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Kashef N, Huang YY, Hamblin MR. Advances in antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation at the nanoscale. NANOPHOTONICS 2017; 6:853-879. [PMID: 29226063 PMCID: PMC5720168 DOI: 10.1515/nanoph-2016-0189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The alarming worldwide increase in antibiotic resistance amongst microbial pathogens necessitates a search for new antimicrobial techniques, which will not be affected by, or indeed cause resistance themselves. Light-mediated photoinactivation is one such technique that takes advantage of the whole spectrum of light to destroy a broad spectrum of pathogens. Many of these photoinactivation techniques rely on the participation of a diverse range of nanoparticles and nanostructures that have dimensions very similar to the wavelength of light. Photodynamic inactivation relies on the photochemical production of singlet oxygen from photosensitizing dyes (type II pathway) that can benefit remarkably from formulation in nanoparticle-based drug delivery vehicles. Fullerenes are a closed-cage carbon allotrope nanoparticle with a high absorption coefficient and triplet yield. Their photochemistry is highly dependent on microenvironment, and can be type II in organic solvents and type I (hydroxyl radicals) in a biological milieu. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles act as a large band-gap semiconductor that can carry out photo-induced electron transfer under ultraviolet A light and can also produce reactive oxygen species that kill microbial cells. We discuss some recent studies in which quite remarkable potentiation of microbial killing (up to six logs) can be obtained by the addition of simple inorganic salts such as the non-toxic sodium/potassium iodide, bromide, nitrite, and even the toxic sodium azide. Interesting mechanistic insights were obtained to explain this increased killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasim Kashef
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ying-Ying Huang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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52
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Misba L, Zaidi S, Khan AU. A comparison of antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy of phenothiazinium dyes between Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial biofilm. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2017; 18:24-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2017.01.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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53
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Huang L, Szewczyk G, Sarna T, Hamblin MR. Potassium Iodide Potentiates Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation Using Photofrin. ACS Infect Dis 2017; 3:320-328. [PMID: 28207234 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It is known that noncationic porphyrins such as Photofrin (PF) are effective in mediating antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) of Gram-positive bacteria or fungi. However, the aPDI activity of PF against Gram-negative bacteria is accepted to be extremely low. Here we report that the nontoxic inorganic salt potassium iodide (KI) at a concentration of 100 mM when added to microbial cells (108/mL) + PF (10 μM hematoporphyrin equivalent) + 415 nm light (10 J/cm2) can eradicate (>6 log killing) five different Gram-negative species (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Acinetobacter baumannii), whereas no killing was obtained without KI. The mechanism of action appears to be the generation of microbicidal molecular iodine (I2/I3-) as shown by comparable bacterial killing when cells were added to the mixture after completion of illumination and light-dependent generation of iodine as detected by the formation of the starch complex. Gram-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is much more sensitive to aPDI (200-500 nM PF), and in this case potentiation by KI may be mediated mainly by short-lived iodine reactive species. The fungal yeast Candida albicans displayed intermediate sensitivity to PF-aPDI, and killing was also potentiated by KI. The reaction mechanism occurs via singlet oxygen (1O2). KI quenched 1O2 luminescence (1270 nm) at a rate constant of 9.2 × 105 M-1 s-1. Oxygen consumption was increased when PF was illuminated in the presence of KI. Hydrogen peroxide but not superoxide was generated from illuminated PF in the presence of KI. Sodium azide completely inhibited the killing of E. coli with PF/blue light + KI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyi Huang
- Department of Infectious
Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, China 530021
- Wellman Center
for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Grzegorz Szewczyk
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry,
Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 31-007 Krakow, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry,
Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 31-007 Krakow, Poland
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Wellman Center
for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Harvard−MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Gollmer A, Felgentraeger A, Maisch T, Flors C. Real-time imaging of photodynamic action in bacteria. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2017; 10:264-270. [PMID: 26790971 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201500259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence imaging studies of the processes leading to photodynamic inactivation of bacteria have been limited due to the small size of microorganisms as well as by the faint fluorescence of most photosensitizers. A versatile method based on highly-sensitive fluorescence microscopy is presented which allows to study, in real time, the incorporation of photosensitizers inside S. aureus upon photodynamic action. The method takes advantage of the fluorescence enhancement of phenothiazine and porphyrin photosensitizers upon entering the bacterial cytosol after the cell wall has been compromised. In combination with typical assays, such as the addition of specific enhancers of reactive oxygen species, it is possible to extract mechanistic information about the pathway of photodynamic damage at the single-cell level. Imaging experiments in deuterated buffer strongly support a Type-I mechanism for methylene blue and a very minor role of singlet oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Gollmer
