A novel regulatory mechanism for trimeric GTP-binding proteins in the membrane and secretory granule fractions of human and rodent beta cells

Identification and characterization of a novel protein histidine kinase in the islet beta cell: evidence for its regulation by mastoparan, an activator of G-proteins and insulin secretion

Using insulin-secreting cells, we previously demonstrated that specific proteins associated with the cytosolic, secretory granule, and mitochondrial fractions undergo a novel type of phosphorylation on their histidine residues. Subsequently, we identified these proteins as the nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) [Kowluru and Metz, Biochemistry 1994;33:12495-503], the beta subunit of trimeric GTP-binding proteins [Kowluru et al., Biochem J 1996;313:97-107], and the alpha subunit of succinyl-CoA synthetase [Kowluru, Diabetologia 2001;44:89-94], respectively. Since several other enzymes of intermediary metabolism (e.g. ATP-citrate lyase and glucose-6-phosphatase) also undergo histidine phosphorylation, these initial findings may have a more generalized significance to beta cells. Herein, we characterized a novel protein histidine kinase in pancreatic beta cells, and determined it to be acid- and heat-labile as well as alkali-resistant in its phosphorylation of histone 4. Such an activity was detected in normal rat islets, human islets, and clonal beta (HIT-T15 and INS-1) cells, and could utilize either ATP or GTP as a phosphoryl donor (with K(m) values in the range of 60-100 microM). On a size-exclusion column, its molecular mass was estimated to be in the range of 60-70 kDa. It was stimulated by divalent cations (Mg(2+)>Mn(2+)>control=Ca(2+)=Zn(2+)=Co(2+)), but was resistant to polyamines. It was inactivated by known in vitro inhibitors of protein histidine phosphorylation (e.g. UDP or cromoglycate). Mastoparan, a global activator of G-proteins and insulin secretion from isolated beta cells, but not mastoparan-17, its inactive analog, stimulated histidine kinase activity and histidine phosphorylation of G(beta) subunit and insulin secretion from isolated rat islets. These studies identify, for the first time, a protein kinase activity in the pancreatic beta cell that does not act on traditional -Ser, -Tyr, or -Thr residues. They also establish a possible link between histidine kinase activity and G(beta) phosphorylation in isolated beta cells.

GTP-binding proteins in cell survival and demise: the emerging picture in the pancreatic beta-cell

It is widely believed that guanine nucleotide-binding regulatory proteins (G-proteins) play central roles as "molecular switches" in a variety of cellular processes ranging from signal transduction to protein and vesicle trafficking. To achieve these regulatory functions, G-proteins form complexes with a wide range of effector molecules whose activities are altered upon interaction with the G-protein. These effector molecules can be either soluble or membrane bound, and it is likely that some are localized to secretory granules where they direct the movement, docking, and fusion of granules during exocytosis. The effector molecules regulated by G-proteins are diverse and include phospholipases, protein kinases, protein phosphatases, ion channels, adenylate cyclases, cytoskeletal elements, as well as secretory vesicle and plasma membrane-associated fusion-proteins. The majority of studies performed in the pancreatic beta-cell have focused on the role of G-proteins in the regulation of insulin secretion, whereas very little attention has been focused on their potential involvement in other cellular processes. Such studies have identified and implicated both heterotrimeric (comprising alpha, beta, and gamma subunits) and monomeric (low molecular mass) G-proteins in the regulation of insulin secretion, but intriguing recent evidence has also begun to emerge which favors the view that they may be involved in the maintenance of beta-cell viability. In the present commentary, we will review this evidence and discuss the current understanding of the role of G-proteins in the life and death of the beta-cell.

Localization and characterization of the mitochondrial isoform of the nucleoside diphosphate kinase in the pancreatic beta cell: evidence for its complexation with mitochondrial succinyl-CoA synthetase

