 (sloh5) mutant from EMS-mutagenized seeds of L-heat-tolerant Col-0. The sloh5 mutant was hypersensitive to L-heat but not to S-heat, osmo-shock, salt-shock or oxidative stress. The causal gene, SLOH5, is identical to elongatedmitochondria1 (ELM1), which plays an important role in mitochondrial fission in conjunction with dynamin-related proteins DRP3A and DRP3B. Transcript levels of ELM1, DRP3A and DRP3B were time-dependently increased by L-heat stress, and drp3a drp3b double mutants were hypersensitive to L-heat stress. The sloh5 mutant contained massively elongated mitochondria. L-heat stress caused mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death in sloh5. Furthermore, WT plants treated with a mitochondrial myosin ATPase inhibitor were hypersensitive to L-heat stress. These findings suggest that mitochondrial fission and function are important in L-heat tolerance of Arabidopsis.

Hyperphosphorylated Human Tau Accumulates at the Synapse, Localizing on Synaptic Mitochondrial Outer Membranes and Disrupting Respiration in a Mouse Model of Tauopathy

Neurogenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), represent a growing public health challenge in aging societies. Tauopathies, a subset of neurodegenerative disorders that includes AD, are characterized by accumulation of fibrillar and hyperphosphorylated forms of microtubule-associated protein tau with coincident mitochondrial abnormalities and neuronal dysfunction. Although, in vitro, tau impairs axonal transport altering mitochondrial distribution, clear in vivo mechanisms associating tau and mitochondrial dysfunction remain obscure. Herein, we investigated the effects of human tau on brain mitochondria in vivo using transgenic htau mice at ages preceding and coinciding with onset of tauopathy. Subcellular proteomics combined with bioenergetic assessment revealed pathologic forms of tau preferentially associate with synaptic over non-synaptic mitochondria coinciding with changes in bioenergetics, reminiscent of an aged synaptic mitochondrial phenotype in wild-type mice. While mitochondrial content was unaltered, mitochondrial maximal respiration was impaired in synaptosomes from htau mice. Further, mitochondria-associated tau was determined to be outer membrane-associated using the trypsin protection assay and carbonate extraction. These findings reveal non-mutant human tau accumulation at the synapse has deleterious effects on mitochondria, which likely contributes to synaptic dysfunction observed in the context of tauopathy.

Sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity in neonatal mice links to a GSK3β/Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis

Mitochondria damage and apoptosis were found associated with sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity in developing brains of rodent and neuro cell lines. The detailed upstream mechanism remains unclear. This study explored whether sevoflurane induces neurotoxicity by activating a GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β)/Drp1 (dynamin-related protein-1)-dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis. Our results showed that sevoflurane exposure promoted mitochondria fission in hippocampus of neonatal mice, resulted in a prolonged escape latency from P32 (32-day-postnatal) to P35, and decreased platform crossing times on P36 as compared to the control treatment. Additionally, sevoflurane upregulated GSK3β stability and activation, promoted phosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser⁶¹⁶ along with its translocation to mitochondria and resulted in increasing cytochrome c and cleaved casepase-3 in hippocampus of neonatal mice and in human SK-N-SH cells. Simultaneously, sevoflurane promoted the interaction between Drp1 and GSK3β. Furthermore, GSK3β activated phosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser⁶¹⁶, induced mitochondrial fission, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and apoptosis in SK-N-SH cells, which was attenuated by TDZD-8, an inhibitor of GSK3β. In conclusion, sevoflurane induced neurotoxicity links to a GSK3β/Drp1 dependent mitochondrial fission and apoptosis.

