51
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Yanagisawa M, Alonso JM, Szymanski DB. Microtubule-Dependent Confinement of a Cell Signaling and Actin Polymerization Control Module Regulates Polarized Cell Growth. Curr Biol 2018; 28:2459-2466.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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52
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Sun H, Qiao Z, Chua KP, Tursic A, Liu X, Gao YG, Mu Y, Hou X, Miao Y. Profilin Negatively Regulates Formin-Mediated Actin Assembly to Modulate PAMP-Triggered Plant Immunity. Curr Biol 2018; 28:1882-1895.e7. [PMID: 29861135 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Profilin functions with formin in actin assembly, a process that regulates multiple aspects of plant development and immune responses. High-level eukaryotes contain multiple isoforms of profilin, formin, and actin, whose partner-specific interactions in actin assembly are not completely understood in plant development and defense responses. To examine the functionally distinct interactions between profilin and formin, we studied all five Arabidopsis profilins and their interactions with formin by using both in vitro biochemical and in vivo cell biology approaches. Unexpectedly, we found a previously undescribed negative regulatory function of AtPRF3 in AtFH1-mediated actin polymerization. The N-terminal 37 residues of AtPRF3 were identified to play a predominant role in inhibiting formin-mediated actin nucleation via their high affinity for the formin polyproline region and their triggering of the oligomerization of AtPRF3. Both in vivo and in vitro mechanistic studies of AtPRF3 revealed a universal mechanism in which the weak interaction between profilin and formin positively regulates actin assembly by ensuring rapid recycling of profilin, whereas profilin oligomerization negatively regulates actin polymerization. Upon recognition of the pathogen-associated molecular pattern, the gene transcription and protein degradation of AtPRF3 are modulated for actin assembly during plant innate immunity. The prf3 Arabidopsis plants show higher sensitivity to the bacterial flagellum peptide in both the plant growth and ROS responses. These findings demonstrate a profilin-mediated actin assembly mechanism underlying the plant immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Sun
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Zhu Qiao
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Khi Pin Chua
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Alma Tursic
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Xu Liu
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yong-Gui Gao
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore; Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A(∗)STAR, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Yuguang Mu
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Xingliang Hou
- Key Laboratory of South China Agricultural Plant Molecular Analysis and Genetic Improvement & Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yansong Miao
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore; School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459, Singapore.
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53
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Julien JD, Boudaoud A. Elongation and shape changes in organisms with cell walls: A dialogue between experiments and models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 1:34-42. [PMID: 32743126 PMCID: PMC7388974 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The generation of anisotropic shapes occurs during morphogenesis of almost all organisms. With the recent renewal of the interest in mechanical aspects of morphogenesis, it has become clear that mechanics contributes to anisotropic forms in a subtle interaction with various molecular actors. Here, we consider plants, fungi, oomycetes, and bacteria, and we review the mechanisms by which elongated shapes are generated and maintained. We focus on theoretical models of the interplay between growth and mechanics, in relation with experimental data, and discuss how models may help us improve our understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Daniel Julien
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France.,Laboratoire de Physique, Univ. Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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54
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Davì V, Tanimoto H, Ershov D, Haupt A, De Belly H, Le Borgne R, Couturier E, Boudaoud A, Minc N. Mechanosensation Dynamically Coordinates Polar Growth and Cell Wall Assembly to Promote Cell Survival. Dev Cell 2018; 45:170-182.e7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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55