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) catalyzes the transfer of terminal phosphates from nucleoside triphosphates to nucleoside diphosphates to yield nucleotide triphosphates. The present study was undertaken to localize and characterize the mitochondrial isoform of NDPK (mNDPK) in the pancreatic beta cell since it could contribute to the generation of mitochondrial nucleotide triphosphates and, thereby, to the mitochondrial high-energy phosphate metabolism of the pancreatic beta cell. Mitochondrial fractions from the insulin-secreting beta cells were isolated by differential centrifugation. mNDPK activity was assayed as the amount of [(3)H]GTPgammaS formed from ATPgammaS and [(3)H]GDP. Incubation of isolated mitochondrial extracts with either [gamma-(32)P]ATP or GTP resulted in the formation [(32)P]NDPK, which could be immunoprecipitated by an anti-NDPK serum. mNDPK exhibited saturation kinetics with respect to its nucleoside diphosphate acceptors and nucleoside triphosphate donors and sensitivity to known inhibitors of NDPK (e.g., uridine diphosphate and cromoglycate). By Western blot analyses, at least three isoforms of NDPK were identified in various subcellular fractions of the beta cell. The nm23-H1 (NDPK-A) was predominantly soluble whereas nm23-H2 (NDPK-B) was associated with the soluble as well as membranous fractions. The mitochondrial isoform of NDPK, nm23-H4, was uniformly distributed in the beta cell mitochondrial subfractions. A significant amount of NDPK (as determined by the catalytic activity and immunological methods) was recovered in the immunoprecipitates of mitochondrial fraction precipitated with an antiserum directed against succinyl-CoA synthetase (SCS), suggesting that NDPK might remain complexed with SCS. We provide the first evidence for the localization of a mitochondrial isoform of the NDPK in the islet beta cell and thus offer a potential mechanism for the generation of intramitochondrial GTP which, unlike ATP, is not transported into mitochondria via the classical nucleotide translocase. Further work will be required to determine the importance of the NDPK/SCS complex to normal beta cell function in the secretion of insulin.

Activation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase by a glutamate- and magnesium-sensitive protein phosphatase in the islet beta-cell

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) catalyzes the formation of malonyl-CoA, a precursor in the biosynthesis of long-chain fatty acids, which have been implicated in physiological insulin secretion. The catalytic function of ACC is regulated by phosphorylation (inactive)-dephosphorylation (active). In this study we investigated whether similar regulatory mechanisms exist for ACC in the pancreatic islet beta-cell. ACC was quantitated in normal rat islets, human islets, and clonal beta-cells (HIT-15 or INS-1) using a [(14)C]bicarbonate fixation assay. In the beta-cell lysates, ACC was stimulated by magnesium in a concentration-dependent manner. Of all the dicarboxylic acids tested, only glutamate, albeit ineffective by itself, significantly potentiated magnesium-activated ACC in a concentration-dependent manner. ACC stimulation by glutamate and magnesium was maximally demonstrable in the cytosolic fraction; it was markedly reduced by okadaic acid (OKA) in concentrations (<50 nmol/l) that inhibited protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Furthermore, pretreatment of the cytosolic fraction with anti-PP2A serum attenuated the glutamate- and magnesium-mediated activation of ACC, thereby suggesting that ACC may be regulated by an OKA-sensitive PP2A-like enzyme. Streptavidin-agarose chromatography studies have indicated that glutamate- and magnesium-mediated effects on ACC are attributable to activation of ACC's dephosphorylation; this suggests that the stimulatory effects of glutamate and magnesium on ACC might involve activation of an OKA-sensitive PP2A-like enzyme that dephosphorylates and activates ACC. In our study, 5-amino-imidazolecarboxamide (AICA) riboside, a stimulator of AMP kinase, significantly inhibited glucose-mediated activation of ACC and insulin secretion from isolated beta-cells. Together, our data provide evidence for a unique regulatory mechanism for the activation of ACC in the pancreatic beta-cell, leading to the generation of physiological signals that may be relevant for physiological insulin secretion.

Calcium influx-independent depression of transmitter release by 5-HT at lamprey spinal cord synapses

