51
|
Solanki P, Prasad D, Muthuraju S, Sharma A, Singh S, Ilavzhagan G. Preventive effect of Piracetam and Vinpocetine on hypoxia-reoxygenation induced injury in primary hippocampal culture. Food Chem Toxicol 2011; 49:917-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 12/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
52
|
Abdel-Salam OME, Khadrawy YA, Salem NA, Sleem AA. Oxidative Stress in a Model of Toxic Demyelination in Rat Brain: The Effect of Piracetam and Vinpocetine. Neurochem Res 2011; 36:1062-72. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0450-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
53
|
Leuner K, Kurz C, Guidetti G, Orgogozo JM, Müller WE. Improved mitochondrial function in brain aging and Alzheimer disease - the new mechanism of action of the old metabolic enhancer piracetam. Front Neurosci 2010; 4. [PMID: 20877425 PMCID: PMC2944646 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2010.00044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Piracetam, the prototype of the so-called nootropic drugs' is used since many years in different countries to treat cognitive impairment in aging and dementia. Findings that piracetam enhances fluidity of brain mitochondrial membranes led to the hypothesis that piracetam might improve mitochondrial function, e.g., might enhance ATP synthesis. This assumption has recently been supported by a number of observations showing enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential, enhanced ATP production, and reduced sensitivity for apoptosis in a variety of cell and animal models for aging and Alzheimer disease. As a specific consequence, substantial evidence for elevated neuronal plasticity as a specific effect of piracetam has emerged. Taken together, this new findings can explain many of the therapeutic effects of piracetam on cognition in aging and dementia as well as different situations of brain dysfunctions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Leuner
- Department of Pharmacology, Biocenter, University of Frankfurt Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
54
|
Effects of iloprost and piracetam in spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury in the rabbit. Spinal Cord 2010; 49:81-6. [PMID: 20585328 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2010.76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Experimental Study. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effects of iloprost and piracetam on spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the rabbit. SETTINGS The Experimental Research Center of Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey. METHODS A total of 24 rabbits were divided into four groups of six rabbits each, as follows: group 1 (n = 6) sham, laparotomy only; group 2 (n = 6) I/R; group 3 (n = 6) I/R+iloprost; and group 4 (n = 6) I/R+piracetam. I/R was established in groups 2, 3 and 4. Subsequently, they were followed up neurologically for 24 h until the rabbits were killed; biochemical and histopathological examinations of samples from the spinal cord were carried out. RESULTS Neurological examination results were significantly better in the iloprost and piracetam groups compared with the I/R group (P < 0.05). Neuroprotection was achieved with iloprost and piracetam by suppressing malondialdehyde (P < 0.05), increasing glutathione peroxidase activity (P < 0.05) and decreasing the xanthine oxidase level. In histopathological assessment, iloprost and piracetam groups were statistically different from the I/R group in terms of the number of apoptotic neurons in gray matter and white matter, as well as in terms of degenerated neurons and glial cells (P < 0.05). No statistical difference was determined between the four groups in the number of degenerated glial cells (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION This study has shown that iloprost and piracetam have neuroprotective effects in I/R injury both neurologically and histopathologically because of inhibition of lipid peroxidation.