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ariane Felgentraeger
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Tim Maisch
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Cristina Flors
- Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies in Nanoscience (IMDEA Nanociencia) and Nanobiotechnology Unit Associated to the National Center for Biotechnology (CSIC), 28049, Madrid, Spain
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55
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Garcia-Diaz M, Huang YY, Hamblin MR. Use of fluorescent probes for ROS to tease apart Type I and Type II photochemical pathways in photodynamic therapy. Methods 2016; 109:158-166. [PMID: 27374076 PMCID: PMC5075498 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy involves the excitation of a non-toxic dye by harmless visible light to produce a long-lived triplet state that can interact with molecular oxygen to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage biomolecules and kill cells. ROS produced by electron transfer (Type 1) include superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical (HO), while singlet oxygen (1O2) is produced by energy transfer. Diverse methods exist to distinguish between these two pathways, some of which are more specific or more sensitive than others. In this review we cover the use of two fluorescence probes: singlet oxygen sensor green (SOSG) detects 1O2; and 4-hydroxyphenyl-fluorescein (HPF) that detects HO. Interesting data was collected concerning the photochemical pathways of functionalized fullerenes compared to tetrapyrroles, stable synthetic bacteriochlorins with and without central metals, phenothiazinium dyes interacting with inorganic salts such as azide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Garcia-Diaz
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken, 2, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ying-Ying Huang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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56
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Gsponer NS, Agazzi ML, Spesia MB, Durantini EN. Approaches to unravel pathways of reactive oxygen species in the photoinactivation of bacteria induced by a dicationic fulleropyrrolidinium derivative. Methods 2016; 109:167-174. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Mamone L, Di Venosa G, Sáenz D, Batlle A, Casas A. Methods for the detection of reactive oxygen species employed in the identification of plant photosensitizers. Methods 2016; 109:73-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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Hamblin MR. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation: a bright new technique to kill resistant microbes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2016; 33:67-73. [PMID: 27421070 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2016.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 449] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses photosensitizers (non-toxic dyes) that are activated by absorption of visible light to form reactive oxygen species (including singlet oxygen) that can oxidize biomolecules and destroy cells. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) can treat localized infections. aPDI neither causes any resistance to develop in microbes, nor is affected by existing drug resistance status. We discuss some recent developments in aPDI. New photosensitizers including polycationic conjugates, stable synthetic bacteriochlorins and functionalized fullerenes are described. The microbial killing by aPDI can be synergistically potentiated (several logs) by harmless inorganic salts via photochemistry. Genetically engineered bioluminescent microbial cells allow PDT to treat infections in animal models. Photoantimicrobials have a promising future in the face of the unrelenting increase in antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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59
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Misba L, Kulshrestha S, Khan AU. Antibiofilm action of a toluidine blue O-silver nanoparticle conjugate on Streptococcus mutans: a mechanism of type I photodynamic therapy. BIOFOULING 2016; 32:313-328. [PMID: 26905507 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2016.1141899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-biofilm efficacy of photodynamic therapy by conjugating a photosensitizer (TBO) with silver nanoparticles (AgNP). Streptococcus mutans was exposed to laser light (630 nm) for 70 s (9.1 J cm(-2)) in the presence of a toluidine blue O-silver nanoparticle conjugate (TBO-AgNP). The results showed a reduction in the viability of bacterial cells by 4 log10. The crystal violet assay, confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy revealed that the TBO-AgNP conjugates inhibited biofilm formation, increased the uptake of propidium iodide and leakage of the cellular constituents, respectively. Fluorescence spectroscopic studies confirmed the generation of OH(•) as a major reactive oxygen species, indicating type I phototoxicity. Both the conjugates down-regulated the expression of biofilm related genes compared to TBO alone. Hence TBO-AgNP conjugates were found to be more phototoxic against S. mutans biofilm than TBO alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lama Misba
- a Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit , Aligarh Muslim University , Aligarh , India
| | - Shatavari Kulshrestha
- a Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit , Aligarh Muslim University , Aligarh , India
| | - Asad U Khan
- a Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit , Aligarh Muslim University , Aligarh , India
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60