1. The mechanisms by which 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) depresses transmitter release from lamprey reticulospinal axons were investigated. These axons make glutamatergic synapses onto spinal ventral horn neurons. 5-HT reduces release at these synapses, yet the mechanisms remain unclear. 2. Excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked by stimulation of reticulospinal axons were recorded in ventral horn neurons. 5-HT depressed the EPSCs in a dose-dependent manner with an apparent Km of 2.3 microM. 3. To examine the presynaptic effect of 5-HT, electrophysiological and optical recordings were made from presynaptic axons. Action potentials evoked Ca(2+) transients in the axons loaded with a Ca(2+)-sensitive dye. 5-HT slightly reduced the Ca(2+) transient. 4. A third-power relationship between Ca(2+) entry and transmitter release was determined. However, presynaptic Ca(2+) currents were unaffected by 5-HT. 5. Further, in the presence of a K(+) channel blocker, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), 5-HT left unaltered the presynaptic Ca(2+) transient, ruling out the possibility of its direct action on presynaptic Ca(2+) current. 5-HT activated a 4-AP-sensitive current with a reversal potential of -95 mV in these axons. 6. The basal Ca(2+) concentration did not affect 5-HT-mediated inhibition of release. Although 5-HT caused a subtle reduction in resting axonal [Ca(2+)]i, synaptic responses recorded during enhanced resting [Ca(2+)]i, by giving stimulus trains, were equally depressed by 5-HT. 7. 5-HT reduced the frequency of TTX-insensitive spontaneous EPSCs at these synapses, but had no effect on their amplitude. We propose a mechanism of inhibition for transmitter release by 5-HT that is independent of presynaptic Ca(2+) entry.

Proteomics reveal a link between the endoplasmic reticulum and lipid secretory mechanisms in mammary epithelial cells

The synthesis and secretion of lipids by mammary epithelial cells is a highly ordered process that involves several distinct steps. Triacylglycerols are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and incorporated into microlipid droplets which coalesce into cytoplasmic lipid droplets. These are vectorially transported to the apical plasma membrane where they are secreted into the milk surrounded by a membrane bilayer. The origin of this membrane as well as the mechanism by which cytoplasmic lipid droplets form and become surrounded by membrane is poorly understood. Proteomic analysis of the protein composition of milk fat globules and cytoplasmic lipid droplet has revealed that the endoplasmic reticulum is not only involved in the synthesis of the lipid but also potentially contributes to the membrane component of milk fat globules. The proteins identified suggest possible mechanisms of multiple steps during this process. Completion of the proteome of milk fat globule membranes and cytoplasmic lipid droplets will provide the necessary reporter molecules to follow and dissect the mechanisms of the sorting and ultimate secretion of cytoplasmic lipid droplets.

The mechanisms of aquaporin control in the renal collecting duct

The antidiuretic hormone arginine-vasopressin (AVP) regulates water reabsorption in renal collecting duct principal cells. Central to its antidiuretic action in mammals is the exocytotic insertion of the water channel aquaporin-2 (AQP2) from intracellular vesicles into the apical membrane of principal cells, an event initiated by an increase in cAMP and activation of protein kinase A. Water is then reabsorbed from the hypotonic urine of the collecting duct. The water channels aquaporin-3 (AQP3) and aquaporin-4 (AQP4), which are constitutively present in the basolateral membrane, allow the exit of water from the cell into the hypertonic interstitium. Withdrawal of the hormone leads to endocytotic retrieval of AQP2 from the cell membrane. The hormone-induced rapid redistribution between the interior of the cell and the cell membrane establishes the basis for the short term regulation of water permeability. In addition water channels (AQP2 and 3) of principal cells are regulated at the level of expression (long term regulation). This review summarizes the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying the short and long term regulation of water channels in principal cells. In the first part special emphasis is placed on the proteins involved in short term regulation of AQP2 (SNARE proteins, Rab proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, G proteins, protein kinase A anchoring proteins and endocytotic proteins). In the second part, physiological and pathophysiological stimuli determining the long term regulation are discussed.

The ligand-receptor-G-protein ternary complex as a GTP-synthase. steady-state proton pumping and dose-response relationships for beta -adrenoceptors