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Elsner J, Lipowczan M, Kwiatkowska D. Differential growth of pavement cells of Arabidopsis thaliana leaf epidermis as revealed by microbead labeling. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2018; 105:257-265. [PMID: 29578288 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY In numerous vascular plants, pavement cells of the leaf epidermis are shaped like a jigsaw-puzzle piece. Knowledge about the subcellular pattern of growth that accompanies morphogenesis of such a complex shape is crucial for studies of the role of the cytoskeleton, cell wall and phytohormones in plant cell development. Because the detailed growth pattern of the anticlinal and periclinal cell walls remains unknown, our aim was to measure pavement cell growth at a subcellular resolution. METHODS Using fluorescent microbeads applied to the surface of the adaxial leaf epidermis of Arabidopsis thaliana as landmarks for growth computation, we directly assessed the growth rates for the outer periclinal and anticlinal cell walls at a subcellular scale. KEY RESULTS We observed complementary tendencies in the growth pattern of the outer periclinal and anticlinal cell walls. Central portions of periclinal walls were characterized by relatively slow growth, while growth of the other wall portions was heterogeneous. Local growth of the periclinal walls accompanying lobe development after initiation was relatively fast and anisotropic, with maximal extension usually in the direction along the lobe axis. This growth pattern of the periclinal walls was complemented by the extension of the anticlinal walls, which was faster on the lobe sides than at the tips. CONCLUSIONS Growth of the anticlinal and outer periclinal walls of leaf pavement cells is heterogeneous. The growth of the lobes resembles cell elongation via diffuse growth rather than tip growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Elsner
- Department of Biophysics and Morphogenesis of Plants, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland
| | - Marcin Lipowczan
- Department of Biophysics and Morphogenesis of Plants, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland
| | - Dorota Kwiatkowska
- Department of Biophysics and Morphogenesis of Plants, University of Silesia in Katowice, Jagiellońska 28, 40-032, Katowice, Poland
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56
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Adebesin F, Widhalm JR, Boachon B, Lefèvre F, Pierman B, Lynch JH, Alam I, Junqueira B, Benke R, Ray S, Porter JA, Yanagisawa M, Wetzstein HY, Morgan JA, Boutry M, Schuurink RC, Dudareva N. Emission of volatile organic compounds from petunia flowers is facilitated by an ABC transporter. Science 2018; 356:1386-1388. [PMID: 28663500 DOI: 10.1126/science.aan0826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Plants synthesize a diversity of volatile molecules that are important for reproduction and defense, serve as practical products for humans, and influence atmospheric chemistry and climate. Despite progress in deciphering plant volatile biosynthesis, their release from the cell has been poorly understood. The default assumption has been that volatiles passively diffuse out of cells. By characterization of a Petunia hybrida adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, PhABCG1, we demonstrate that passage of volatiles across the plasma membrane relies on active transport. PhABCG1 down-regulation by RNA interference results in decreased emission of volatiles, which accumulate to toxic levels in the plasma membrane. This study provides direct proof of a biologically mediated mechanism of volatile emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Funmilayo Adebesin
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Joshua R Widhalm
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.,Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Benoît Boachon
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - François Lefèvre
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, Box L7-04-14, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Baptiste Pierman
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, Box L7-04-14, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Joseph H Lynch
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Iftekhar Alam
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, Box L7-04-14, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Bruna Junqueira
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, Box L7-04-14, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Ryan Benke
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Shaunak Ray
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2100, USA
| | - Justin A Porter
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Makoto Yanagisawa
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA
| | - Hazel Y Wetzstein
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - John A Morgan
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.,School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2100, USA
| | - Marc Boutry
- Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, Box L7-04-14, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Robert C Schuurink
- Department of Plant Physiology, University of Amsterdam, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Natalia Dudareva
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA. .,Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.,Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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57
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Hervieux N, Tsugawa S, Fruleux A, Dumond M, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Komatsuzaki T, Boudaoud A, Larkin JC, Smith RS, Li CB, Hamant O. Mechanical Shielding of Rapidly Growing Cells Buffers Growth Heterogeneity and Contributes to Organ Shape Reproducibility. Curr Biol 2017; 27:3468-3479.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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58