Role of Mitochondrial Stress Response in Cancer Progression

Mitochondria are subcellular organelles that are a hub for key biological processes, such as bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling functions. Mitochondria are implicated in all oncogenic processes, from malignant transformation to metastasis and resistance to chemotherapeutics. The harsh tumor environment constantly exposes cancer cells to cytotoxic stressors, such as nutrient starvation, low oxygen, and oxidative stress. Excessive or prolonged exposure to these stressors can cause irreversible mitochondrial damage, leading to cell death. To survive hostile microenvironments that perturb mitochondrial function, cancer cells activate a stress response to maintain mitochondrial protein and genome integrity. This adaptive mechanism, which is closely linked to mitochondrial function, enables rapid adjustment and survival in harsh environmental conditions encountered during tumor dissemination, thereby promoting cancer progression. In this review, we describe how the mitochondria stress response contributes to the acquisition of typical malignant traits and highlight the potential of targeting the mitochondrial stress response as an anti-cancer therapeutic strategy.

Protein C receptor maintains cancer stem cell properties via activating lipid synthesis in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Metastasis and recurrence account for 95% of deaths from nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are regarded as one of the main reasons for tumor cell resistance to clinical therapy, and cancer metastasis or recurrence, while little is known about CSCs in NPC. The present study uncovers a subpopulation of cells labeled as CD45⁻EPCAM⁺PROCR⁺ in NPC biopsy samples that exhibit stem cell-like characteristics. A relatively low number of these cells initiate xenograft tumors in mice. Functional analysis reveals that protein C receptor (PROCR) not only serves as a stem cell marker in NPC, but also maintains tumor cells’ stemness potential through regulating lipid metabolism and mitochondrial fission. Epistatic studies reveal that cAMP-protein kinase A stimulates Ca2⁺ release to manipulate lipid metabolism related genes’ expression. Finally, in a cohort of 207 NPC samples, PROCR expression is correlated with tumor metastasis or recurrence, and predicts poor prognosis. These novel findings link PROCR labeled CSCs with lipid metabolism and mitochondrial plasticity, and provides new clinical target against metastatic or recurrent NPC.

Mitochondrial Quality Control: A Pathophysiological Mechanism and Therapeutic Target for Stroke

Stroke is a devastating disease with high mortality and disability rates. Previous research has established that mitochondria, as major regulators, are both influenced by stroke, and further regulated the development of poststroke injury. Mitochondria are involved in several biological processes such as energy generation, calcium homeostasis, immune response, apoptosis regulation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Meanwhile, mitochondria can evolve into various quality control systems, including mitochondrial dynamics (fission and fusion) and mitophagy, to maintain the homeostasis of the mitochondrial network. Various activities of mitochondrial fission and fusion are associated with mitochondrial integrity and neurological injury after stroke. Additionally, proper mitophagy seems to be neuroprotective for its effect on eliminating the damaged mitochondria, while excessive mitophagy disturbs energy generation and mitochondria-associated signal pathways. The balance between mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy is more crucial than the absolute level of each process. A neurovascular unit (NVU) is a multidimensional system by which cells release multiple mediators and regulate diverse signaling pathways across the whole neurovascular network in a way with a high dynamic interaction. The turbulence of mitochondrial quality control (MQC) could lead to NVU dysfunctions, including neuron death, neuroglial activation, blood–brain barrier (BBB) disruption, and neuroinflammation. However, the exact changes and effects of MQC on the NVU after stroke have yet to be fully illustrated. In this review, we will discuss the updated mechanisms of MQC and the pathophysiology of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy after stroke. We highlight the regulation of MQC as a potential therapeutic target for both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke.