Steady-state solutions are developed for the rate of G alpha.GTP production in a synthase model of the ligand-receptor-G-protein ternary complex activated by a ligand-receptor proton pumping mechanism. The effective rate, k(31), defining the proton transfer, phosphorylation and G alpha.GTP release is a controlling rate of the synthase in the presence of a ligand with an efficient mode of signal activation, the ligand-receptor interaction taking place under effectively equilibrium conditions. The composite rate, however, becomes an amplifying factor in any dose-response relationship. The amplification is a triple product of the rate, k(31), the equilibrium constant associated with the activation of the proton signal, K(act)and the fraction of agonist conformer transmitting the signal, f(*). Where the rate of activation of the proton signal becomes critically inefficient, the rate of activation, k(act 1)replaces k(31)K(act). A correlation between beta(1)-adrenergic receptor-stimulated GDP release and adenylate cyclase activation shows that this correlation is not unique to an exchange reaction. Within the initiating Tyr-Arg-Tyr receptor proton shuttle mechanism, the position of Arg(r156) paralleldictates the high-(R(p)) and low-(R(u)) ligand-binding affinities. These states are close to R(*)and R(0)of the equilibrium model (De Lean et al., 1980, J. Biol. Chem.255, 7108-7117). An increased rate of hydrogen ion diffusion into a receptor mutant can give rise to constitutive activity while increased rates of G-protein release and changes in receptor state balance can contribute to the resultant level of action. Constitutive action will arise from a faster rate of G-protein release alone if proton diffusion in the wild-type receptor contributes to a basal level of G-protein activation. Competitive ligand-receptor occupancy for constitutive mutants shows that, where the rate of G-protein activation from the proportion of ligand-occupied receptors is less than the equivalent rate that would be generated from this fraction by proton diffusion, inverse agonism will occur. Rate-dependent dose-responses developed for the proposed synthase mechanism give explicit definition to the operational model for partial agonism (Black & Leff, 1983, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B220, 141-162). When comparable ligands have effectively identical conformational states at the transition state for signal activation, the antagonist component of the binding "in vitro" can be derived by multiplying the apparent binding constant by (1-e) where e is the maximum stimulatory response. This component should be consistent throughout the tissues.

Coronary microcirculation: physiology and pharmacology

Coronary microvessels play a pivotal role in determining the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium by regulating the coronary flow conductance and substance transport. Direct approaches analyzing the coronary microvessels have provided a large body of knowledge concerning the physiological and pharmacological characteristics of the coronary circulation, as has the rapid accumulation of biochemical findings about the substances that mediate vascular functions. Myogenic and flow-induced intrinsic vascular controls that determine basal tone have been observed in coronary microvessels in vitro. Coronary microvascular responses during metabolic stimulation, autoregulation, and reactive hyperemia have been analyzed in vivo, and are known to be largely mediated by metabolic factors, although the involvement of other factors should also be taken into account. The importance of ATP-sensitive K(+) channels in the metabolic control has been increasingly recognized. Furthermore, many neurohumoral mediators significantly affect coronary microvascular control in endothelium-dependent and -independent manners. The striking size-dependent heterogeneity of microvascular responses to all of these intrinsic, metabolic, and neurohumoral factors is orchestrated for optimal perfusion of the myocardium by synergistic and competitive interactions. The regulation of coronary microvascular permeability is another important factor for the nutrient supply and for edema formation. Analyses of collateral microvessels and subendocardial microvessels are important for understanding the pathophysiology of ischemic hearts and hypertrophied hearts. Studies of the microvascular responses to drugs and of the impairment of coronary microvessels in diseased conditions provide useful information for treating microvascular dysfunctions. In this article, the endogenous regulatory system and pharmacological responses of the coronary circulation are reviewed from the microvascular point of view.

Decreased ADP-ribosylation of the Galpha(olf) and Galpha(s) subunits by high glucose in pancreatic B-cells

In HIT-T15 insulinoma B-cells incubated in presence of [(32)P]NAD, we identified by autoradiography and immunoblotting ADP-ribosylation (ADP-R) of the trimeric G-protein Galpha(s) and Galpha(olf) subunits (45 kDa) induced by cholera toxin in M1 (120,000g) and M2 (70,000g) subcellular fractions containing plasma membranes, insulin granules, and mitochondria. This ADP-R indicates that these two fractions contain functionally competent Galpha subunits for adenylyl cyclase activation. Prolonged exposure of HIT-T15 cells to high glucose (25 mM instead of 6 mM) specifically reduced the ADP-R in Galpha(s) and Galpha(olf) subunits in the M1 fraction only, despite the clear increase of their accumulation in this compartment. A similar alteration in the ADP-R of the M1-associated Galpha(s) and Galpha(olf) subunits was observed in pancreatic islets isolated from fasted and fed rats. These results may explain, at least in part, the undesirable effects of sustained hyperglycemia on the cAMP-dependent process of insulin secretion in diabetes.