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Liu Y, Qin R, Zaat SAJ, Breukink E, Heger M. Antibacterial photodynamic therapy: overview of a promising approach to fight antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. J Clin Transl Res 2015; 1:140-167. [PMID: 30873451 PMCID: PMC6410618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Revised: 11/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibacterial photodynamic therapy (APDT) has drawn increasing attention from the scientific society for its potential to effectively kill multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria and for its low tendency to induce drug resistance that bacteria can rapidly develop against traditional antibiotic therapy. The review summarizes the mechanism of action of APDT, the photosensitizers, the barriers to PS localization, the targets, the in vitro-, in vivo-, and clinical evidence, the current developments in terms of treating Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the limitations, as well as future perspectives. Relevance for patients: A structured overview of all important aspects of APDT is provided in the context of resistant bacterial species. The information presented is relevant and accessible for scientists as well as clinicians, whose joint effort is required to ensure that this technology benefits patients in the post-antibiotic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Liu
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Rong Qin
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Sebastian A. J. Zaat
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Eefjan Breukink
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Michal Heger
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, the Netherlands, Department of Experimental Surgery, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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61
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Orlandi VT, Bolognese F, Chiodaroli L, Tolker-Nielsen T, Barbieri P. Pigments influence the tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 to photodynamically induced oxidative stress. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2015; 161:2298-309. [PMID: 26419906 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen known to be resistant to different classes of antibiotics and disinfectants. P. aeruginosa also displays a certain degree of tolerance to photodynamic therapy (PDT), an alternative antimicrobial approach exploiting a photo-oxidative stress induced by exogenous photosensitizers and visible light. To evaluate whether P. aeruginosa pigments can contribute to its relative tolerance to PDT, we analysed the response to this treatment of isogenic transposon mutants of P. aeruginosa PAO1 with altered pigmentation. In general, in the presence of pigments a higher tolerance to PDT-induced photo-oxidative stress was observed. Hyperproduction of pyomelanin makes the cells much more tolerant to stress caused by either radicals or singlet oxygen generated by different photosensitizers upon photoactivation. Phenazines, pyocyanin and phenazine-1-carboxylic acid, produced in different amounts depending on the cultural conditions, are able to counteract both types of PDT-elicited reactive oxygen species. Hyperproduction of pyoverdine, caused by a mutation in a quorum-sensing gene, rendered P. aeruginosa more tolerant to a photosensitizer that generates mainly singlet oxygen, although in this case the observed tolerance to photo-oxidative stress cannot be exclusively attributed to the presence of the pigment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana T Orlandi
- 1Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Bolognese
- 1Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Luca Chiodaroli
- 1Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Tim Tolker-Nielsen
- 2Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paola Barbieri
- 1Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
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62
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Strategies to optimize photosensitizers for photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2015; 150:2-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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63
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Bacellar IOL, Tsubone TM, Pavani C, Baptista MS. Photodynamic Efficiency: From Molecular Photochemistry to Cell Death. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:20523-59. [PMID: 26334268 PMCID: PMC4613217 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160920523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinical modality used to treat cancer and infectious diseases. The main agent is the photosensitizer (PS), which is excited by light and converted to a triplet excited state. This latter species leads to the formation of singlet oxygen and radicals that oxidize biomolecules. The main motivation for this review is to suggest alternatives for achieving high-efficiency PDT protocols, by taking advantage of knowledge on the chemical and biological processes taking place during and after photosensitization. We defend that in order to obtain specific mechanisms of cell death and maximize PDT efficiency, PSes should oxidize specific molecular targets. We consider the role of subcellular localization, how PS photochemistry and photophysics can change according to its nanoenvironment, and how can all these trigger specific cell death mechanisms. We propose that in order to develop PSes that will cause a breakthrough enhancement in the efficiency of PDT, researchers should first consider tissue and intracellular localization, instead of trying to maximize singlet oxygen quantum yields in in vitro tests. In addition to this, we also indicate many open questions and challenges remaining in this field, hoping to encourage future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel O L Bacellar
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Tayana M Tsubone
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Christiane Pavani
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Biofotônica Aplicada às Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Nove de Julho, São Paulo 01504-001, Brazil.