Interfering with mitochondrial dynamics sensitizes glioblastoma multiforme to temozolomide chemotherapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a primary tumour of the central nervous system (CNS) that exhibits the highest degree of malignancy. Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are essential to prolong the survival time of patients. However, clinical work has demonstrated that sensitivity of GBM to chemotherapy decreases with time. The phenomenon of multi-drug resistance (MDR) reminds us that there may exist some fundamental mechanisms in the process of chemo-resistance. We tried to explore the mechanism of GBM chemo-resistance from the perspective of energy metabolism. First, we found that the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) level of SHG44 and U87 cells increased under TMZ treatment. In further studies, it was found that the expression of PINK1 and mitophagy flux downstream was downregulated in GBM cells, which were secondary to the upregulation of TP53 in tumour cells under TMZ treatment. At the same time, we examined the mitochondrial morphology in tumour cells and found that the size of mitochondria in tumour cells increased under the treatment of TMZ, which originated from the regulation of AMPK on the subcellular localization of Drp1 under the condition of unbalanced energy supply and demand in tumour cells. The accumulation of mitochondrial mass and the optimization of mitochondrial quality accounted for the increased oxidative phosphorylation, and interruption of the mitochondrial fusion process downregulated the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation and sensitized GBM cells to TMZ, which was also confirmed in the in vivo experiment. What is more, interfering with this process is an innovative strategy to overcome the chemo-resistance of GBM cells.

Mitochondria-Shaping Proteins and Chemotherapy

The emergence, in recent decades, of an entirely new area of “Mitochondrial dynamics”, which consists principally of fission and fusion, reflects the recognition that mitochondria play a significant role in human tumorigenesis and response to therapeutics. Proteins that determine mitochondrial dynamics are referred to as “shaping proteins”. Marked heterogeneity has been observed in the response of tumor cells to chemotherapy, which is associated with imbalances in mitochondrial dynamics and function leading to adaptive and acquired resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, targeting mitochondria-shaping proteins may prove to be a promising approach to treat chemotherapy resistant cancers. In this review, we summarize the alterations of mitochondrial dynamics in chemotherapeutic processing and the antitumor mechanisms by which chemotherapy drugs synergize with mitochondria-shaping proteins. These might shed light on new biomarkers for better prediction of cancer chemosensitivity and contribute to the exploitation of potent therapeutic strategies for the clinical treatment of cancers.

The multifaceted roles of mitochondria at the crossroads of cell life and death in cancer

Mitochondria are the cytoplasmic organelles mostly known as the "electric engine" of the cells; however, they also play pivotal roles in different biological processes, such as cell growth/apoptosis, Ca²⁺ and redox homeostasis, and cell stemness. In cancer cells, mitochondria undergo peculiar functional and structural dynamics involved in the survival/death fate of the cell. Cancer cells use glycolysis to support macromolecular biosynthesis and energy production ("Warburg effect"); however, mitochondrial OXPHOS has been shown to be still active during carcinogenesis and even exacerbated in drug-resistant and stem cancer cells. This metabolic rewiring is associated with mutations in genes encoding mitochondrial metabolic enzymes ("oncometabolites"), alterations of ROS production and redox biology, and a fine-tuned balance between anti-/proapoptotic proteins. In cancer cells, mitochondria also experience dynamic alterations from the structural point of view undergoing coordinated cycles of biogenesis, fusion/fission and mitophagy, and physically communicating with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the Ca²⁺ flux, at the MAM (mitochondria-associated membranes) levels. This review addresses the peculiar mitochondrial metabolic and structural dynamics occurring in cancer cells and their role in coordinating the balance between cell survival and death. The role of mitochondrial dynamics as effective biomarkers of tumor progression and promising targets for anticancer strategies is also discussed.

Microtubule-Based Mitochondrial Dynamics as a Valuable Therapeutic Target in Cancer

Mitochondria constitute an ever-reorganizing dynamic network that plays a key role in several fundamental cellular functions, including the regulation of metabolism, energy production, calcium homeostasis, production of reactive oxygen species, and programmed cell death. Each of these activities can be found to be impaired in cancer cells. It has been reported that mitochondrial dynamics are actively involved in both tumorigenesis and metabolic plasticity, allowing cancer cells to adapt to unfavorable environmental conditions and, thus, contributing to tumor progression. The mitochondrial dynamics include fusion, fragmentation, intracellular trafficking responsible for redistributing the organelle within the cell, biogenesis, and mitophagy. Although the mitochondrial dynamics are driven by the cytoskeleton-particularly by the microtubules and the microtubule-associated motor proteins dynein and kinesin-the molecular mechanisms regulating these complex processes are not yet fully understood. More recently, an exchange of mitochondria between stromal and cancer cells has also been described. The advantage of mitochondrial transfer in tumor cells results in benefits to cell survival, proliferation, and spreading. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate mitochondrial trafficking can potentially be important for identifying new molecular targets in cancer therapy to interfere specifically with tumor dissemination processes.