Detection of a mammalian histone H4 kinase that has yeast histidine kinase-like enzymic activity

A well characterized histidine kinase purified from yeast has been shown to phosphorylate histone H4 on a histidine residue. This enzyme is unlike the two-component histidine kinases predominantly found in prokaryotes. Until now, a histidine kinase similar to this yeast enzyme has not been purified from a mammalian source. By using a purification scheme similar to that used to purify the yeast histidine kinase, a protein fraction with histone H4 kinase activity has been isolated from porcine thymus. The yeast histidine kinase was shown to be detectable using an in-gel kinase assay system and using this system, four major bands of histone H4 kinase activity were apparent in the porcine thymus preparation. Through the use of immunoprecipitation, alkaline hydrolysis and subsequent phosphoamino acid analysis it has been demonstrated that this partially purified kinase fraction is capable of phosphorylating histone H4 on histidine. In conclusion, an preparation has been made from porcine thymus that contains histone H4 kinase activity and at least one of the kinases present in this preparation is a histidine kinase.

Insulinotropic toxins as molecular probes for analysis of glucagon-likepeptide-1 receptor-mediated signal transduction in pancreatic beta-cells

Cholera toxin, pertussis toxin, mastoparan, maitotoxin, and alpha-latrotoxin are complex protein or polyether-based toxins of bacterial, insect, or phytoplankton origin that act with high potency at the endocrine pancreas to stimulate secretion of insulin from beta-cells located in the islets of Langerhans. The remarkable insulinotropic properties of these toxins have attracted considerable attention by virtue of their use as selective molecular probes for analyses of beta-cell stimulus-secretion coupling. Targets of the toxins include heptahelical cell surface receptors, GTP-binding proteins, ion channels, Ca(2+) stores, and the exocytotic secretory apparatus. Here we review the value of insulinotropic toxins from the perspective of their established use in the study of signal transduction pathways activated by the blood glucose-lowering hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Our analysis of one insulinotropic toxin (alpha-latrotoxin) leads us to conclude that there exists a process of molecular mimicry whereby the 'lock and key'analogy inherent to hormone-receptor interactions is reproduced by a toxin related in structure to GLP-1.

Interaction of the Ras-related protein associated with diabetes rad and the putative tumor metastasis suppressor NM23 provides a novel mechanism of GTPase regulation

Rad is the prototypic member of a new class of Ras-related GTPases. Purification of the GTPase-activating protein (GAP) for Rad revealed nm23, a putative tumor metastasis suppressor and a development gene in Drosophila. Antibodies against nm23 depleted Rad-GAP activity from human skeletal muscle cytosol, and bacterially expressed nm23 reconstituted the activity. The GAP activity of nm23 was specific for Rad, was absent with the S105N putative dominant negative mutant of Rad, and was reduced with mutations of nm23. In the presence of ATP, GDP.Rad was also reconverted to GTP.Rad by the nucleoside diphosphate (NDP) kinase activity of nm23. Simultaneously, Rad regulated nm23 by enhancing its NDP kinase activity and decreasing its autophosphorylation. Melanoma cells transfected with wild-type Rad, but not the S105N-Rad, showed enhanced DNA synthesis in response to serum; this effect was lost with coexpression of nm23. Thus, the interaction of nm23 and Rad provides a potential novel mechanism for bidirectional, bimolecular regulation in which nm23 stimulates both GTP hydrolysis and GTP loading of Rad whereas Rad regulates activity of nm23. This interaction may play important roles in the effects of Rad on glucose metabolism and the effects of nm23 on tumor metastasis and developmental regulation.

Galpha(i2)-mRNA and -protein regulation as a mechanism for heterologous sensitization and desensitization of insulin secretion

Prolonged exposure of cells to an agonist of a G-protein-coupled receptor usually results in an attenuation of the cellular response. To elucidate the cellular mechanisms of sensitization or desensitization in an insulin secretory cell system (INS-1 cells), we investigated a regulatory link between G-protein alpha(s)- and alpha(i2)-subunits mRNA, their protein levels and insulin secretion as the biological effect using various compounds. Incubation with epinephrine (50 microM) for 8 h decreased alpha(s)- and alpha(i2)-mRNA levels to 58% and 72%, respectively, which is reversed after a longer incubation. From results using isoprenaline and the alpha2-agonist UK 14,304 epinephrine is shown to mediate its actions via alpha2- but not beta-adrenoceptors. The insulin inhibitory neuropeptide galanin (50 nM) caused a decrease of alpha(s)- and alpha(i2)-mRNA levels, whereas insulinotropic compounds (incretin hormones) such as GIP or GLP-1 (both 10 nM) led to an increase of alpha(s)- and alpha(i2)-mRNA levels. By using the Ca2+ channel blocker verapamil (50 microM) alpha(i2)-mRNA changes clearly depend on Ca2+ influx. The effects on alpha(i2)-mRNA were accompanied by a parallel, albeit weaker effect on the protein level (only GIP and UK 14,304 were investigated). The changes in alpha(i2)-mRNA levels by either compound were paralleled by inverse changes in insulin secretion: preincubation with UK 14,304 for 8 h led to an increased insulin secretion when challenged by either GLP-1, GIP or glucose (8.3 mM). This was similar for galanin, another potent inhibitor of insulin release. On the other hand, exposure to the incretins GIP or GLP-1 for 8 h induced a smaller insulin release when challenged afterwards by either UK 14,304, galanin, GIP, GLP-1, or glucose. Thus the influence on insulin secretion of various compounds is reciprocal to the regulation of alpha(i2)-mRNA levels but not alpha(s)-mRNA levels. There is, therefore, evidence from all the manoeuvres used that alpha(i2)-mRNA regulation may play a role in heterologous sensitization and desensitization of insulin secretion.

