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Lu L, Mao H. Quantifying the Effect of Repeated Impacts and Lateral Tip Movements on Brain Responses during Controlled Cortical Impact. J Neurotrauma 2019; 36:1828-1835. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.5929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Lu
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Haojie Mao
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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Tóth A, Berente Z, Bogner P, Környei B, Balogh B, Czeiter E, Amrein K, Dóczi T, Büki A, Schwarcz A. Cerebral Microbleeds Temporarily Become Less Visible or Invisible in Acute Susceptibility Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Rat Study. J Neurotrauma 2019; 36:1670-1677. [PMID: 30421664 PMCID: PMC6531906 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.6004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, we reported human traumatic brain injury cases demonstrating acute to subacute microbleed appearance changes in susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI—magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]). This study aims to confirm and characterize such temporal microbleed appearance alterations in an experimental model. To elicit microbleed formation, brains of male Sprague Dawley rats were pierced in a depth of 4 mm, in a parasagittal position bilaterally using 159 μm and 474 μm needles, without the injection of autologous blood or any agent. Rats underwent 4.7 T MRI immediately, then at multiple time points until 125 h. Volumes of hypointensities consistent with microbleeds in SWI were measured using an intensity threshold-based approach. Microbleed volumes across time points were compared using repeated measures analysis of variance. Microbleeds were assessed by Prussian blue histology at different time points. Hypointensity volumes referring to microbleeds were significantly decreased (corrected p < 0.05) at 24 h compared with the immediate or the 125 h time points. By visual inspection, microbleeds were similarly detectable at the immediate and 125 h imaging but were decreased in extent or completely absent at 24 h or 48 h. Histology confirmed the presence of microbleeds at all time points and in all animals. This study confirmed a general temporary reduction in visibility of microbleeds in the acute phase in SWI. Such short-term appearance dynamics of microbleeds should be considered when using SWI as a diagnostic tool for microbleeds in traumatic brain injury and various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnold Tóth
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,2 Department of Radiology, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,3 MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Berente
- 4 Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,5 János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.,6 Research Group for Experimental Diagnostic Imaging, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Péter Bogner
- 2 Department of Radiology, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Bálint Környei
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Bendegúz Balogh
- 2 Department of Radiology, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Endre Czeiter
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,3 MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Pécs, Hungary.,5 János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Krisztina Amrein
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,5 János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Dóczi
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,3 MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Pécs, Hungary.,7 Diagnostic Center of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - András Büki
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary.,5 János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Attila Schwarcz
- 1 Department of Neurosurgery, Pécs Medical School, Pécs, Hungary
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A 1 rather than A 2A adenosine receptor as a possible target of Guanosine effects on mitochondrial dysfunction following Traumatic Brain Injury in rats. Neurosci Lett 2019; 704:141-144. [PMID: 30974229 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Its pathophysiology involves several neurochemical events including mitochondrial dysfunction. Since mitochondrial respiration plays a key role in cell survival, pharmacological interventions targeting mitochondrial function have been highlighted as a powerful tool against the neurodegenerative process triggered by TBI. Guanosine (GUO), a neuroprotective molecule in different neurological disorders involving neurotoxicity, has shown protective properties after TBI, however its mechanism of action is not well understood in the central nervous system (CNS). Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the possible target receptor involved in the protective GUO effects on TBI-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in the cerebral cortex of rats. Results show that a single dose of GUO (7.5 mg/kg) injected 40 min after a fluid percussion injury (FPI) protects against loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and increase of reactive oxygen species 8 h post-TBI. These effects were specifically blocked by a pretreatment (10 min after TBI) with an A1 adenosine receptor antagonist (DPCPX 1 mg/kg). In contrast, pretreatment with an A2A adenosine receptor antagonist (SCH 58261 0.05 mg/kg) did not alter GUO effects. These findings suggest that acute GUO neuroprotection following TBI involves the modulation of the adenosinergic system, especially A1 adenosine receptor.
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54
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Ndode-Ekane XE, Santana-Gomez C, Casillas-Espinosa PM, Ali I, Brady RD, Smith G, Andrade P, Immonen R, Puhakka N, Hudson MR, Braine EL, Shultz SR, Staba RJ, O'Brien TJ, Pitkänen A. Harmonization of lateral fluid-percussion injury model production and post-injury monitoring in a preclinical multicenter biomarker discovery study on post-traumatic epileptogenesis. Epilepsy Res 2019; 151:7-16. [PMID: 30711714 PMCID: PMC6812686 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Multi-center preclinical studies can facilitate the discovery of biomarkers of antiepileptogenesis and thus facilitate the diagnosis and treatment development of patients at risk of developing post-traumatic epilepsy. However, these studies are often limited by the difficulty in harmonizing experimental protocols between laboratories. Here, we assess whether the production of traumatic brain injury (TBI) using the lateral fluid-percussion injury (FPI) in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (12 weeks at the time of injury) was harmonized between three laboratories - located in the University of Eastern Finland (UEF), Monash University in Melbourne, Australia (Melbourne) and The University of California, Los Angeles, USA (UCLA). These laboratories are part of the international multicenter-based project, the Epilepsy Bioinformatics Study for Antiepileptogenesis Therapy (EpiBioS4Rx). Lateral FPI was induced in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. The success of methodological harmonization was assessed by performing inter-site comparison of injury parameters including duration of anesthesia during surgery, impact pressure, post-impact transient apnea, post-impact seizure-like behavior, acute mortality (<72 h post-injury), time to self-right after the impact, and severity of the injury (assessed with the neuroscore). The data was collected using Common Data Elements and Case Report Forms. The acute mortality was 15% (UEF), 50% (Melbourne) and 57% (UCLA) (p < 0.001). The sites differed in the duration of anesthesia, the shortest being at UEF < Melbourne < UCLA (p < 0.001). The impact pressure used also differed between the sites, the highest being in UEF > Melbourne > UCLA (p < 0.001). The impact pressure associated with the severity of the functional deficits (low neuroscore) (P < 0.05) only at UEF, but not at any of the other sites. Additionally, the sites differed in the duration of post-impact transient apnea (p < 0.001) and time to self-right (P < 0.001), the highest values in both parameters was registered in Melbourne. Post-impact seizure-like behavior was observed in 51% (UEF), 25% (Melbourne) and 2% (UCLA) of rats (p < 0.001). Despite the differences in means when all sites were compared there was significant overlap in injury parameters between the sites. The data reflects the technical difficulties in the production of lateral FPI across multiple sites. On the other hand, the data can be used to model the heterogeneity in human cohorts with closed-head injury. Our animal cohort will provide a good starting point to investigate the factors associated with epileptogenesis after lateral FPI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cesar Santana-Gomez
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Pablo M Casillas-Espinosa
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Idrish Ali
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Rhys D Brady
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Gregory Smith
- Department of Neurosurgery, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Pedro Andrade
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Finland
| | - Riikka Immonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Finland
| | - Noora Puhakka
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Finland
| | - Matthew R Hudson
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Emma L Braine
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Sandy R Shultz
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia
| | - Richard J Staba
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Terence J O'Brien
- The Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC, 3052, Australia; Department of Neurology, The Alfred Hospital, Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia; Department of Neurology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, 3050, Australia
| | - Asla Pitkänen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Finland
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Time-Dependent Bidirectional Neuroprotection by Adenosine 2A Receptor in Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury. World Neurosurg 2019; 125:e743-e753. [PMID: 30735877 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2019.01.164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in both focal and diffuse brain pathological features that become severely exacerbated after the initial injury. Owing to this disease complexity, no effective therapeutic measure has yet been devised aimed directly at these pathological processes. We developed a clinically relevant model of TBI and tested the bidirectional neuroprotective role of adenosine 2A receptors (A2ARs) at different times. METHODS Wistar rats were divided into 4 treatment groups (sham, TBI, A2AR agonist [CGS-21680], and A2AR antagonist [SCH-58261]) and 4 post-TBI intervals (15 minutes and 1, 12, and 24 hours). A2AR agonist and antagonist effects were tested by the neurological functional score (NFS) and levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, interleukin-1β, oxidative stress antioxidant markers, and caspase-3. RESULTS The A2AR agonist-treated group showed significant NFS improvement at 15 minutes and 1 hour after TBI compared with the TBI group. However, no improvement was observed at 12 and 24 hours. The A2AR antagonists resulted in no NFS improvement at 15 minutes and 1 hour, and significant improvement observed at 12 and 24 hours. Significant neuroprotective effect with an A2AR agonist were observed with cyclic adenosine monophosphate, interleukin-1β, oxidative stress markers, catalase, and caspase-3 levels at 15 minutes and 1 hour after TBI. The A2AR antagonist showed no effect at these intervals but showed a protective effect at 12 and 24 hours after TBI. CONCLUSIONS The A2AR agonist showed a beneficial neuroprotective effect at the early stages after TBI, and the A2AR antagonist showed a benefit at the later stages after TBI. These findings suggest that A2AR agonists and antagonists should be used in accordance with the point at which the TBI occurred.