Blocked O-GlcNAc cycling alters mitochondrial morphology, function, and mass

O-GlcNAcylation is a prevalent form of glycosylation that regulates proteins within the cytosol, nucleus, and mitochondria. The O-GlcNAc modification can affect protein cellular localization, function, and signaling interactions. The specific impact of O-GlcNAcylation on mitochondrial morphology and function has been elusive. In this manuscript, the role of O-GlcNAcylation on mitochondrial fission, oxidative phosphorylation (Oxphos), and the activity of electron transport chain (ETC) complexes were evaluated. In a cellular environment with hyper O-GlcNAcylation due to the deletion of O-GlcNAcase (OGA), mitochondria showed a dramatic reduction in size and a corresponding increase in number and total mitochondrial mass. Because of the increased mitochondrial content, OGA knockout cells exhibited comparable coupled mitochondrial Oxphos and ATP levels when compared to WT cells. However, we observed reduced protein levels for complex I and II when comparing normalized mitochondrial content and reduced linked activity for complexes I and III when examining individual ETC complex activities. In assessing mitochondrial fission, we observed increased amounts of O-GlcNAcylated dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) in cells genetically null for OGA and in glioblastoma cells. Individual regions of Drp1 were evaluated for O-GlcNAc modifications, and we found that this post-translational modification (PTM) was not limited to the previously characterized residues in the variable domain (VD). Additional modification sites are predicted in the GTPase domain, which may influence enzyme activity. Collectively, these results highlight the impact of O-GlcNAcylation on mitochondrial dynamics and ETC function and mimic the changes that may occur during glucose toxicity from hyperglycemia.

Targeting protein interaction networks in mitochondrial dynamics for cancer therapy

Mitochondria are crucial organelles that provide energy via oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotic cells and also have critical roles in growth, division, and the cell cycle, as well as the rapid adaptation required to meet the metabolic needs of the cell. Mitochondrial processes are highly dynamic; fusion and fission can vary with cell type, cellular context, and stress levels. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that an imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics leads to death in numerous types of human cancer cells. Therefore, modulating mitochondrial dynamics could be a therapeutic target. In this review, we provide an overview of the protein interaction networks involved in mitochondrial dynamics as effective and feasible drug targets and discuss the related potential therapeutic strategies for cancer.

Role of endolysosome function in iron metabolism and brain carcinogenesis

Iron, the most abundant metal in human brain, is an essential microelement that regulates numerous cellular mechanisms. Some key physiological roles of iron include oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, embryonic neuronal development, formation of iron-sulfur clusters, and the regulation of enzymes involved in DNA synthesis and repair. Because of its physiological and pathological importance, iron homeostasis must be tightly regulated by balancing its uptake, transport, and storage. Endosomes and lysosomes (endolysosomes) are acidic organelles known to contain readily releasable stores of various cations including iron and other metals. Increased levels of ferrous (Fe2+) iron can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) via Fenton chemistry reactions and these increases can damage mitochondria and genomic DNA as well as promote carcinogenesis. Accumulation of iron in the brain has been linked with aging, diet, disease, and cerebral hemorrhage. Further, deregulation of brain iron metabolism has been implicated in carcinogenesis and may be a contributing factor to the increased incidence of brain tumors around the world. Here, we provide insight into mechanisms by which iron accumulation in endolysosomes is altered by pH and lysosome membrane permeabilization. Such events generate excess ROS resulting in mitochondrial DNA damage, fission, and dysfunction, as well as DNA oxidative damage in the nucleus; all of which promote carcinogenesis. A better understanding of the roles that endolysosome iron plays in carcinogenesis may help better inform the development of strategic therapeutic options for cancer treatment and prevention.