| | - Mauricio S Baptista
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
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64
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Grinholc M, Rodziewicz A, Forys K, Rapacka-Zdonczyk A, Kawiak A, Domachowska A, Golunski G, Wolz C, Mesak L, Becker K, Bielawski KP. Fine-tuning recA expression in Staphylococcus aureus for antimicrobial photoinactivation: importance of photo-induced DNA damage in the photoinactivation mechanism. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:9161-76. [PMID: 26252968 PMCID: PMC4619464 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6863-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial cell envelope is generally accepted as the primary target for a photo-induced oxidative stress. It is plausible that DNA damage occurs during the antimicrobial photoinactivation. Here we investigate the correlation between DNA damage and photoinactivation by evaluating the level of RecA-based DNA repair system in Staphylococcus aureus. By using exogenous photosensitizers (new methylene blue (NMB), toluidine blue O (TBO), 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridinio)porphyrin tetra(p-toluenesulfonate) (TMPyP), zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc), Rose Bengal (RB)) and ALA-induced endogenous porphyrin-dependent blue light (405 nm), several outcomes were observed: (i) an increase of DNA damage (from gel electrophoresis in DNA damage assay), (ii) an increase of recA expression (luminescence assay in recA-lux strain), and (iii) an increase of RecA protein level (Western blotting). When recA expression was repressed by novobiocin, or abolished by deleting the gene, S. aureus susceptibility towards photoinactivation was increased at approximately a hundred-fold. The absence of RecA increases DNA damage to yield bactericidal effect. In novobiocin-resistant mutant (gyrB), as opposed to wild type, neither RecA protein level nor cell’s susceptibility was affected by photoinactivation (when novobiocin is present). This is to suggest that GyrB-dependent inhibition mediated recA repression. Therefore, we have established the role of RecA in DNA damage during photoinactivation. With the use of rifampicin mutation frequency and Ames tests, we demonstrated that photoinactivation did not increase S. aureus mutagenesis and potentially is not mutagenic toward eukaryotic cells. The results suggest that the treatment is considered safe. In conclusion, we provide an evidence that recA inhibitor may serve as therapeutic adjuvant for antimicrobial photoinactivation. Clinical relevance of our findings warrants further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz Grinholc
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Department of Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Aleksandra Rodziewicz
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Department of Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Forys
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Department of Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Rapacka-Zdonczyk
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Department of Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Anna Kawiak
- Department of Biotechnology, Division of Plant Protection and Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland.,Laboratory of Human Physiology, Medical University of Gdansk, Tuwima 15, 80-210, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Anna Domachowska
- Department of Biotechnology, Division of Plant Protection and Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Golunski
- Laboratory of Biophysics, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Christiane Wolz
- Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine, University of Tubingen, Wlfriede-Aulhorn-Strasse 6, 72076, Tubingen, Germany
| | - Lili Mesak
- Outreach, Research Training and Minority Science Program, Ayala School of Biological Sciences, University of California, 333 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA, 92697-2525, USA
| | - Karsten Becker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Domagkstr. 10, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Krzysztof P Bielawski
- Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Department of Biotechnology, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Kladki 24, 80-822, Gdansk, Poland
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