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Isner JC, Xu Z, Costa JM, Monnet F, Batstone T, Ou X, Deeks MJ, Genty B, Jiang K, Hetherington AM. Actin filament reorganisation controlled by the SCAR/WAVE complex mediates stomatal response to darkness. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2017; 215:1059-1067. [PMID: 28636198 PMCID: PMC5519931 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Stomata respond to darkness by closing to prevent excessive water loss during the night. Although the reorganisation of actin filaments during stomatal closure is documented, the underlying mechanisms responsible for dark-induced cytoskeletal arrangement remain largely unknown. We used genetic, physiological and cell biological approaches to show that reorganisation of the actin cytoskeleton is required for dark-induced stomatal closure. The opal5 mutant does not close in response to darkness but exhibits wild-type (WT) behaviour when exposed to abscisic acid (ABA) or CaCl2 . The mutation was mapped to At5g18410, encoding the PIR/SRA1/KLK subunit of the ArabidopsisSCAR/WAVE complex. Stomata of an independent allele of the PIR gene (Atpir-1) showed reduced sensitivity to darkness and F1 progenies of the cross between opal5 and Atpir-1 displayed distorted leaf trichomes, suggesting that the two mutants are allelic. Darkness induced changes in the extent of actin filament bundling in WT. These were abolished in opal5. Disruption of filamentous actin using latrunculin B or cytochalasin D restored wild-type stomatal sensitivity to darkness in opal5. Our findings suggest that the stomatal response to darkness is mediated by reorganisation of guard cell actin filaments, a process that is finely tuned by the conserved SCAR/WAVE-Arp2/3 actin regulatory module.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Charles Isner
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Zaoxu Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310058, China
| | - Joaquim Miguel Costa
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 7265, Université Aix-Marseille, Biologie Végétale et Microbiologie Environnementales, Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, 13108, France
| | - Fabien Monnet
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 7265, Université Aix-Marseille, Biologie Végétale et Microbiologie Environnementales, Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, 13108, France
| | - Thomas Batstone
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Xiaobin Ou
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310058, China
| | - Michael J Deeks
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Bernard Genty
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 7265, Université Aix-Marseille, Biologie Végétale et Microbiologie Environnementales, Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, 13108, France
| | - Kun Jiang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310058, China
| | - Alistair M Hetherington
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
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59
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Breuer D, Nowak J, Ivakov A, Somssich M, Persson S, Nikoloski Z. System-wide organization of actin cytoskeleton determines organelle transport in hypocotyl plant cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E5741-E5749. [PMID: 28655850 PMCID: PMC5514762 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1706711114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The actin cytoskeleton is an essential intracellular filamentous structure that underpins cellular transport and cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells. However, the system-level properties of actin-based cellular trafficking remain tenuous, largely due to the inability to quantify key features of the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we developed an automated image-based, network-driven framework to accurately segment and quantify actin cytoskeletal structures and Golgi transport. We show that the actin cytoskeleton in both growing and elongated hypocotyl cells has structural properties facilitating efficient transport. Our findings suggest that the erratic movement of Golgi is a stable cellular phenomenon that might optimize distribution efficiency of cell material. Moreover, we demonstrate that Golgi transport in hypocotyl cells can be accurately predicted from the actin network topology alone. Thus, our framework provides quantitative evidence for system-wide coordination of cellular transport in plant cells and can be readily applied to investigate cytoskeletal organization and transport in other organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Breuer
- Systems Biology and Mathematical Modeling, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany;
- Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jacqueline Nowak
- Systems Biology and Mathematical Modeling, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Alexander Ivakov
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National University, Canberra, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Marc Somssich
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Staffan Persson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