Inhibition of succinyl CoA synthetase histidine-phosphorylation in Trypanosoma brucei by an inhibitor of bacterial two-component systems

Recent drug screenings for new antibacterial drugs directed against histidine phospho-relay signalling pathways in bacteria have resulted in compounds which potently inhibit the histidine kinase activity of bacterial two-component systems. The present study demonstrates that one of these compounds, LY266500, is also a potent inhibitor of histidine phosphorylation in the unicellular eukaryotic parasite Trypanosoma brucei, both in vitro and in whole cells. In vitro, it inhibits histidine phosphorylation of mitochondrial succinyl CoA synthetase. LY26650 does not interfere with the phosphotransfer from the histidine-phosphorylated protein to ADP. In standardized cell culture tests, LY266500 potently inhibits the proliferation of the human pathogens T. brucei rhodesiense and Leishmania donovani. Since the inhibitory activity in vivo is life-cycle stage specific and correlates well with the mitochondrial activity in the different stages, the effect of LY266500 is most likely due to its specific inhibition of the mitochondrial succinyl CoA synthetase.

Histidine-phosphorylation of succinyl CoA synthetase from Trypanosoma brucei

The insect form of Trypanosoma brucei depends on respiration for its energy requirements. It contains a fully functional mitochondrion with a complete citric acid cycle. Most of its enyzmes have been characterized to date. The current study presents the characterization of the histidine phosphorylation activity of one of the few remaining enzymes, succinyl CoA synthetase. The trypanosomal enyzme was identified by partial purification, followed by direct protein sequencing. It is rapidly phosphorylated, presumably through auto-phosphorylation, using either ATP or GTP as phosphate donors. The phosphorylation occurs exclusively on histidine residues. The histidine-bound phosphate can be donated to suitable phosphate acceptors in a rapid reaction. This phosphotransfer reaction is highly nucleotide selective, as only ADP, but none of the other nucleoside-diphosphates tested, can be used as a phosphate acceptor.

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase activity in soluble transducin preparations biochemical properties and possible role of transducin-beta as phosphorylated enzyme intermediate

Known nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPKs) are oligomers of 17-23-kDa subunits and catalyze the reaction N1TP + N2DP --> N1DP + N2TP via formation of a histidine-phosphorylated enzyme intermediate. NDPKs are involved in the activation of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins (G-proteins) by catalyzing the formation of GTP from GDP, but the properties of G-protein-associated NDPKs are still incompletely known. The aim of our present study was to characterize NDPK in soluble preparations of the retinal G-protein transducin. The NDPK is operationally referred to as transducin-NDPK. Like known NDPKs, transducin-NDPK utilizes NTPs and phosphorothioate analogs of NTPs as substrates. GDP was a more effective phosphoryl group acceptor at transducin-NDPK than ADP and CDP, and guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[S]) was a more effective thiophosphoryl group donor than adenosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (ATP[S]). In contrast with their action on known NDPKs, mastoparan and mastoparan 7 had no stimulatory effect on transducin-NDPK. Guanosine 5'-[beta, gamma-imido]triphosphate (p[NH]ppG) potentiated [3H]GTP[S] formation from [3H]GDP and ATP[S] but not [3H]GTP[S] formation from [3H]GDP and GTP[S]. Depending on the thiophosphoryl group acceptor and donor, [3H]NTP[S] formation was differentially regulated by Mg2+, Mn2+, Co2+, Ca2+ and Zn2+. [gamma-32P]ATP and [gamma-32P]GTP [32P]phosphorylated, and [35S]ATP[S] [35S]thiophosphorylated, a 36-kDa protein comigrating with transducin-beta. p[NH]ppG potentiated [35S]thiophosphorylation of the 36-kDa protein. 32P-labeling of the 36-kDa protein showed characteristics of histidine phosphorylation. There was no evidence for (thio)phosphorylation of 17-23-kDa proteins. Our data show the following: (a) soluble transducin preparations contain a GDP-prefering and guanine nucleotide-regulated NDPK; (b) transducin-beta may serve as a (thio)phosphorylated NDPK intermediate; (c) transducin-NDPK is distinct from known NDPKs and may consist of multiple kinases or a single kinase with multiple regulatory domains.