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56
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Liao R, Chen Y, Cheng L, Fan L, Chen H, Wan Y, You Y, Zheng Y, Jiang L, Chen Z, Zhang X, Hu W. Histamine H1 Receptors in Neural Stem Cells Are Required for the Promotion of Neurogenesis Conferred by H3 Receptor Antagonism following Traumatic Brain Injury. Stem Cell Reports 2019; 12:532-544. [PMID: 30745032 PMCID: PMC6409425 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurological recovery following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is limited, largely due to a deficiency in neurogenesis. The present study explores the effects of histamine H3 receptor (H3R) antagonism on TBI and mechanisms related to neurogenesis. H3R antagonism or H3R gene knockout alleviated neurological injury in the late phase of TBI, and also promoted neuroblast differentiation to enhance neurogenesis through activation of the histaminergic system. Histamine H1 receptor, but not H2 receptor, in neural stem cells is shown to be essential for this promotion by using Hrh1fl/fl;NestinCreERT2 and Hrh2fl/fl;NestinCreERT2 mice. Moreover, increase in mature and functional neurons at the penumbra area conferred by H3R antagonism was abrogated in Hrh1fl/fl;NestinCreERT2 mice. Taken together, H3R antagonism provides neuroprotection against TBI in the late phase through the promotion of neurogenesis, and the H1 receptor in neural stem cells is required for this action. H3R may serve as a new target for clinical treatment of TBI. Histamine H3R antagonism provides neuroprotection against traumatic brain injury H3R antagonism promotes neuroblast differentiation to enhance neurogenesis H1R in NSCs is required for the promotion of neurogenesis H3R antagonism increases mature and functional neurons mediated by H1R in NSCs
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Affiliation(s)
- Rujia Liao
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Youchao Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Li Cheng
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Lishi Fan
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Han Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Yushan Wan
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Yi You
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Yanrong Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Zhong Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Xiangnan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China.
| | - Weiwei Hu
- Department of Pharmacology, NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China; Pharmacy of Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, P.R. China.
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Ma X, Aravind A, Pfister BJ, Chandra N, Haorah J. Animal Models of Traumatic Brain Injury and Assessment of Injury Severity. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:5332-5345. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1454-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Kinder HA, Baker EW, West FD. The pig as a preclinical traumatic brain injury model: current models, functional outcome measures, and translational detection strategies. Neural Regen Res 2019; 14:413-424. [PMID: 30539807 PMCID: PMC6334610 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.245334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major contributor of long-term disability and a leading cause of death worldwide. A series of secondary injury cascades can contribute to cell death, tissue loss, and ultimately to the development of functional impairments. However, there are currently no effective therapeutic interventions that improve brain outcomes following TBI. As a result, a number of experimental TBI models have been developed to recapitulate TBI injury mechanisms and to test the efficacy of potential therapeutics. The pig model has recently come to the forefront as the pig brain is closer in size, structure, and composition to the human brain compared to traditional rodent models, making it an ideal large animal model to study TBI pathophysiology and functional outcomes. This review will focus on the shared characteristics between humans and pigs that make them ideal for modeling TBI and will review the three most common pig TBI models-the diffuse axonal injury, the controlled cortical impact, and the fluid percussion models. It will also review current advances in functional outcome assessment measures and other non-invasive, translational TBI detection and measurement tools like biomarker analysis and magnetic resonance imaging. The use of pigs as TBI models and the continued development and improvement of translational assessment modalities have made significant contributions to unraveling the complex cascade of TBI sequela and provide an important means to study potential clinically relevant therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly A Kinder
- Regenerative Bioscience Center; Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Emily W Baker
- Regenerative Bioscience Center; Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Franklin D West
- Regenerative Bioscience Center; Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Komol’tsev IG, Volkova AA, Levshina IP, Novikova MR, Manolova AO, Stepanichev MY, Gulyaeva NV. The Number of IgG-Positive Neurons in the Rat Hippocampus Increases after Dosed Traumatic Brain Injury. NEUROCHEM J+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712418030054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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da Silva Fiorin F, do Espírito Santo CC, Santos ARS, Fighera MR, Royes LFF. Implication of surgical procedure in the induction of headache and generalized painful sensation in a fluid percussion injury model in rats. J Neurosci Methods 2018; 307:23-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Brady RD, Casillas-Espinosa PM, Agoston DV, Bertram EH, Kamnaksh A, Semple BD, Shultz SR. Modelling traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic epilepsy in rodents. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 123:8-19. [PMID: 30121231 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is one of the most debilitating and understudied consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It is challenging to study the effects, underlying pathophysiology, biomarkers, and treatment of TBI and PTE purely in human patients for a number of reasons. Rodent models can complement human PTE studies as they allow for the rigorous investigation into the causal relationship between TBI and PTE, the pathophysiological mechanisms of PTE, the validation and implementation of PTE biomarkers, and the assessment of PTE treatments, in a tightly controlled, time- and cost-efficient manner in experimental subjects known to be experiencing epileptogenic processes. This article will review several common rodent models of TBI and/or PTE, including their use in previous studies and discuss their relative strengths, limitations, and avenues for future research to advance our understanding and treatment of PTE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys D Brady
- Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, VIC 3004, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Pablo M Casillas-Espinosa
- Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, VIC 3004, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Denes V Agoston
- Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Edward H Bertram
- Department of Neurology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 800394, Charlottesville, VA 22908-0394, USA
| | - Alaa Kamnaksh
- Anatomy, Physiology & Genetics, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Bridgette D Semple
- Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, VIC 3004, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Sandy R Shultz
- Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, VIC 3004, Australia; Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
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Dobrachinski F, Gerbatin RR, Sartori G, Golombieski RM, Antoniazzi A, Nogueira CW, Royes LF, Fighera MR, Porciúncula LO, Cunha RA, Soares FAA. Guanosine Attenuates Behavioral Deficits After Traumatic Brain Injury by Modulation of Adenosinergic Receptors. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:3145-3158. [PMID: 30105669 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1296-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, triggering chronic neurodegeneration underlying cognitive and mood disorder still without therapeutic prospects. Based on our previous observations that guanosine (GUO) attenuates short-term neurochemical alterations caused by TBI, this study investigated the effects of chronical GUO treatment in behavioral, molecular, and morphological disturbances 21 days after trauma. Rats subject to TBI displayed mood (anxiety-like) and memory dysfunction. This was accompanied by a decreased expression of both synaptic (synaptophysin) and plasticity proteins (BDNF and CREB), a loss of cresyl violet-stained neurons, and increased astrogliosis and microgliosis in the hippocampus. Notably, chronic GUO treatment (7.5 mg/kg i.p. daily starting 1 h after TBI) prevented all these TBI-induced long-term behavioral, neurochemical, and morphological modifications. This neuroprotective effect of GUO was abrogated in the presence of the adenosine A1 receptor antagonist DPCPX (1 mg/kg) but unaltered by the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist SCH58261 (0.05 mg/kg). These findings show that a chronic GUO treatment prevents the long-term mood and memory dysfunction triggered by TBI, which involves adenosinergic receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Dobrachinski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
- CNC - Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rogério R Gerbatin
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Gláubia Sartori
- Laboratory of Synthesis, Reactivity and Pharmacological Evaluating and Toxicology of Organochalcogens, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo M Golombieski
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Alfredo Antoniazzi
- Laboratory of Biotechnology and Animal Reproduction - BioRep Veterinary Hospital, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Cristina W Nogueira
- Laboratory of Synthesis, Reactivity and Pharmacological Evaluating and Toxicology of Organochalcogens, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Luiz F Royes
- Laboratory of Exercise Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Michele R Fighera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Lisiane O Porciúncula
- Laboratory of Studies on the Purinergic System, Department of Biochemistry / ICBS, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A Cunha
- CNC - Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-504, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Félix A A Soares
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil.