- Plant Cell Walls, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Zoran Nikoloski
- Systems Biology and Mathematical Modeling, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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60
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Ren H, Dang X, Cai X, Yu P, Li Y, Zhang S, Liu M, Chen B, Lin D. Spatio-temporal orientation of microtubules controls conical cell shape in Arabidopsis thaliana petals. PLoS Genet 2017. [PMID: 28644898 PMCID: PMC5507347 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The physiological functions of epidermal cells are largely determined by their diverse morphologies. Most flowering plants have special conical-shaped petal epidermal cells that are thought to influence light capture and reflectance, and provide pollinator grips, but the molecular mechanisms controlling conical cell shape remain largely unknown. Here, we developed a live-confocal imaging approach to quantify geometric parameters of conical cells in Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana). Through genetic screens, we identified katanin (KTN1) mutants showing a phenotype of decreased tip sharpening of conical cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that SPIKE1 and Rho of Plants (ROP) GTPases were required for the final shape formation of conical cells, as KTN1 does. Live-cell imaging showed that wild-type cells exhibited random orientation of cortical microtubule arrays at early developmental stages but displayed a well-ordered circumferential orientation of microtubule arrays at later stages. By contrast, loss of KTN1 prevented random microtubule networks from shifting into well-ordered arrays. We further showed that the filamentous actin cap, which is a typical feature of several plant epidermal cell types including root hairs and leaf trichomes, was not observed in the growth apexes of conical cells during cell development. Moreover, our genetic and pharmacological data suggested that microtubules but not actin are required for conical cell shaping. Together, our results provide a novel imaging approach for studying petal conical cell morphogenesis and suggest that the spatio-temporal organization of microtubule arrays plays crucial roles in controlling conical cell shape. How cells achieve their final shapes is a fundamental question in biology. Most flowering plants have special conical-shaped petal epidermal cells that are thought to attract pollinators, but the molecular and genetic mechanisms that control conical cell shape remain unknown. In this study, we developed a live-confocal imaging approach for the quantitative study of conical cell morphogenesis. Through genetic screens, we showed that A. thaliana KTN1, ROP GTPases, and SPIKE1 are required for conical cell shaping. Live-cell imaging showed that loss of KTN1 prevented random microtubule networks from shifting into well-ordered microtubule arrays at later developmental stages, which is correlated with the tip sharpening of conical cells. Moreover, genetic and pharmacological data suggested that microtubules but not actin are required for conical cell shaping. Together, our findings provide significant insights into the spatio-temporal organization of microtubules that controls conical cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huibo Ren
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China.,Haixia Institute of Science and Technology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xie Dang
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xianzhi Cai
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Peihang Yu
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yajun Li
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Shanshan Zhang
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Menghong Liu
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Binqing Chen
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China.,Haixia Institute of Science and Technology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Deshu Lin
- Basic Forestry and Proteomics Research Center, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China.,Haixia Institute of Science and Technology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
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61
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De Vos D, Dzhurakhalov A, Stijven S, Klosiewicz P, Beemster GTS, Broeckhove J. Virtual Plant Tissue: Building Blocks for Next-Generation Plant Growth Simulation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:686. [PMID: 28523006 PMCID: PMC5415617 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Motivation: Computational modeling of plant developmental processes is becoming increasingly important. Cellular resolution plant tissue simulators have been developed, yet they are typically describing physiological processes in an isolated way, strongly delimited in space and time. Results: With plant systems biology moving toward an integrative perspective on development we have built the Virtual Plant Tissue (VPTissue) package to couple functional modules or models in the same framework and across different frameworks. Multiple levels of model integration and coordination enable combining existing and new models from different sources, with diverse options in terms of input/output. Besides the core simulator the toolset also comprises a tissue editor for manipulating tissue geometry and cell, wall, and node attributes in an interactive manner. A parameter exploration tool is available to study parameter dependence of simulation results by distributing calculations over multiple systems. Availability: Virtual Plant Tissue is available as open source (EUPL license) on Bitbucket (https://bitbucket.org/vptissue/vptissue). The project has a website https://vptissue.bitbucket.io.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk De Vos