Mitochondrial dynamics regulators: implications for therapeutic intervention in cancer

Regardless of the recent advances in therapeutic developments, cancer is still among the primary causes of death globally, indicating the need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Mitochondria, a dynamic organelle, continuously undergo the fusion and fission processes to meet cell requirements. The balanced fission and fusion processes, referred to as mitochondrial dynamics, coordinate mitochondrial shape, size, number, energy metabolism, cell cycle, mitophagy, and apoptosis. An imbalance between these opposing events alters mitochondWangrial dynamics, affects the overall mitochondrial shape, and deregulates mitochondrial function. Emerging evidence indicates that alteration of mitochondrial dynamics contributes to various aspects of tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Therefore, targeting the mitochondrial dynamics regulator could be a potential therapeutic approach for cancer treatment. This review will address the role of imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics in mitochondrial dysfunction during cancer progression. We will outline the clinical significance of mitochondrial dynamics regulators in various cancer types with recent updates in cancer stemness and chemoresistance and its therapeutic potential and clinical utility as a predictive biomarker.

Mitochondrial dynamics and its impact on human health and diseases: inside the DRP1 blackbox

Mitochondria are essential organelles that play a significant role in various cellular processes apart from providing energy in eukaryotic cells. An intricate link between mitochondrial structure and function is now unequivocally accepted. Several molecular players have been identified, which are important in maintaining the structure of the organelle. Dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) is one such conserved protein that is a vital regulator of mitochondrial dynamics. Multidisciplinary studies have helped elucidate the structure of the protein and its mechanism of action in great detail. Mutations in various domains of the protein have been identified that are associated with debilitating conditions in patients. The involvement of the protein in disease conditions such as neurodegeneration, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders is also gaining attention. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent findings on the role of DRP1 in human disease conditions and address its importance as a therapeutic target.

Fine-tuned repression of Drp1-driven mitochondrial fission primes a 'stem/progenitor-like state' to support neoplastic transformation

Gene knockout of the master regulator of mitochondrial fission, Drp1, prevents neoplastic transformation. Also, mitochondrial fission and its opposing process of mitochondrial fusion are emerging as crucial regulators of stemness. Intriguingly, stem/progenitor cells maintaining repressed mitochondrial fission are primed for self-renewal and proliferation. Using our newly derived carcinogen transformed human cell model, we demonstrate that fine-tuned Drp1 repression primes a slow cycling 'stem/progenitor-like state', which is characterized by small networks of fused mitochondria and a gene-expression profile with elevated functional stem/progenitor markers (Krt15, Sox2 etc) and their regulators (Cyclin E). Fine tuning Drp1 protein by reducing its activating phosphorylation sustains the neoplastic stem/progenitor cell markers. Whereas, fine-tuned reduction of Drp1 protein maintains the characteristic mitochondrial shape and gene-expression of the primed 'stem/progenitor-like state' to accelerate neoplastic transformation, and more complete reduction of Drp1 protein prevents it. Therefore, our data highlights a 'goldilocks' level of Drp1 repression supporting stem/progenitor state dependent neoplastic transformation.