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63
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Letson HL, Dobson GP. Adenosine, lidocaine, and Mg2+ (ALM) resuscitation fluid protects against experimental traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2018; 84:908-916. [PMID: 29554045 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0000000000001874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Currently, no drug therapy prevents secondary injury progression after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our aim was to investigate the effects of small-volume intravenous adenosine, lidocaine, and Mg (ALM) resuscitation fluid after moderate TBI in a rat fluid-percussion injury model. METHODS Anesthetized, mechanically ventilated male Sprague-Dawley rats (449 ± 5 g) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) sham (craniotomy without TBI), (2) no-treatment, (3) saline-control, or (4) ALM therapy groups (all n = 16). A subdural probe was implanted in eight animals per group to measure cerebral blood flow. Fifteen minutes after moderate TBI was induced with lateral fluid percussion injury (2.57 atm), a single 3% NaCl ± ALM bolus (0.7 mL/kg) was injected intravenously, and after 60 minutes (Phase 1), 0.9% NaCl ± ALM stabilization "drip" (0.5 mL/kg per hour) was administered for 3 hours (Phase 2). RESULTS Mortality (without subdural brain probe) was 25% (saline controls) and 0% (ALM). Sixty minutes after bolus, ALM significantly increased cardiac function, cortical blood flow (CBF; approximately threefold) and blunted systemic inflammation compared to saline controls. Three hours after infusion drip, ALM improved left ventricular function, supported higher CBF, decreased proinflammatory cytokines systemically (IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor α, and regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted [RANTES]), increased anti-inflammatory cytokines in brain tissue (IL-10, IL-4), lowered brain injury markers (neuron-specific enolase, Syndecan-1, HMGB-1), reduced coagulopathy, increased platelet aggregation, and maintained baseline fibrinogen levels. Saline-controls were proinflammatory (brain, heart, lung, and blood) and hypocoagulable with neurogenic enlargement of the right side of the heart. Survival time significantly correlated with plasma neuron-specific enolase (p = 0.001) and CBF at 180 minutes (p = 0.009), and CBF correlated with brain anti-inflammatory cytokines (p = 0.001-0.034). CONCLUSION After moderate TBI, ALM resuscitation fluid increased survival and protected against early secondary injury by reducing coagulopathy, inflammation, and platelet dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley L Letson
- From the Heart, Trauma and Sepsis Research Laboratory (H.LL, G.P.D.), College of Medicine and Dentistry. James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
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Ouyang W, Wu W, Fan Z, Wang J, Pan H, Yang W. Modified device for fluid percussion injury in rodents. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96:1412-1429. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ouyang
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences; Zhejiang Normal University; Jinhua Zhejiang China
| | - Wenhui Wu
- School of Physical Education and Health; East China Jiaotong University; Nanchang Jiangxi China
| | - Zhiheng Fan
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences; Zhejiang Normal University; Jinhua Zhejiang China
| | - Jihui Wang
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences; Zhejiang Normal University; Jinhua Zhejiang China
| | - Huiju Pan
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences; Zhejiang Normal University; Jinhua Zhejiang China
| | - Weibin Yang
- Affiliated Sports Medicine Hospital, Zhejiang College of Sports; Hangzhou Zhejiang China
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Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) represents a significant public healthcare concern, accounting for the majority of all head injuries. While symptoms are generally transient, some patients go on to experience long-term cognitive impairments and additional mild impacts can result in exacerbated and persisting negative outcomes. To date, studies using a range of experimental models have reported chronic behavioral deficits in the presence of axonal injury and inflammation following repeated mTBI; assessments of oxidative stress and myelin pathology have thus far been limited. However, some models employed induced acute focal damage more suggestive of moderate–severe brain injury and are therefore not relevant to repeated mTBI. Given that the nature of mechanical loading in TBI is implicated in downstream pathophysiological changes, the mechanisms of damage and chronic consequences of single and repeated closed-head mTBI remain to be fully elucidated. This review covers literature on potential mechanisms of damage following repeated mTBI, integrating known mechanisms of pathology underlying moderate–severe TBIs, with recent studies on adult rodent models relevant to direct impact injuries rather than blast-induced damage. Pathology associated with excitotoxicity and cerebral blood flow-metabolism uncoupling, oxidative stress, cell death, blood-brain barrier dysfunction, astrocyte reactivity, microglial activation, diffuse axonal injury, and dysmyelination is discussed, followed by a summary of functional deficits and preclinical assessments of therapeutic strategies. Comprehensive characterization of the pathology underlying delayed and persisting deficits following repeated mTBI is likely to facilitate further development of therapeutic strategies to limit long-term sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Fehily
- 1 Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Melinda Fitzgerald
- 1 Experimental and Regenerative Neurosciences, School of Biological sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,2 Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,3 Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Sarich Neuroscience Research Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia
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Irvine KA, Sahbaie P, Liang DY, Clark JD. Traumatic Brain Injury Disrupts Pain Signaling in the Brainstem and Spinal Cord. J Neurotrauma 2018; 35:1495-1509. [PMID: 29373948 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2017.5411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain is a common consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that can increase the suffering of a patient and pose a significant challenge to rehabilitative efforts. Unfortunately, the mechanisms linking TBI to pain are poorly understood, and specific treatments for TBI-related pain are still lacking. Our laboratory has shown that TBI causes pain sensitization in areas distant to the site of primary injury, and that changes in spinal gene expression may underlie this sensitization. The aim of this study was to examine the roles that pain modulatory pathways descending from the brainstem play in pain after TBI. Deficiencies in one type of descending inhibition, diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC), have been suggested to be responsible for the development of chronic pain by allowing excess and uncontrolled afferent nociceptive inputs. Here we expand our knowledge of pain after TBI in two ways: (1) by outlining the neuropathology in pain-related centers of the brain and spinal cord involved in DNIC using the rat lateral fluid percussion (LFP) model of TBI, and (2) by evaluating the effects of a potent histone acetyl transferase inhibitor, anacardic acid (AA), on LFP-induced pain behaviors and neuropathology when administered for several days after TBI. The results revealed that TBI induces transient mechanical allodynia and a chronic persistent loss of DNIC. Further, while short-term AA treatment can block acute nociceptive sensitization and some early neuropathological changes, this treatment neither prevented the loss of DNIC nor did it alter long-term neuropathological changes in the brain or spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen-Amanda Irvine
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System , Palo Alto, California.,2 Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative Medicine and Pain, Stanford University , Stanford, California
| | - Peyman Sahbaie
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System , Palo Alto, California.,2 Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative Medicine and Pain, Stanford University , Stanford, California
| | - De-Yong Liang
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System , Palo Alto, California.,2 Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative Medicine and Pain, Stanford University , Stanford, California
| | - J David Clark
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System , Palo Alto, California.,2 Department of Anesthesia, Perioperative Medicine and Pain, Stanford University , Stanford, California
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Obukhov K, Kersher I, Komoltsev I, Obukhov Y. Epileptiform Activity Detection and Classification Algorithms of Rats with Post-traumatic Epilepsy. PATTERN RECOGNITION AND IMAGE ANALYSIS 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1054661818020153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Exercise Rehabilitation Attenuates Cognitive Deficits in Rats with Traumatic Brain Injury by Stimulating the Cerebral HSP20/BDNF/TrkB Signalling Axis. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:8602-8611. [PMID: 29574629 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1011-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Physical exercise (PE) is an effective method for improving cognitive function among patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). We previously demonstrated that PE with an infrared-sensing running wheel (ISRW) system provides strong neuroprotection in an experimental animal model of stroke. In this study, we used fluid percussion injury in rats to simulate mild TBI. For rats, we used both passive avoidance learning and the Y-maze tests to evaluate cognitive function. We investigated whether PE rehabilitation attenuated cognitive deficits in rats with TBI and determined the contribution of hippocampal and cortical expression of heat shock protein 20 (HSP20) to PE-mediated cognitive recovery. In addition to increasing hippocampal and cortical expression of HSP20, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) ratio, PE rehabilitation significantly attenuated brain contusion and improved cognitive deficits in the rat model. Furthermore, reducing hippocampal and cortical expression of HSP20 with an intracerebral injection of pSUPER hsp20 small interfering RNA significantly diminished the PE-induced overexpression of hippocampal and cortical BDNF and the TrkB ratio and also reversed the beneficial effect of PE in reducing neurotrauma and the cognitive deficits. A positive Pearson correlation was found between HSP20 and BDNF, as well as between HSP20 and TrkB, in the hippocampal and cortical tissues. We thus conclude that post-ischaemic ISRW exercise rehabilitation attenuates cognitive deficits, as well as brain contusions, in TBI rats by stimulating the cerebral HSP20/BDNF/TrkB signalling axis.
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Flygt J, Clausen F, Marklund N. Diffuse traumatic brain injury in the mouse induces a transient proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in injured white matter tracts. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2018; 35:251-263. [PMID: 27768001 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-160675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injury to the white matter may lead to impaired neuronal signaling and is commonly observed following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although endogenous repair of TBI-induced white matter pathology is limited, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) may be stimulated to proliferate and regenerate functionally myelinating oligodendrocytes. Even though OPCs are present throughout the adult brain, little is known about their proliferative activity following axonal injury caused by TBI. OBJECTIVE We hypothesized that central fluid percussion injury (cFPI) in mice, a TBI model causing wide-spread axonal injury, results in OPC proliferation. METHODS Proliferation of OPCs was evaluated in 27 cFPI mice using 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) labeling and a cell proliferation assay at 2 (n = 9), 7 (n = 8) and 21 (n = 10) days post injury (dpi). Sham-injured mice (n = 14) were used as controls. OPC proliferation was quantified by immunohistochemistry using the OPC markers NG2 and Olig2 in several white matter loci including the corpus callosum, external capsule, fimbriae, the internal capsule and cerebral peduncle. RESULTS The number of EdU/DAPI/Olig2-positive cells were increased in the cFPI group compared to sham-injured animals at 7 days post-injury (dpi; p≤0.05) in the majority of white matter regions. The OPC proliferation had subsided by 21 dpi. The number of EdU/DAPI/NG2 cells was also increase at 7 dpi in the external capsule and fimbriae. CONCLUSION These results suggest that traumatic axonal injury in the mouse induces a transient proliferative response of residing OPCs. These proliferating OPCs may replace dead oligodendrocytes and contribute to remyelination, which needs evaluation in future studies.