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
- Modeling of Systems and Internet Communication, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Abdiravuf Dzhurakhalov
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
- Modeling of Systems and Internet Communication, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Sean Stijven
- Modeling of Systems and Internet Communication, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Przemyslaw Klosiewicz
- Modeling of Systems and Internet Communication, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Gerrit T. S. Beemster
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
| | - Jan Broeckhove
- Modeling of Systems and Internet Communication, Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of AntwerpAntwerp, Belgium
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62
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Zhang T, Vavylonis D, Durachko DM, Cosgrove DJ. Nanoscale movements of cellulose microfibrils in primary cell walls. NATURE PLANTS 2017; 3:17056. [PMID: 28452988 PMCID: PMC5478883 DOI: 10.1038/nplants.2017.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The growing plant cell wall is commonly considered to be a fibre-reinforced structure whose strength, extensibility and anisotropy depend on the orientation of crystalline cellulose microfibrils, their bonding to the polysaccharide matrix and matrix viscoelasticity1-4. Structural reinforcement of the wall by stiff cellulose microfibrils is central to contemporary models of plant growth, mechanics and meristem dynamics4-12. Although passive microfibril reorientation during wall extension has been inferred from theory and from bulk measurements13-15, nanometre-scale movements of individual microfibrils have not been directly observed. Here we combined nanometre-scale imaging of wet cell walls by atomic force microscopy (AFM) with a stretching device and endoglucanase treatment that induces wall stress relaxation and creep, mimicking wall behaviours during cell growth. Microfibril movements during forced mechanical extensions differ from those during creep of the enzymatically loosened wall. In addition to passive angular reorientation, we observed a diverse repertoire of microfibril movements that reveal the spatial scale of molecular connections between microfibrils. Our results show that wall loosening alters microfibril connectivity, enabling microfibril dynamics not seen during mechanical stretch. These insights into microfibril movements and connectivities need to be incorporated into refined models of plant cell wall structure, growth and morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Zhang
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | | | - Daniel M. Durachko
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Daniel J. Cosgrove
- Department of Biology and Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
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Goldenbogen B, Giese W, Hemmen M, Uhlendorf J, Herrmann A, Klipp E. Dynamics of cell wall elasticity pattern shapes the cell during yeast mating morphogenesis. Open Biol 2016; 6:160136. [PMID: 27605377 PMCID: PMC5043577 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell wall defines cell shape and maintains integrity of fungi and plants. When exposed to mating pheromone, Saccharomyces cerevisiae grows a mating projection and alters in morphology from spherical to shmoo form. Although structural and compositional alterations of the cell wall accompany shape transitions, their impact on cell wall elasticity is unknown. In a combined theoretical and experimental approach using finite-element modelling and atomic force microscopy (AFM), we investigated the influence of spatially and temporally varying material properties on mating morphogenesis. Time-resolved elasticity maps of shmooing yeast acquired with AFM in vivo revealed distinct patterns, with soft material at the emerging mating projection and stiff material at the tip. The observed cell wall softening in the protrusion region is necessary for the formation of the characteristic shmoo shape, and results in wider and longer mating projections. The approach is generally applicable to tip-growing fungi and plants cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Goldenbogen
- Theoretical Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Giese
- Theoretical Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie Hemmen
- Theoretical Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jannis Uhlendorf
- Theoretical Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- Molecular Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Edda Klipp
- Theoretical Biophysics, Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstraße 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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64