Collapse
|
55
|
Müller WE, Eckert A, Kurz C, Eckert GP, Leuner K. Mitochondrial dysfunction: common final pathway in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease--therapeutic aspects. Mol Neurobiol 2010; 41:159-71. [PMID: 20461558 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-010-8141-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 04/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
As a fully differentiated organ, our brain is very sensitive to cumulative oxidative damage of proteins, lipids, and DNA occurring during normal aging because of its high energy metabolism and the relative low activity of antioxidative defense mechanisms. As a major consequence, perturbations of energy metabolism including mitochondrial dysfunction, alterations of signaling mechanisms and of gene expression culminate in functional deficits. With the increasing average life span of humans, age-related cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) are a major health concern in our society. Age-related mitochondrial dysfunction underlies most neurodegenerative diseases, where it is potentiated by disease-specific factors. AD is characterized by two major histopathological hallmarks, initially intracellular and with the progression of the disease extracellular accumulation of oligomeric and fibrillar beta-amyloid peptides and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. In this review, we focus on findings in AD animal and cell models indicating that these histopathological alterations induce functional deficits of the respiratory chain complexes and therefore consecutively result in mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. These parameters lead synergistically with the alterations of the brain aging process to typical signs of neurodegeneration in the later state of the disease, including synaptic dysfunction, loss of synapses and neurites, and finally neuronal loss. We suggest that mitochondrial protection and subsequent reduction of oxidative stress are important targets for prevention and long-term treatment of early stages of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Walter E Müller
- Department of Pharmacology, Biocenter, University of Frankfurt, Max-von Laue-Strasse 9, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
56
|
Kurz C, Ungerer I, Lipka U, Kirr S, Schütt T, Eckert A, Leuner K, Müller WE. The metabolic enhancer piracetam ameliorates the impairment of mitochondrial function and neurite outgrowth induced by beta-amyloid peptide. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:246-57. [PMID: 20218980 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00656.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE beta-Amyloid peptide (Abeta) is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease by initiating a cascade of events from mitochondrial dysfunction to neuronal death. The metabolic enhancer piracetam has been shown to improve mitochondrial dysfunction following brain aging and experimentally induced oxidative stress. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We used cell lines (PC12 and HEK cells) and murine dissociated brain cells. The protective effects of piracetam in vitro and ex vivo on Abeta-induced impairment of mitochondrial function (as mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP production), on secretion of soluble Abeta and on neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells were investigated. KEY RESULTS Piracetam improves mitochondrial function of PC12 cells and acutely dissociated brain cells from young NMRI mice following exposure to extracellular Abeta(1-42). Similar protective effects against Abeta(1-42) were observed in dissociated brain cells from aged NMRI mice, or mice transgenic for mutant human amyloid precursor protein (APP) treated with piracetam for 14 days. Soluble Abeta load was markedly diminished in the brain of those animals after treatment with piracetam. Abeta production by HEK cells stably transfected with mutant human APP was elevated by oxidative stress and this was reduced by piracetam. Impairment of neuritogenesis is an important consequence of Abeta-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and Abeta-induced reduction of neurite growth in PC12 cells was substantially improved by piracetam. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Our findings strongly support the concept of improving mitochondrial function as an approach to ameliorate the detrimental effects of Abeta on brain function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Kurz
- Department of Pharmacology, Biocenter, University Frankfurt/M, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
57
|
dos Santos APM, Milatovic D, Au C, Yin Z, Batoreu MCC, Aschner M. Rat brain endothelial cells are a target of manganese toxicity. Brain Res 2010; 1326:152-61. [PMID: 20170646 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 01/30/2010] [Accepted: 02/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) is an essential trace metal; however, exposure to high Mn levels can result in neurodegenerative changes resembling Parkinson's disease (PD). Information on Mn's effects on endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is lacking. Accordingly, we tested the hypothesis that BBB endothelial cells are a primary target for Mn-induced neurotoxicity. The studies were conducted in an in vitro BBB model of immortalized rat brain endothelial (RBE4) cells. ROS production was determined by F(2)-isoprostane (F(2)-IsoPs) measurement. The relationship between Mn toxicity and redox status was investigated upon intracellular glutathione (GSH) depletion with diethylmaleate (DEM) or L-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO). Mn exposure (200 or 800 microM MnCl(2) or MnSO(4)) for 4 or 24h led to significant decrease in cell viability vs. controls. DEM or BSO pre-treatment led to further enhancement in cytotoxicity vs. exposure to Mn alone, with more pronounced cell death after 24-h DEM pre-treatment. F(2)-IsoPs levels in cells exposed to MnCl(2) (200 or 800 microM) were significantly increased after 4h and remained elevated 24h after exposure compared with controls. Consistent with the effects on cell viability and F(2)-IsoPs, treatment with MnCl(2) (200 or 800 microM) was also associated with a significant decrease in membrane potential. This effect was more pronounced in cells exposed to DEM plus MnCl(2) vs. cells exposed to Mn alone. We conclude that Mn induces direct injury to mitochondria in RBE4 cells. The ensuing impairment in energy metabolism and redox status may modify the restrictive properties of the BBB compromising its function.