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Bhowmick S, D'Mello V, Ponery N, Abdul-Muneer PM. Neurodegeneration and Sensorimotor Deficits in the Mouse Model of Traumatic Brain Injury. Brain Sci 2018; 8:brainsci8010011. [PMID: 29316623 PMCID: PMC5789342 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in persistent sensorimotor and cognitive deficits, which occur through a cascade of deleterious pathophysiological events over time. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that neurodegeneration caused by TBI leads to impairments in sensorimotor function. TBI induces the activation of the caspase-3 enzyme, which triggers cell apoptosis in an in vivo model of fluid percussion injury (FPI). We analyzed caspase-3 mediated apoptosis by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and annexin V western blotting. We correlated the neurodegeneration with sensorimotor deficits by conducting the animal behavioral tests including grid walk, balance beam, the inverted screen test, and the climb test. Our study demonstrated that the excess cell death or neurodegeneration correlated with the neuronal dysfunction and sensorimotor impairments associated with TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurav Bhowmick
- Laboratory of CNS Injury and Repair, Neuroscience Institute, JFK Medical Center, 65 James St, Edison, NJ 08820, USA.
| | - Veera D'Mello
- Laboratory of CNS Injury and Repair, Neuroscience Institute, JFK Medical Center, 65 James St, Edison, NJ 08820, USA.
| | - Nizmi Ponery
- Laboratory of CNS Injury and Repair, Neuroscience Institute, JFK Medical Center, 65 James St, Edison, NJ 08820, USA.
| | - P M Abdul-Muneer
- Laboratory of CNS Injury and Repair, Neuroscience Institute, JFK Medical Center, 65 James St, Edison, NJ 08820, USA.
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Chandel S, Gupta SK, Medhi B. Epileptogenesis following experimentally induced traumatic brain injury - a systematic review. Rev Neurosci 2018; 27:329-46. [PMID: 26581067 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2015-0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex neurotrauma in civilian life and the battlefield with a broad spectrum of symptoms, long-term neuropsychological disability, as well as mortality worldwide. Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a common outcome of TBI with unknown mechanisms, followed by posttraumatic epileptogenesis. There are numerous rodent models of TBI available with varying pathomechanisms of head injury similar to human TBI, but there is no evidence for an adequate TBI model that can properly mimic all aspects of clinical TBI and the first successive spontaneous focal seizures follow a single episode of neurotrauma with respect to epileptogenesis. This review aims to provide current information regarding the various experimental animal models of TBI relevant to clinical TBI. Mossy fiber sprouting, loss of dentate hilar neurons along with recurrent seizures, and epileptic discharge similar to human PTE have been studied in fluid percussion injury, weight-drop injury, and cortical impact models, but further refinement of animal models and functional test is warranted to better understand the underlying pathophysiology of posttraumatic epileptogenesis. A multifaceted research approach in TBI model may lead to exploration of the potential treatment measures, which are a major challenge to the research community and drug developers. With respect to clinical setting, proper patient data collection, improved clinical trials with advancement in drug delivery strategies, blood-brain barrier permeability, and proper monitoring of level and effects of target drug are also important.
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Transforming growth factor-beta 1 signaling regulates neuroinflammation and apoptosis in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 64:244-258. [PMID: 28433746 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a low-level injury, which often remains undiagnosed, and in most cases it leads to death and disability as it advances as secondary injury. Therefore, it is important to study the underlying signaling mechanisms of mTBI-associated neurological ailments. While transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) has a significant role in inflammation and apoptosis in myriads of other pathophysiological conditions, the precise function of increased TGF-β1 after mTBI is unknown. In this study, our objective is to study the physiological relevance and associated mechanisms of TGF-β1-mediated inflammation and apoptosis in mTBI. Using an in vitro stretch-injury model in rat neuronal cultures and the in vivo fluid percussion injury (FPI) model in rats, we explored the significance of TGF-β1 activation in mTBI. Our study demonstrated that the activation of TGF-β1 in mTBI correlated with the induction of free radical generating enzyme NADPH oxidase 1 (NOX1). Further, using TGF-β type I receptor (TGF-βRI) inhibitor SB431542 and transfection of TGF-β1 siRNA and TGF-β antagonist Smad7, we established the neuroinflammatory and apoptotic role of TGF-β1 in mTBI. Inhibition of TGF-βRI or TGF-β1 diminished TGF-β1-induced inflammation and apoptosis. Further, the enhanced TGF-β1 activation increased the phosphorylation of R-Smads including Smad2 and Smad3 proteins. By immunofluorescence, western blotting, ELISA and TUNEL experiments, we demonstrated the up-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α and apoptotic cell death in neurons. In conclusion, this study could establish the significance of TGF-β1 in transforming the pathophysiology of mTBI into secondary injury.
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73
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Wilson NM, Gurney ME, Dietrich WD, Atkins CM. Therapeutic benefits of phosphodiesterase 4B inhibition after traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0178013. [PMID: 28542295 PMCID: PMC5438188 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) initiates a deleterious inflammatory response that exacerbates pathology and worsens outcome. This inflammatory response is partially mediated by a reduction in cAMP and a concomitant upregulation of cAMP-hydrolyzing phosphodiesterases (PDEs) acutely after TBI. The PDE4B subfamily, specifically PDE4B2, has been found to regulate cAMP in inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils, macrophages and microglia. To determine if PDE4B regulates inflammation and subsequent pathology after TBI, adult male Sprague Dawley rats received sham surgery or moderate parasagittal fluid-percussion brain injury (2 ± 0.2 atm) and were then treated with a PDE4B - selective inhibitor, A33, or vehicle for up to 3 days post-surgery. Treatment with A33 reduced markers of microglial activation and neutrophil infiltration at 3 and 24 hrs after TBI, respectively. A33 treatment also reduced cortical contusion volume at 3 days post-injury. To determine whether this treatment paradigm attenuated TBI-induced behavioral deficits, animals were evaluated over a period of 6 weeks after surgery for forelimb placement asymmetry, contextual fear conditioning, water maze performance and spatial working memory. A33 treatment significantly improved contextual fear conditioning and water maze retention at 24 hrs post-training. However, this treatment did not rescue sensorimotor or working memory deficits. At 2 months after surgery, atrophy and neuronal loss were measured. A33 treatment significantly reduced neuronal loss in the pericontusional cortex and hippocampal CA3 region. This treatment paradigm also reduced cortical, but not hippocampal, atrophy. Overall, these results suggest that acute PDE4B inhibition may be a viable treatment to reduce inflammation, pathology and memory deficits after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M. Wilson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mark E. Gurney
- Tetra Discovery Partners, Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States of America
| | - W. Dalton Dietrich
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Coleen M. Atkins
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Sandsmark DK, Elliott JE, Lim MM. Sleep-Wake Disturbances After Traumatic Brain Injury: Synthesis of Human and Animal Studies. Sleep 2017; 40:3074241. [PMID: 28329120 PMCID: PMC6251652 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsx044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep-wake disturbances following traumatic brain injury (TBI) are increasingly recognized as a serious consequence following injury and as a barrier to recovery. Injury-induced sleep-wake disturbances can persist for years, often impairing quality of life. Recently, there has been a nearly exponential increase in the number of primary research articles published on the pathophysiology and mechanisms underlying sleep-wake disturbances after TBI, both in animal models and in humans, including in the pediatric population. In this review, we summarize over 200 articles on the topic, most of which were identified objectively using reproducible online search terms in PubMed. Although these studies differ in terms of methodology and detailed outcomes; overall, recent research describes a common phenotype of excessive daytime sleepiness, nighttime sleep fragmentation, insomnia, and electroencephalography spectral changes after TBI. Given the heterogeneity of the human disease phenotype, rigorous translation of animal models to the human condition is critical to our understanding of the mechanisms and of the temporal course of sleep-wake disturbances after injury. Arguably, this is most effectively accomplished when animal and human studies are performed by the same or collaborating research programs. Given the number of symptoms associated with TBI that are intimately related to, or directly stem from sleep dysfunction, sleep-wake disorders represent an important area in which mechanistic-based therapies may substantially impact recovery after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan E Elliott
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
| | - Miranda M Lim
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR
- Department of Neurology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
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Sackheim AM, Stockwell D, Villalba N, Haines L, Scott CL, Russell S, Hammack SE, Freeman K. Traumatic brain injury impairs sensorimotor function in mice. J Surg Res 2017; 213:100-109. [PMID: 28601302 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2017.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Understanding the extent to which murine models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) replicate clinically relevant neurologic outcomes is critical for mechanistic and therapeutic studies. We determined sensorimotor outcomes in a mouse model of TBI and validated the use of a standardized neurologic examination scoring system to quantify the extent of injury. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used a lateral fluid percussion injury model of TBI and compared TBI animals to those that underwent sham surgery. We measured neurobehavioral deficits using a standardized 12-point neurologic examination, magnetic resonance imaging, a rotating rod test, and longitudinal acoustic startle testing. RESULTS TBI animals had a significantly decreased ability to balance on a rotating rod and a marked reduction in the amplitude of acoustic startle response. The neurologic examination had a high inter-rater reliability (87% agreement) and correlated with latency to fall on a rotating rod (Rs = -0.809). CONCLUSIONS TBI impairs sensorimotor function in mice, and the extent of impairment can be predicted by a standardized neurologic examination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Stockwell
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Nuria Villalba
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Department of Pharmacology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Laurel Haines
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Chary L Scott
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Sheila Russell
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Sayamwong E Hammack
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
| | - Kalev Freeman
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont; Department of Pharmacology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont.