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Zhou W, Wang Y, Wu Z, Luo L, Liu P, Yan L, Hou S. Homologs of SCAR/WAVE complex components are required for epidermal cell morphogenesis in rice. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4311-23. [PMID: 27252469 PMCID: PMC5301933 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Filamentous actins (F-actins) play a vital role in epidermal cell morphogenesis. However, a limited number of studies have examined actin-dependent leaf epidermal cell morphogenesis events in rice. In this study, two recessive mutants were isolated: less pronounced lobe epidermal cell2-1 (lpl2-1) and lpl3-1, whose leaf and stem epidermis developed a smooth surface, with fewer serrated pavement cell (PC) lobes, and decreased papillae. The lpl2-1 also exhibited irregular stomata patterns, reduced plant height, and short panicles and roots. Molecular genetic studies demonstrated that LPL2 and LPL3 encode the PIROGI/Specifically Rac1-associated protein 1 (PIR/SRA1)-like and NCK-associated protein 1 (NAP1)-like proteins, respectively, two components of the suppressor of cAMP receptor/Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein-family verprolin-homologous protein (SCAR/WAVE) regulatory complex involved in actin nucleation and function. Epidermal cells exhibited abnormal arrangement of F-actins in both lpl2 and lpl3 expanding leaves. Moreover, the distorted trichomes of Arabidopsis pir could be partially restored by an overexpression of LPL2 A yeast two-hybrid assay revealed that LPL2 can directly interact with LPL3 in vitro Collectively, the results indicate that LPL2 and LPL3 are two functionally conserved homologs of the SCAR/WAVE complex components, and that they play an important role in controlling epidermal cell morphogenesis in rice by organising F-actin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Zhou
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yuchuan Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhongliang Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Longfeng Yan
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Suiwen Hou
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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65
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Stiff MR, Haigler CH. Cotton fiber tips have diverse morphologies and show evidence of apical cell wall synthesis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:27883. [PMID: 27301434 PMCID: PMC4908599 DOI: 10.1038/srep27883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cotton fibers arise through highly anisotropic expansion of a single seed epidermal cell. We obtained evidence that apical cell wall synthesis occurs through examining the tips of young elongating Gossypium hirsutum (Gh) and G. barbadense (Gb) fibers. We characterized two tip types in Gh fiber (hemisphere and tapered), each with distinct apical diameter, central vacuole location, and distribution of cell wall components. The apex of Gh hemisphere tips was enriched in homogalacturonan epitopes, including a relatively high methyl-esterified form associated with cell wall pliability. Other wall components increased behind the apex including cellulose and the α-Fuc-(1,2)-β-Gal epitope predominantly found in xyloglucan. Gb fibers had only one narrow tip type featuring characters found in each Gh tip type. Pulse-labeling of cell wall glucans indicated wall synthesis at the apex of both Gh tip types and in distal zones. Living Gh hemisphere and Gb tips ruptured preferentially at the apex upon treatment with wall degrading enzymes, consistent with newly synthesized wall at the apex. Gh tapered tips ruptured either at the apex or distantly. Overall, the results reveal diverse cotton fiber tip morphologies and support primary wall synthesis occurring at the apex and discrete distal regions of the tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Stiff
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 USA
| | - Candace H Haigler
- Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 USA.,Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 USA
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66
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Braybrook SA, Jönsson H. Shifting foundations: the mechanical cell wall and development. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 29:115-20. [PMID: 26799133 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The cell wall has long been acknowledged as an important physical mediator of growth in plants. Recent experimental and modelling work has brought the importance of cell wall mechanics into the forefront again. These data have challenged existing dogmas that relate cell wall structure to cell/organ growth, that uncouple elasticity from extensibility, and those which treat the cell wall as a passive and non-stressed material. Within this review we describe experiments and models which have changed the ways in which we view the mechanical cell wall, leading to new hypotheses and research avenues. It has become increasingly apparent that while we often wish to simplify our systems, we now require more complex multi-scale experiments and models in order to gain further insight into growth mechanics. We are currently experiencing an exciting and challenging shift in the foundations of our understanding of cell wall mechanics in growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan A Braybrook
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK.