Collapse
|
58
|
Gupta S, Garg GR, Bharal N, Mediratta PK, Banerjee BD, Sharma KK. Reversal of propoxur-induced impairment of step-down passive avoidance, transfer latency and oxidative stress by piracetam and ascorbic acid in rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2009; 28:403-408. [PMID: 21784034 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2009.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2009] [Revised: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/25/2009] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Propoxur, a carbamate pesticide has been shown to adversely affect memory and induce oxidative stress. The present study was designed to correlate the effect of propoxur, piracetam (a nootropic drug) and ascorbic acid (an antioxidant) on oxidative stress and cognitive function. Cognitive function was assessed using step-down latency (SDL) on a passive avoidance apparatus and transfer latency (TL) on elevated plus maze. Oxidative stress was assessed by examining brain malondialdehyde (MDA) and non-protein thiol (NP-SH) levels. A significant reduction in SDL and prolongation of TL was found for the propoxur-treated group at weeks 6 and 7 as compared with control (p<0.001). One week treatment by piracetam (400mg/kg/d, i.p.) or ascorbic acid (120mg/kg/d, i.p.) antagonized the effect of propoxur on SDL as well as TL. Both piracetam and ascorbic acid attenuated the propoxur-induced increase in brain MDA levels and decrease in brain NP-SH levels. Results of the present study show that ascorbic acid and piracetam have the potential to reverse cognitive dysfunction and oxidative stress induced by propoxur in the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sparsh Gupta
- Department of Pharmacology, University College of Medical Sciences, Dilshad Garden, Delhi 110095, India
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
59
|
Lu L, Wang S, Zheng L, Li X, Suswam EA, Zhang X, Wheeler CG, Nabors LB, Filippova N, King PH. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-linked mutant SOD1 sequesters Hu antigen R (HuR) and TIA-1-related protein (TIAR): implications for impaired post-transcriptional regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:33989-98. [PMID: 19805546 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.067918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Down-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the mouse leads to progressive and selective degeneration of motor neurons similar to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In mice expressing ALS-associated mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), VEGF mRNA expression in the spinal cord declines significantly prior to the onset of clinical manifestations. In vitro models suggest that dysregulation of VEGF mRNA stability contributes to that decline. Here, we show that the major RNA stabilizer, Hu Antigen R (HuR), and TIA-1-related protein (TIAR) colocalize with mutant SOD1 in mouse spinal cord extracts and cultured glioma cells. The colocalization was markedly reduced or abolished by RNase treatment. Immunoanalysis of transfected cells indicated that colocalization occurred in insoluble aggregates and inclusions. RNA immunoprecipitation showed a significant loss of VEGF mRNA binding to HuR and TIAR in mutant SOD1 cells, and there was marked depletion of HuR from polysomes. Ectopic expression of HuR in mutant SOD1 cells more than doubled the mRNA half-life of VEGF and significantly increased expression to that of wild-type SOD1 control. Cellular effects produced by mutant SOD1, including impaired mitochondrial function and oxidative stress-induced apoptosis, were reversed by HuR in a gene dose-dependent pattern. In summary, our findings indicate that mutant SOD1 impairs post-transcriptional regulation by sequestering key regulatory RNA-binding proteins. The rescue effect of HuR suggests that this impairment, whether related to VEGF or other potential mRNA targets, contributes to cytotoxicity in ALS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Lu
- Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham and the Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
60
|
Gispert S, Ricciardi F, Kurz A, Azizov M, Hoepken HH, Becker D, Voos W, Leuner K, Müller WE, Kudin AP, Kunz WS, Zimmermann A, Roeper J, Wenzel D, Jendrach M, García-Arencíbia M, Fernández-Ruiz J, Huber L, Rohrer H, Barrera M, Reichert AS, Rüb U, Chen A, Nussbaum RL, Auburger G. Parkinson phenotype in aged PINK1-deficient mice is accompanied by progressive mitochondrial dysfunction in absence of neurodegeneration. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5777. [PMID: 19492057 PMCID: PMC2686165 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2009] [Accepted: 05/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is an adult-onset movement disorder of largely unknown etiology. We have previously shown that loss-of-function mutations of the mitochondrial protein kinase PINK1 (PTEN induced putative kinase 1) cause the recessive PARK6 variant of PD. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Now we generated a PINK1 deficient mouse and observed several novel phenotypes: A progressive reduction of weight and of locomotor activity selectively for spontaneous movements occurred at old age. As in PD, abnormal dopamine levels in the aged nigrostriatal projection accompanied the reduced movements. Possibly in line with the PARK6 syndrome but in contrast to sporadic PD, a reduced lifespan, dysfunction of brainstem and sympathetic nerves, visible aggregates of alpha-synuclein within Lewy bodies or nigrostriatal neurodegeneration were not present in aged PINK1-deficient mice. However, we demonstrate PINK1 mutant mice to exhibit a progressive reduction in mitochondrial preprotein import correlating with defects of core mitochondrial functions like ATP-generation and respiration. In contrast to the strong effect of PINK1 on mitochondrial dynamics in Drosophila melanogaster and in spite of reduced expression of fission factor Mtp18, we show reduced fission and increased aggregation of mitochondria only under stress in PINK1-deficient mouse neurons. CONCLUSION Thus, aging Pink1(-/-) mice show increasing mitochondrial dysfunction resulting in impaired neural activity similar to PD, in absence of overt neuronal death.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suzana Gispert