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Ouyang W, Yan Q, Zhang Y, Fan Z. Moderate injury in motor-sensory cortex causes behavioral deficits accompanied by electrophysiological changes in mice adulthood. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171976. [PMID: 28196142 PMCID: PMC5308857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Moderate traumatic brain injury (TBI) in children often happen when there’s a sudden blow to the frontal bone, end with long unconscious which can last for hours and progressive cognitive deficits. However, with regard to the influences of moderate TBI during children adulthood, injury-induced alterations of locomotive ability, long-term memory performance, and hippocampal electrophysiological firing changes have not yet been fully identified. In this study, lateral fluid percussion (LFP) method was used to fabricate moderate TBI in motor and somatosensory cortex of the 6-weeks-old mice. The motor function, learning and memory function, extracellular CA1 neural spikes were assessed during acute and subacute phase. Moreover, histopathology was performed on day post injury (DPI) 16 to evaluate the effect of TBI on tissue and cell morphological changes in cortical and hippocampal CA1 subregions. After moderate LFP injury, the 6-weeks-old mice showed severe motor deficits at the early stage in acute phase but gradually recovered later during adulthood. At the time points in acute and subacute phase after TBI, novel object recognition (NOR) ability and spatial memory functions were consistently impaired in TBI mice; hippocampal firing frequency and burst probability were hampered. Analysis of the altered burst firing shows a clear hippocampal theta rhythm drop. These electrophysiological impacts were associated with substantially lowered NOR preference as compared to the sham group during adulthood. These results suggest that moderate TBI introduced at motorsenory cortex in 6-weeks-old mice causes obvious motor and cognitive deficits during their adulthood. While the locomotive ability progressively recovers, the cognitive deficits persisted while the mice mature as adult mice. The cognitive deficits may be attributed to the general suppressing of whole neural network, which could be labeled by marked reduction of excitability in hippocampal CA1 subregion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ouyang
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Qichao Yan
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Zhiheng Fan
- College of Physical Education and Health Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
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Overview of Traumatic Brain Injury: An Immunological Context. Brain Sci 2017; 7:brainsci7010011. [PMID: 28124982 PMCID: PMC5297300 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci7010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) afflicts people of all ages and genders, and the severity of injury ranges from concussion/mild TBI to severe TBI. Across all spectrums, TBI has wide-ranging, and variable symptomology and outcomes. Treatment options are lacking for the early neuropathology associated with TBIs and for the chronic neuropathological and neurobehavioral deficits. Inflammation and neuroinflammation appear to be major mediators of TBI outcomes. These systems are being intensively studies using animal models and human translational studies, in the hopes of understanding the mechanisms of TBI, and developing therapeutic strategies to improve the outcomes of the millions of people impacted by TBIs each year. This manuscript provides an overview of the epidemiology and outcomes of TBI, and presents data obtained from animal and human studies focusing on an inflammatory and immunological context. Such a context is timely, as recent studies blur the traditional understanding of an “immune-privileged” central nervous system. In presenting the evidence for specific, adaptive immune response after TBI, it is hoped that future studies will be interpreted using a broader perspective that includes the contributions of the peripheral immune system, to central nervous system disorders, notably TBI and post-traumatic syndromes.
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Dobrachinski F, da Rosa Gerbatin R, Sartori G, Ferreira Marques N, Zemolin AP, Almeida Silva LF, Franco JL, Freire Royes LF, Rechia Fighera M, Antunes Soares FA. Regulation of Mitochondrial Function and Glutamatergic System Are the Target of Guanosine Effect in Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:1318-1328. [PMID: 27931151 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a highly complex multi-factorial disorder. Experimental trauma involves primary and secondary injury cascades that underlie delayed neuronal dysfunction and death. Mitochondrial dysfunction and glutamatergic excitotoxicity are the hallmark mechanisms of damage. Accordingly, a successful pharmacological intervention requires a multi-faceted approach. Guanosine (GUO) is known for its neuromodulator effects in various models of brain pathology, specifically those that involve the glutamatergic system. The aim of the study was to investigate the GUO effects against mitochondrial damage in hippocampus and cortex of rats subjected to TBI, as well as the relationship of this effect with the glutamatergic system. Adult male Wistar rats were subjected to a unilateral moderate fluid percussion brain injury (FPI) and treated 15 min later with GUO (7.5 mg/kg) or vehicle (saline 0.9%). Analyses were performed in hippocampus and cortex 3 h post-trauma and revealed significant mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by a disrupted membrane potential, unbalanced redox system, decreased mitochondrial viability, and complex I inhibition. Further, disruption of Ca2+ homeostasis and increased mitochondrial swelling was also noted. Our results showed that mitochondrial dysfunction contributed to decreased glutamate uptake and levels of glial glutamate transporters (glutamate transporter 1 and glutamate aspartate transporter), which leads to excitotoxicity. GUO treatment ameliorated mitochondrial damage and glutamatergic dyshomeostasis. Thus, GUO might provide a new efficacious strategy for the treatment acute physiological alterations secondary to TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Dobrachinski
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil .,5 CNC-Centro de Neurociências e Biologia Celular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Coimbra , Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rogério da Rosa Gerbatin
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil .,2 Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Gláubia Sartori
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Naiani Ferreira Marques
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Ana Paula Zemolin
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Luiz Fernando Almeida Silva
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Jeferson Luis Franco
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil .,4 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Pampa , Campus São Gabriel, São Gabriel, RS, Brasil
| | - Luiz Fernando Freire Royes
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil .,2 Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Michele Rechia Fighera
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil .,3 Departamento de Neuropsiquiatria, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - Félix Alexandre Antunes Soares
- 1 Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
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79
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Phosphodiesterase-4B as a Therapeutic Target for Cognitive Impairment and Obesity-Related Metabolic Diseases. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 17:103-131. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58811-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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80
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Martinez B, Peplow PV. MicroRNAs as diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for traumatic brain injury. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:1749-1761. [PMID: 29239310 PMCID: PMC5745818 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.219025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is characterized by primary damage to the brain from the external mechanical force and by subsequent secondary injury due to various molecular and pathophysiological responses that eventually lead to neuronal cell death. Secondary brain injury events may occur minutes, hours, or even days after the trauma, and provide valuable therapeutic targets to prevent further neuronal degeneration. At the present time, there is no effective treatment for TBI due, in part, to the widespread impact of numerous complex secondary biochemical and pathophysiological events occurring at different time points following the initial injury. MicroRNAs control a range of physiological and pathological functions such as development, differentiation, apoptosis and metabolism, and may serve as potential targets for progress assessment and intervention against TBI to mitigate secondary damage to the brain. This has implications regarding improving the diagnostic accuracy of brain impairment and long-term outcomes as well as potential novel treatments. Recent human studies have identified specific microRNAs in serum/plasma (miR-425-p, -21, -93, -191 and -499) and cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) (miR-328, -362-3p, -451, -486a) as possible indicators of the diagnosis, severity, and prognosis of TBI. Experimental animal studies have examined specific microRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for moderate and mild TBI (e.g., miR-21, miR-23b). MicroRNA profiling was altered by voluntary exercise. Differences in basal microRNA expression in the brain of adult and aged animals and alterations in response to TBI (e.g., miR-21) have also been reported. Further large-scale studies with TBI patients are needed to provide more information on the changes in microRNA profiles in different age groups (children, adults, and elderly).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Martinez
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Philip V Peplow
- Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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81
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Liang DY, Sahbaie P, Sun Y, Irvine KA, Shi X, Meidahl A, Liu P, Guo TZ, Yeomans DC, Clark JD. TBI-induced nociceptive sensitization is regulated by histone acetylation. IBRO Rep 2016; 2:14-23. [PMID: 30135929 PMCID: PMC6084866 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibror.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is very common, but the mechanisms linking TBI to pain and the pain-related interactions of TBI with peripheral injuries are poorly understood. In these studies we pursued the hypothesis that TBI pain sensitization is associated with histone acetylation in the rat lateral fluid percussion model. Some animals received hindpaw incisions in addition to TBI to mimic polytrauma. Neuropathological analysis of brain tissue from sham and TBI animals revealed evidence of bleeding, breakdown of the blood brain barrier, in the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus and other structures related to pain signal processing. Mechanical allodynia was measured in these animals for up to eight weeks post-injury. Inhibitors of histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) were used to probe the role of histone acetylation in such pain processing. We followed serum markers including glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), neuron-specific enolase 2 (NSE) myelin basic protein (MBP) and S100β to gauge TBI injury severity. Our results showed that TBI caused mechanical allodynia in the hindpaws of the rats lasting several weeks. Hindpaws contralateral to TBI showed more rapid and profound sensitization than ipsilateral hindpaws. The inhibition of HAT using curcumin 50 mg/kg s.c reduced mechanical sensitization while the HDAC inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid 50 mg/kg i.p. prolonged sensitization in the TBI rats. Immunohistochemical analyses of spinal cord tissue localized changes in the level of acetylation of the H3K9 histone mark to dorsal horn neurons. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that TBI induces sustained nociceptive sensitization, and changes in spinal neuronal histone proteins may play an important role. Pain after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common and often persistent. Using the rat lateral fluid percussion model, it was observed that hindpaw allodynia is present for three weeks after TBI. Damage to pain processing areas of the brain can be demonstrated after TBI. Agents regulating the epigenetic acetylation of histone proteins modified the time course of TBI-induced allodynia.