| | - Henrik Jönsson
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK; Computational Biology and Biological Physics Group, Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Lund University, Sölvegatan 14A, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
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67
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Sorek N, Turner S. From the nucleus to the apoplast: building the plant’s cell wall. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:445-7. [PMID: 27119140 PMCID: PMC4699472 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
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68
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Cosgrove DJ. Plant cell wall extensibility: connecting plant cell growth with cell wall structure, mechanics, and the action of wall-modifying enzymes. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:463-76. [PMID: 26608646 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The advent of user-friendly instruments for measuring force/deflection curves of plant surfaces at high spatial resolution has resulted in a recent outpouring of reports of the 'Young's modulus' of plant cell walls. The stimulus for these mechanical measurements comes from biomechanical models of morphogenesis of meristems and other tissues, as well as single cells, in which cell wall stress feeds back to regulate microtubule organization, auxin transport, cellulose deposition, and future growth directionality. In this article I review the differences between elastic modulus and wall extensibility in the context of cell growth. Some of the inherent complexities, assumptions, and potential pitfalls in the interpretation of indentation force/deflection curves are discussed. Reported values of elastic moduli from surface indentation measurements appear to be 10- to >1000-fold smaller than realistic tensile elastic moduli in the plane of plant cell walls. Potential reasons for this disparity are discussed, but further work is needed to make sense of the huge range in reported values. The significance of wall stress relaxation for growth is reviewed and connected to recent advances and remaining enigmas in our concepts of how cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins are assembled to make an extensible cell wall. A comparison of the loosening action of α-expansin and Cel12A endoglucanase is used to illustrate two different ways in which cell walls may be made more extensible and the divergent effects on wall mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Lab, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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69
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Havelková L, Nanda G, Martinek J, Bellinvia E, Sikorová L, Šlajcherová K, Seifertová D, Fischer L, Fišerová J, Petrášek J, Schwarzerová K. Arp2/3 complex subunit ARPC2 binds to microtubules. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 241:96-108. [PMID: 26706062 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Arp2/3 complex plays a fundamental role in the nucleation of actin filaments (AFs) in yeasts, plants, and animals. In plants, the aberrant shaping and elongation of several types of epidermal cells observed in Arp2/3 complex knockout plant mutants suggest the importance of Arp2/3-mediated actin nucleation for various morphogenetic processes. Here we show that ARPC2, a core Arp2/3 complex subunit, interacts with both actin filaments (AFs) and microtubules (MTs). Plant GFP-ARPC2 expressed in Nicotiana tabacum BY-2 cells, leaf epidermal cells of Nicotiana benthamiana and root epidermal cells of Arabidopsis thaliana decorated MTs. The interaction with MTs was demonstrated by pharmacological approach selectively interfering with either AFs or MTs dynamics as well as by the in vitro co-sedimentation assays. A putative MT-binding domain of tobacco NtARPC2 protein was identified using the co-sedimentation of several truncated NtARPC2 proteins with MTs. Newly identified MT-binding ability of ARPC2 subunit of Arp2/3 complex may represent a new molecular mechanism of AFs and MTs interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Havelková
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Gitanjali Nanda
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Martinek
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Erica Bellinvia
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Sikorová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Šlajcherová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Daniela Seifertová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Lukáš Fischer
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jindřiška Fišerová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Petrášek
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Schwarzerová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Viničná 5, 128 44 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
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70
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Tian J, Han L, Feng Z, Wang G, Liu W, Ma Y, Yu Y, Kong Z. Orchestration of microtubules and the actin cytoskeleton in trichome cell shape determination by a plant-unique kinesin. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 26287478 PMCID: PMC4574192 DOI: 10.7554/elife.09351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubules (MTs) and actin filaments (F-actin) function cooperatively to regulate plant cell morphogenesis. However, the mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between these two cytoskeletal systems, particularly in cell shape control, remain largely unknown. In this study, we show that introduction of the MyTH4-FERM tandem into KCBP (kinesin-like calmodulin-binding protein) during evolution conferred novel functions. The MyTH4 domain and the FERM domain in the N-terminal tail of KCBP physically bind to MTs and F-actin, respectively. During trichome morphogenesis, KCBP distributes in a specific cortical gradient and concentrates at the branching sites and the apexes of elongating branches, which lack MTs but have cortical F-actin. Further, live-cell imaging and genetic analyses revealed that KCBP acts as a hub integrating MTs and actin filaments to assemble the required cytoskeletal configuration for the unique, polarized diffuse growth pattern during trichome cell morphogenesis. Our findings provide significant insights into the mechanisms underlying cytoskeletal regulation of cell shape determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Libo Han
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhidi Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guangda Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weiwei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yinping Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanjun Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaosheng Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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