Bioengineered Models to Study Microenvironmental Regulation of Glioblastoma Metabolism

Despite extensive research and aggressive therapies, glioblastoma (GBM) remains a central nervous system malignancy with poor prognosis. The varied histopathology of GBM suggests a landscape of differing microenvironments and clonal expansions, which may influence metabolism, driving tumor progression. Indeed, GBM metabolic plasticity in response to differing nutrient supply within these microenvironments has emerged as a key driver of aggressiveness. Additionally, emergent biophysical and biochemical interactions in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are offering new perspectives on GBM metabolism. Perivascular and hypoxic niches exert crucial roles in tumor maintenance and progression, facilitating metabolic relationships between stromal and tumor cells. Alterations in extracellular matrix and its biophysical characteristics, such as rigidity and topography, regulate GBM metabolism through mechanotransductive mechanisms. This review highlights insights gained from deployment of bioengineering models, including engineered cell culture and mathematical models, to study the microenvironmental regulation of GBM metabolism. Bioengineered approaches building upon histopathology measurements may uncover potential therapeutic strategies that target both TME-dependent mechanotransductive and biomolecular drivers of metabolism to tackle this challenging disease. Longer term, a concerted effort integrating in vitro and in silico models predictive of patient therapy response may offer a powerful advance toward tailoring of treatment to patient-specific GBM characteristics.

Targeting Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation in Glioblastoma Therapy

As a multi-functional cellular organelle, mitochondrial metabolic reprogramming is well recognized as a hallmark of cancer. The center of mitochondrial metabolism is oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby converting the chemical energy to the biological energy currency ATPs. OXPHOS also creates the mitochondrial membrane potential and serve as the driving force of other mitochondrial metabolic pathways and experiences significant reshape in the different stages of tumor progression. In this minireview, we reviewed the major mitochondrial pathways that are connected to OXPHOS and are affected in cancer cells. In addition, we summarized the function of novel bio-active molecules targeting mitochondrial metabolic processes such as OXPHOS, mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial dynamics. These molecules exhibit intriguing preclinical and clinical results and have been proven to be promising antitumor candidates in recent studies.

Drug-like sphingolipid SH-BC-893 opposes ceramide-induced mitochondrial fission and corrects diet-induced obesity

Ceramide-induced mitochondrial fission drives high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity. However, molecules targeting mitochondrial dynamics have shown limited benefits in murine obesity models. Here, we reveal that these compounds are either unable to block ceramide-induced mitochondrial fission or require extended incubation periods to be effective. In contrast, targeting endolysosomal trafficking events important for mitochondrial fission rapidly and robustly prevented ceramide-induced disruptions in mitochondrial form and function. By simultaneously inhibiting ARF6- and PIKfyve-dependent trafficking events, the synthetic sphingolipid SH-BC-893 blocked palmitate- and ceramide-induced mitochondrial fission, preserved mitochondrial function, and prevented ER stress in vitro. Similar benefits were observed in the tissues of HFD-fed mice. Within 4 h of oral administration, SH-BC-893 normalized mitochondrial morphology in the livers and brains of HFD-fed mice, improved mitochondrial function in white adipose tissue, and corrected aberrant plasma leptin and adiponectin levels. As an interventional agent, SH-BC-893 restored normal body weight, glucose disposal, and hepatic lipid levels in mice consuming a HFD. In sum, the sphingolipid analog SH-BC-893 robustly and acutely blocks ceramide-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, correcting diet-induced obesity and its metabolic sequelae.

Selectively targeting cancer stem cells: Current and novel therapeutic strategies and approaches in the effective eradication of cancer

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subgroup of cells in malignant cancers, which possess self-renewal capacity, tumor-initiating capability, and pluripotency, as well as being responsible for tumor maintenance, metastasis, relapse, and chemoresistance. The treatment modalities previously established for cancer included surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. The majority of tumor cells of non-CSCs could be eradicated using conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Therefore, novel and promising therapeutic strategies that selectively target CSCs are of great importance. In this review, we described different therapeutic strategies such as immunotherapy, metabolism-based therapeutic strategies, and additional potential therapeutic approaches (targeting microRNAs [miRNAs], histone deacetylase, and DNA methyl transferase) against CSCs. Taken together, due to the inefficiency of anticancer single therapies, targeting CSCs through their metabolism and using immunotherapy and miRNAs besides classical chemo- and radiotherapy may exert better therapeutic effects.