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Affiliation(s)
- De-Yong Liang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Peyman Sahbaie
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Yuan Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Karen-Amanda Irvine
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Xiaoyou Shi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Anders Meidahl
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA
| | - Tian-Zhi Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA
| | - David C Yeomans
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - J David Clark
- Department of Anesthesiology, Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 3801 Miranda Ave, 94304, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, Pain and Perioperative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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82
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Lyeth BG. Historical Review of the Fluid-Percussion TBI Model. Front Neurol 2016; 7:217. [PMID: 27994570 PMCID: PMC5133434 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2016.00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health concern worldwide. Laboratory studies utilizing animal models of TBI are essential for addressing pathological mechanisms of brain injury and development of innovative treatments. Over the past 75 years, pioneering head injury researchers have devised and tested a number of fluid percussive methods to reproduce the concussive clinical syndrome in animals. The fluid-percussion brain injury technique has evolved from early investigations that applied a generalized loading of the brain to more recent computer-controlled systems. Of the many preclinical TBI models, the fluid-percussion technique is one of the most extensively characterized and widely used models. Some of the most important advances involved the development of the Stalhammer device to produce concussion in cats and the later characterization of this device for application in rodents. The goal of this historical review is to provide readers with an appreciation for the time and effort expended by the pioneering researchers who have led to today's state of the art fluid-percussion animal models of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce G. Lyeth
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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83
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Skovira JW, Wu J, Matyas JJ, Kumar A, Hanscom M, Kabadi SV, Fang R, Faden AI. Cell cycle inhibition reduces inflammatory responses, neuronal loss, and cognitive deficits induced by hypobaria exposure following traumatic brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:299. [PMID: 27903275 PMCID: PMC5131508 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0769-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients in military settings can be exposed to prolonged periods of hypobaria (HB) during aeromedical evacuation. Hypobaric exposure, even with supplemental oxygen to prevent hypoxia, worsens outcome after experimental TBI, in part by increasing neuroinflammation. Cell cycle activation (CCA) after TBI has been implicated as a mechanism contributing to both post-traumatic cell death and neuroinflammation. Here, we examined whether hypobaric exposure in rats subjected to TBI increases CCA and microglial activation in the brain, as compared to TBI alone, and to evaluate the ability of a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor (CR8) to reduce such changes and improve behavioral outcomes. Methods Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to fluid percussion-induced injury, and HB exposure was performed at 6 h after TBI. Western blot and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were used to assess cell cycle-related protein expression and inflammation at 1 and 30 days after injury. CR8 was administered intraperitoneally at 3 h post-injury; chronic functional recovery and histological changes were assessed. Results Post-traumatic hypobaric exposure increased upregulation of cell cycle-related proteins (cyclin D1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and CDK4) and microglial/macrophage activation in the ipsilateral cortex at day 1 post-injury as compared to TBI alone. Increased immunoreactivity of cell cycle proteins, as well as numbers of Iba-1+ and GFAP+ cells in both the ipsilateral cortex and hippocampus were found at day 30 post-injury. TBI/HB significantly increased the numbers of NADPH oxidase 2 (gp91phox) enzyme-expressing cells that were co-localized with Iba-1+. Each of these changes was significantly reduced by the administration of CR8. Unbiased stereological assessment showed significantly decreased numbers of microglia displaying the highly activated phenotype in the ipsilateral cortex of TBI/HB/CR8 rats compared with TBI/HB/Veh rats. Moreover, treatment with this CDK inhibitor also significantly improved spatial and retention memory and reduced lesion volume and hippocampal neuronal cell loss. Conclusions HB exposure following TBI increases CCA, neuroinflammation, and associated neuronal cell loss. These changes and post-traumatic cognitive deficits are reduced by CDK inhibition; such drugs may therefore serve to protect TBI patients requiring aeromedical evacuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob W Skovira
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.,Research Division Pharmacology Branch, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, MD, 21010, USA
| | - Junfang Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
| | - Jessica J Matyas
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Alok Kumar
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Marie Hanscom
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Shruti V Kabadi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Raymond Fang
- Program in Trauma, Center for the Sustainment of Trauma and Readiness Skills (C-STARS), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Alan I Faden
- Department of Anesthesiology and Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
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84
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Gerbatin RDR, Cassol G, Dobrachinski F, Ferreira APO, Quines CB, Pace IDD, Busanello GL, Gutierres JM, Nogueira CW, Oliveira MS, Soares FA, Morsch VM, Fighera MR, Royes LFF. Guanosine Protects Against Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Functional Impairments and Neuronal Loss by Modulating Excitotoxicity, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Inflammation. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:7585-7596. [PMID: 27830534 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0238-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common types of brain injuries that cause death or persistent neurological disturbances in survivors. Most of the promising experimental drugs were not effective in clinical trials; therefore, the development of TBI drugs represents a huge unmet need. Guanosine, an endogenous neuroprotective nucleoside, has not been evaluated in TBI to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, the present study evaluated the effect of guanosine on TBI-induced neurological damage. Our findings showed that a single dose of guanosine (7.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected 40 min after fluid percussion injury (FPI) in rats protected against locomotor and exploratory impairments 8 h after injury. The treatment also protected against neurochemical damage to the ipsilateral cortex, glutamate uptake, Na+/K+-ATPase, glutamine synthetase activity, and alterations in mitochondrial function. The inflammatory response and brain edema were also reduced by this nucleoside. In addition, guanosine protected against neuronal death and caspase 3 activation. Therefore, this study suggests that guanosine plays a neuroprotective role in TBI and can be exploited as a new pharmacological strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rogério da Rosa Gerbatin
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
| | - Gustavo Cassol
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Fernando Dobrachinski
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula O Ferreira
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Caroline B Quines
- Laboratório de Síntese, Reatividade e Avaliação Farmacológica e Toxicológica de Organocalcogênios, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Iuri D Della Pace
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Guilherme L Busanello
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Jessié M Gutierres
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Cristina W Nogueira
- Laboratório de Síntese, Reatividade e Avaliação Farmacológica e Toxicológica de Organocalcogênios, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Mauro S Oliveira
- Laboratório de Neurotoxicidade e Psicofarmacologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Félix A Soares
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Vera M Morsch
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Michele R Fighera
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
- Departamento de Neuropsiquiatria, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Luiz Fernando F Royes
- Laboratório de Bioquímica do Exercício, Centro de Educação Física e Desportos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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85
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Nemes A, Najm IM, Gale JT, Ying Z, Johnson M, Gonzalez-Martinez J. Underlying Cortical Dysplasia as Risk Factor for Traumatic Epilepsy: An Animal Study. J Neurotrauma 2016; 33:1883-1891. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Nemes
- Epilepsy Center, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Imad M. Najm
- Epilepsy Center, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - John T. Gale
- Department of Neurosciences and Center for Neurological Restoration, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Zhong Ying
- Epilepsy Center, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Matthew Johnson
- Department of Neurosciences and Center for Neurological Restoration, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Jorge Gonzalez-Martinez
- Epilepsy Center, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
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86