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Filomena Ricciardi
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Alexander Kurz
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Mekhman Azizov
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | | | - Dorothea Becker
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, University Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Voos
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, University Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kristina Leuner
- Department of Pharmacology, Biocenter Niederursel, University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Walter E. Müller
- Department of Pharmacology, Biocenter Niederursel, University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | | | | | - Annabelle Zimmermann
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Neuroscience Center, University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jochen Roeper
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Neuroscience Center, University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Dirk Wenzel
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Marina Jendrach
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Moisés García-Arencíbia
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Fernández-Ruiz
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Leslie Huber
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Hermann Rohrer
- Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Miguel Barrera
- CEF Makromolekulare Komplexe, Mitochondriale Biologie, Fachbereich Medizin, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas S. Reichert
- CEF Makromolekulare Komplexe, Mitochondriale Biologie, Fachbereich Medizin, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Udo Rüb
- Department of Clinical Neuroanatomy, University Med. School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Amy Chen
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Robert L. Nussbaum
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Georg Auburger
- Department of Neurology, University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Franke C, Nöldner M, Abdel-Kader R, Johnson-Anuna LN, Gibson Wood W, Müller WE, Eckert GP. Bcl-2 upregulation and neuroprotection in guinea pig brain following chronic simvastatin treatment. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 25:438-45. [PMID: 17157514 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2006] [Revised: 10/05/2006] [Accepted: 10/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study determined if chronic simvastatin administration in vivo would provide neuroprotection in brain cells isolated from guinea pigs after challenge with the Bcl-2 inhibitor HA 14-1 or the NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP). Bcl-2 levels were significantly increased in brains of simvastatin-treated guinea pigs while levels of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax were significantly reduced. The ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, being a critical factor of the apoptotic state of cells, was significantly reduced in simvastatin-treated animals. Cholesterol levels in the brain remained unchanged in the simvastatin group. Brain cells isolated from simvastatin-treated guinea pigs were significantly less vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction and caspase-activation. These results provide new insight into potential mechanisms for the protective actions of statins within the CNS where programmed cell death has been implicated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Franke
- Department of Pharmacology, ZAFES, Biocenter Niederursel, N260 Max-von-Laue Str. 9, University of Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
62
|
Pertusa M, García-Matas S, Rodríguez-Farré E, Sanfeliu C, Cristòfol R. Astrocytes aged in vitro show a decreased neuroprotective capacity. J Neurochem 2007; 101:794-805. [PMID: 17250685 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04369.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in astrocyte function that may affect neuronal viability occur with brain aging. In this study, we evaluate the neuroprotective capacity of astrocytes in an experimental model of in vitro aging. Changes in oxidative stress, glutamate uptake and protein expression were evaluated in rat cortical astrocytes cultured for 10 and 90 days in vitro (DIV). Levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and S100beta increased at 90 days when cells were positive for the senescence beta-galactosidase marker. In long-term astrocyte cultures, the generation of reactive oxygen species was enhanced and mitochondrial activity decreased. Simultaneously, there was an increase in proteins that stained positively for nitrotyrosine. The expression of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) and haeme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) proteins and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) increased in aged astrocytes. Glutamate uptake in 90-DIV astrocytes was higher than in 10 DIV ones, and was more vulnerable to inhibition by H2O2 exposure. Enhanced glutamate uptake was probably because of up-regulation of the glutamate/aspartate transporter protein. Aged astrocytes had a reduced ability to maintain neuronal survival. These findings indicate that astrocytes may partially loose their neuroprotective ability during aging. The results also suggest that aged astrocytes may contribute to exacerbating neuronal injury in age-related neurodegenerative processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Pertusa
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, CSIC-IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|