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Shultz SR, McDonald SJ, Vonder Haar C, Meconi A, Vink R, van Donkelaar P, Taneja C, Iverson GL, Christie BR. The potential for animal models to provide insight into mild traumatic brain injury: Translational challenges and strategies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 76:396-414. [PMID: 27659125 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common health problem. There is tremendous variability and heterogeneity in human mTBI, including mechanisms of injury, biomechanical forces, injury severity, spatial and temporal pathophysiology, genetic factors, pre-injury vulnerability and resilience factors, and clinical outcomes. Animal models greatly reduce this variability and heterogeneity, and provide a means to study mTBI in a rigorous, controlled, and efficient manner. Rodent models, in particular, are time- and cost-efficient, and they allow researchers to measure morphological, cellular, molecular, and behavioral variables in a single study. However, inter-species differences in anatomy, morphology, metabolism, neurobiology, and lifespan create translational challenges. Although the term "mild" TBI is used often in the pre-clinical literature, clearly defined criteria for mild, moderate, and severe TBI in animal models have not been agreed upon. In this review, we introduce current issues facing the mTBI field, summarize the available research methodologies and previous studies in mTBI animal models, and discuss how a translational research approach may be useful in advancing our understanding and management of mTBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy R Shultz
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Stuart J McDonald
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Cole Vonder Haar
- Department of Psychology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alicia Meconi
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Robert Vink
- Division of Health Sciences, The University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Paul van Donkelaar
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, The University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Chand Taneja
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Grant L Iverson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Harvard Medical School, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Home Base, A Red Sox Foundation and Massachusetts General Hospital Program, and MassGeneral Hospital for Children™ Sports Concussion Program, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brian R Christie
- Division of Medical Sciences, The University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
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87
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Skovira JW, Kabadi SV, Wu J, Zhao Z, DuBose J, Rosenthal R, Fiskum G, Faden AI. Simulated Aeromedical Evacuation Exacerbates Experimental Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2016; 33:1292-302. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob W. Skovira
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Shruti V. Kabadi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Junfang Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Zaorui Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Joseph DuBose
- Program in Trauma, Center for the Sustainment of Trauma and Readiness Skills (C-STARS), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Robert Rosenthal
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Gary Fiskum
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Alan I. Faden
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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88
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Yonutas HM, Vekaria HJ, Sullivan PG. Mitochondrial specific therapeutic targets following brain injury. Brain Res 2016; 1640:77-93. [PMID: 26872596 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury is a complicated disease to treat due to the complex multi-factorial secondary injury cascade that is initiated following the initial impact. This secondary injury cascade causes nonmechanical tissue damage, which is where therapeutic interventions may be efficacious for intervention. One therapeutic target that has shown much promise following brain injury are mitochondria. Mitochondria are complex organelles found within the cell. At a superficial level, mitochondria are known to produce the energy substrate used within the cell called ATP. However, their importance to overall cellular homeostasis is even larger than their production of ATP. These organelles are necessary for calcium cycling, ROS production and play a role in the initiation of cell death pathways. When mitochondria become dysfunctional, they can become dysregulated leading to a loss of cellular homeostasis and eventual cell death. Within this review there will be a deep discussion into mitochondrial bioenergetics followed by a brief discussion into traumatic brain injury and how mitochondria play an integral role in the neuropathological sequelae following an injury. The review will conclude with a discussion pertaining to the therapeutic approaches currently being studied to ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction following brain injury. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:Brain injury and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Yonutas
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States
| | - H J Vekaria
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States
| | - P G Sullivan
- University of Kentucky, 741 South Limestone Street, BBSRB 475, 30536 Lexington, United States.
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89
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Novel pharmaceutical treatments for minimal traumatic brain injury and evaluation of animal models and methodologies supporting their development. J Neurosci Methods 2016; 272:69-76. [PMID: 26868733 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The need for effective pharmaceuticals within animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI) continues to be paramount, as TBI remains the major cause of brain damage for children and young adults. While preventative measures may act to reduce the incidence of initial blunt trauma, well-tolerated drugs are needed to target the neurologically damaging internal cascade of molecular mechanisms that follow. Such processes, known collectively as the secondary injury phase, include inflammation, excitotoxicity, and apoptosis among other changes still subject to research. In this article positive treatment findings to mitigate this secondary injury in rodent TBI models will be overviewed, and include recent studies on Exendin-4, N-Acetyl-l-cycteine, Salubrinal and Thrombin. CONCLUSIONS These studies provide representative examples of methodologies that can be combined with widely available in vivo rodent models to evaluate therapeutic approaches of translational relevance, as well as drug targets and biochemical cascades that may slow or accelerate the degenerative processes induced by TBI. They employ well-characterized tests such as the novel object recognition task for assessing cognitive deficits. The application of such methodologies provides both decision points and a gateway for implementation of further translational studies to establish the feasibility of clinical efficacy of potential therapeutic interventions.
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90
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Abstract
Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is one of the most common and devastating complications of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Currently, the etiopathology and mechanisms of PTE are poorly understood and as a result, there is no effective treatment or means to prevent it. Antiepileptic drugs remain common preventive strategies in the management of TBI to control acute posttraumatic seizures and to prevent the development of PTE, although their efficacy in the latter case is disputed. Different strategies of PTE prophylaxis have been showing promise in preclinical models, but their translation to the clinic still remains elusive due in part to the variability of these models and the fact they do not recapitulate all complex pathologies associated with human TBI. TBI is a multifaceted disorder reflected in several potentially epileptogenic alterations in the brain, including mechanical neuronal and vascular damage, parenchymal and subarachnoid hemorrhage, subsequent toxicity caused by iron-rich hemoglobin breakdown products, and energy disruption resulting in secondary injuries, including excitotoxicity, gliosis, and neuroinflammation, often coexisting to a different degree. Several in vivo models have been developed to reproduce the acute TBI cascade of events, to reflect its anatomical pathologies, and to replicate neurological deficits. Although acute and chronic recurrent posttraumatic seizures are well-recognized phenomena in these models, there is only a limited number of studies focused on PTE. The most used mechanical TBI models with documented electroencephalographic and behavioral seizures with remote epileptogenesis include fluid percussion, controlled cortical impact, and weight-drop. This chapter describes the most popular models of PTE-induced TBI models, focusing on the controlled cortical impact and the fluid percussion injury models, the methods of behavioral and electroencephalogram seizure assessments, and other approaches to detect epileptogenic properties, and discusses their potential application for translational research.
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Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been named the most complex disease in the most complex organ of the body. It is the most common cause of death and disability in the Western world in people <40 years old and survivors commonly suffer from persisting cognitive deficits, impaired motor function, depression and personality changes. TBI may vary in severity from uniformly fatal to mild injuries with rapidly resolving symptoms and without doubt, it is a markedly heterogeneous disease. Its different subtypes differs in their pathophysiology, treatment options and long-term consequences and to date, there are no pharmacological treatments with proven clinical benefit available to TBI patients. To enable development of novel treatment options for TBI, clinically relevant animal models are needed. Due to their availability and low costs, numerous rodent models have been developed which have substantially contributed to our current understanding of the pathophysiology of TBI. The most common animal models used in laboratories worldwide are likely the controlled cortical impact (CCI) model, the central and lateral fluid percussion injury (FPI) models, and weight drop/impact acceleration (I/A) models. Each of these models has inherent advantages and disadvantages; these need to be thoroughly considered when selecting the rodent TBI model according to the hypothesis and design of the study. Since TBI is not one disease, refined animal models must take into account the clinical features and complexity of human TBI. To enhance the possibility of establishing preclinical efficacy of a novel treatment, the preclinical use of several different experimental models is encouraged as well as varying the species, gender, and age of the animal. In this chapter, the methods, limitations, and challenges of the CCI and FPI models of TBI used in rodents are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Marklund
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, 751 85, Sweden.
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92
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Osier ND, Carlson SW, DeSana A, Dixon CE. Chronic Histopathological and Behavioral Outcomes of Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury in Adult Male Animals. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1861-82. [PMID: 25490251 PMCID: PMC4677114 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to survey the use of experimental animal models for studying the chronic histopathological and behavioral consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). The strategies employed to study the long-term consequences of TBI are described, along with a summary of the evidence available to date from common experimental TBI models: fluid percussion injury; controlled cortical impact; blast TBI; and closed-head injury. For each model, evidence is organized according to outcome. Histopathological outcomes included are gross changes in morphology/histology, ventricular enlargement, gray/white matter shrinkage, axonal injury, cerebrovascular histopathology, inflammation, and neurogenesis. Behavioral outcomes included are overall neurological function, motor function, cognitive function, frontal lobe function, and stress-related outcomes. A brief discussion is provided comparing the most common experimental models of TBI and highlighting the utility of each model in understanding specific aspects of TBI pathology. The majority of experimental TBI studies collect data in the acute postinjury period, but few continue into the chronic period. Available evidence from long-term studies suggests that many of the experimental TBI models can lead to progressive changes in histopathology and behavior. The studies described in this review contribute to our understanding of chronic TBI pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D. Osier
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- School of Nursing, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shaun W. Carlson
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Anthony DeSana
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Seton Hill University, Greensburg, Pennsylvania
| | - C. Edward Dixon
- Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Trauma Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- V.A. Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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93
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Villalba N, Sonkusare SK, Longden TA, Tran TL, Sackheim AM, Nelson MT, Wellman GC, Freeman K. Traumatic brain injury disrupts cerebrovascular tone through endothelial inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide gain of function. J Am Heart Assoc 2015; 3:e001474. [PMID: 25527626 PMCID: PMC4338739 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.114.001474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been reported to increase the concentration of nitric oxide (NO) in the brain and can lead to loss of cerebrovascular tone; however, the sources, amounts, and consequences of excess NO on the cerebral vasculature are unknown. Our objective was to elucidate the mechanism of decreased cerebral artery tone after TBI. METHODS AND RESULTS Cerebral arteries were isolated from rats 24 hours after moderate fluid‐percussion TBI. Pressure‐induced increases in vasoconstriction (myogenic tone) and smooth muscle Ca2+ were severely blunted in cerebral arteries after TBI. However, myogenic tone and smooth muscle Ca2+ were restored by inhibition of NO synthesis or endothelium removal, suggesting that TBI increased endothelial NO levels. Live native cell NO, indexed by 4,5‐diaminofluorescein (DAF‐2 DA) fluorescence, was increased in endothelium and smooth muscle of cerebral arteries after TBI. Clamped concentrations of 20 to 30 nmol/L NO were required to simulate the loss of myogenic tone and increased (DAF‐2T) fluorescence observed following TBI. In comparison, basal NO in control arteries was estimated as 0.4 nmol/L. Consistent with TBI causing enhanced NO‐mediated vasodilation, inhibitors of guanylyl cyclase, protein kinase G, and large‐conductance Ca2+‐activated potassium (BK) channel restored function of arteries from animals with TBI. Expression of the inducible isoform of NO synthase was upregulated in cerebral arteries isolated from animals with TBI, and the inducible isoform of NO synthase inhibitor 1400W restored myogenic responses following TBI. CONCLUSIONS The mechanism of profound cerebral artery vasodilation after TBI is a gain of function in vascular NO production by 60‐fold over controls, resulting from upregulation of the inducible isoform of NO synthase in the endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Villalba
- From the Departments of Pharmacology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT
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94
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Divani AA, Murphy AJ, Meints J, Sadeghi-Bazargani H, Nordberg J, Monga M, Low WC, Bhatia PM, Beilman GJ, SantaCruz KS. A Novel Preclinical Model of Moderate Primary Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32:1109-16. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Afshin A. Divani
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Amanda J. Murphy
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Joyce Meints
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Homayoun Sadeghi-Bazargani
- Neurosciences Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jessica Nordberg
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Manoj Monga
- Department of Urology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Walter C. Low
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Prerana M. Bhatia
- Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Greg J. Beilman
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Karen S. SantaCruz
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
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Skopin MD, Kabadi SV, Viechweg SS, Mong JA, Faden AI. Chronic decrease in wakefulness and disruption of sleep-wake behavior after experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 32:289-96. [PMID: 25242371 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2014.3664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can cause sleep-wake disturbances and excessive daytime sleepiness. The pathobiology of sleep disorders in TBI, however, is not well understood, and animal models have been underused in studying such changes and potential underlying mechanisms. We used the rat lateral fluid percussion (LFP) model to analyze sleep-wake patterns as a function of time after injury. Rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep, non-REM (NREM) sleep, and wake bouts during light and dark phases were measured with electroencephalography and electromyography at an early as well as chronic time points after LFP. Moderate TBI caused disturbances in the ability to maintain consolidated wake bouts during the active phase and chronic loss of wakefulness. Further, TBI resulted in cognitive impairments and depressive-like symptoms, and reduced the number of orexin-A-positive neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Skopin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
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96
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Kabadi SV, Faden AI. Selective CDK inhibitors: promising candidates for future clinical traumatic brain injury trials. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1578-80. [PMID: 25368642 PMCID: PMC4211197 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.141779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury induces secondary injury that contributes to neuroinflammation, neuronal loss, and neurological dysfunction. One important injury mechanism is cell cycle activation which causes neuronal apoptosis and glial activation. The neuroprotective effects of both non-selective (Flavopiridol) and selective (Roscovitine and CR-8) cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors have been shown across multiple experimental traumatic brain injury models and species. Cyclin-dependent kinaseinhibitors, administered as a single systemic dose up to 24 hours after traumatic brain injury, provide strong neuroprotection-reducing neuronal cell death, neuroinflammation and neurological dysfunction. Given their effectiveness and long therapeutic window, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors appear to be promising candidates for clinical traumatic brain injury trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti V Kabadi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alan I Faden
- Department of Anesthesiology, Center for Shock, Trauma and Anesthesiology Research (STAR), University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Petraglia AL, Dashnaw ML, Turner RC, Bailes JE. Models of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurosurgery 2014; 75 Suppl 4:S34-49. [DOI: 10.1227/neu.0000000000000472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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98
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Repeated mild traumatic brain injury causes chronic neuroinflammation, changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, and associated cognitive deficits. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014; 34:1223-32. [PMID: 24756076 PMCID: PMC4083389 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2014.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Repeated mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) can cause sustained cognitive and psychiatric changes, as well as neurodegeneration, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We examined histologic, neurophysiological, and cognitive changes after single or repeated (three injuries) mTBI using the rat lateral fluid percussion (LFP) model. Repeated mTBI caused substantial neuronal cell loss and significantly increased numbers of activated microglia in both ipsilateral and contralateral hippocampus on post-injury day (PID) 28. Long-term potentiation (LTP) could not be induced on PID 28 after repeated mTBI in ex vivo hippocampal slices from either hemisphere. N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated responses were significantly attenuated after repeated mTBI, with no significant changes in α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor-mediated responses. Long-term potentiation was elicited in slices after single mTBI, with potentiation significantly increased in ipsilateral versus contralateral hippocampus. After repeated mTBI, rats displayed cognitive impairments in the Morris water maze (MWM) and novel object recognition (NOR) tests. Thus, repeated mTBI causes deficits in the hippocampal function and changes in excitatory synaptic neurotransmission, which are associated with chronic neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.
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99
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Zhao J, Chen Z, Xi G, Keep RF, Hua Y. Deferoxamine attenuates acute hydrocephalus after traumatic brain injury in rats. Transl Stroke Res 2014; 5:586-94. [PMID: 24935175 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-014-0353-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Acute post-traumatic ventricular dilation and hydrocephalus are relatively frequent consequences of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Several recent studies have indicated that high iron levels in brain may relate to hydrocephalus development after intracranial hemorrhage. However, the role of iron in the development of post-traumatic hydrocephalus is still unclear. This study was to determine whether or not iron has a role in hydrocephalus development after TBI. TBI was induced by lateral fluid-percussion in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Some rats had intraventricular injection of iron. Acute hydrocephalus was measured by magnetic resonance T2-weighted imaging and brain hemorrhage was determined by T2* gradient-echo sequence imaging and brain hemoglobin levels. The effect of deferoxamine on TBI-induced hydrocephalus was examined. TBI resulted in acute hydrocephalus at 24 h (lateral ventricle volume: 24.1 ± 3.0 vs. 9.9 ± 0.2 mm(3) in sham group). Intraventricular injection of iron also caused hydrocephalus (25.7 ± 3.4 vs. 9.0 ± 0.6 mm(3) in saline group). Deferoxamine treatment attenuated TBI-induced hydrocephalus and heme oxygenase-1 upregulation. In conclusion, iron may contribute to acute hydrocephalus after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinbing Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 Biomedical Science Research Building, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
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100
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Liu DZ, Sharp FR, Van KC, Ander BP, Ghiasvand R, Zhan X, Stamova B, Jickling GC, Lyeth BG. Inhibition of SRC family kinases protects hippocampal neurons and improves cognitive function after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31:1268-76. [PMID: 24428562 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.3250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is often associated with intracerebral and intraventricular hemorrhage. Thrombin is a neurotoxin generated at bleeding sites fater TBI and can lead to cell death and subsequent cognitive dysfunction via activation of Src family kinases (SFKs). We hypothesize that inhibiting SFKs can protect hippocampal neurons and improve cognitive memory function after TBI. To test these hypotheses, we show that moderate lateral fluid percussion (LFP) TBI in adult rats produces bleeding into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in both lateral ventricles, which elevates oxyhemoglobin and thrombin levels in the CSF, activates the SFK family member Fyn, and increases Rho-kinase 1(ROCK1) expression. Systemic administration of the SFK inhibitor, PP2, immediately after moderate TBI blocks ROCK1 expression, protects hippocampal CA2/3 neurons, and improves spatial memory function. These data suggest the possibility that inhibiting SFKs after TBI might improve clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Zhi Liu
- 1 Department of Neurology and the M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California , Davis, Medical Center, Sacramento, California
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