Cellular and subcellular expression of Golf/Gs and Gq/G11 alpha-subunits in rat pancreatic endocrine cells

We studied the cellular and subcellular localization of Galpha-subunits in pancreas by immunocytochemistry. Golfalpha and G11alpha were specifically localized in islet insulin B-cells and glucagon A-cells, respectively. Gsalpha and Gqalpha labeling was more abundant in B-cells. The presence of Golfalpha in B-cells was confirmed by in situ hybridization. In B-cells, Golfalpha and Gsalpha were found in the Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane (PM) and, remarkably, in mature and immature insulin secretory granules, mainly at the periphery of the insulin grains. Gqalpha was detected on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) near the Golgi apparatus. In A-cells, the Galpha-subunits were mostly within the glucagon granules: G11alpha gave the strongest signal, Gsalpha less strong, Gq was scarce, and Golf was practically absent. Gqalpha and Gsalpha immunoreactivity was detected in acinar cells, although it was much weaker than that in islet cells. The cell-dependent distribution of the Galpha-subunits indicates that the stimulatory pathways for pancreatic function differ in acinar and in islet B- and A-cells. Furthermore, the G-protein subunits in islet cell secretory granules might be functional and participate in granule trafficking and hormone secretion.

Molecular mechanisms and regulation of insulin exocytosis as a paradigm of endocrine secretion

Secretion of the peptide hormone insulin from pancreatic beta cells constitutes an important step in the regulation of body homeostasis. Insulin is stored in large dense core vesicles and released by exocytosis, a multistage process involving transport of vesicles to the plasma membrane, their docking, priming and finally their fusion with the plasma membrane. Some of the protein components necessary for this process have been identified in beta cells. The export of potent and potentially harmful substances has to be tightly controlled. The secretory response in pancreatic beta cells requires the concerted action of nutrients together with enteric hormones and neurotransmitters acting on G-protein coupled receptors. It is well established that glucose and other metabolizable nutrients depolarize the beta-cell membrane and the ensuing Ca2+ influx through voltage-dependent channels constitutes a main stimulus for insulin exocytosis. Theoretical considerations and recent observations suggest in addition an organizing role for the Ca2+ channel similar to neurotransmission. A second regulatory control on exocytosis is exerted by monomeric and heterotrimeric G-proteins. The monomeric GTPase Rab3A controls insulin secretion through cycling between a guanosine triphosphate liganded vesicle-bound form and a guanosine diphosphate liganded, cytosolic form. The effect of neurohormones is transduced by the heterotrimeric GTPases. Whereas pertussis-toxin sensitive alpha-subunits exert direct inhibition at the level of exocytosis, the Gbeta gamma-subunits are required for stimulation. It is possible that these GTPases exert immediate regulation, while protein kinases and phosphatases may modulate long-term adaptation at the exocytotic machinery itself. The molecular nature of their activators and effectors still await identification. Insights into the progression of the exocytotic vesicle from docking to fusion and how these processes are precisely regulated by proteins and second messengers may provide the basis for new therapeutic principles.

Stimulatory transducing systems in pancreatic islet cells

We have determined the cellular distribution of different alpha subtypes of G proteins and adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoforms in endocrine, exocrine, and established pancreatic cell lines. VIP, PACAP, and tGLP-1 receptor proteins are expressed to varying extents in A and B cells, whereas the expression of G alpha subunits is cell specific. Thus, G(olf) alpha is detected in normal rodent B cells and immortalized pancreatic B cell lines, whereas Gs alpha is more ubiquitously expressed. The cellular density of AC isoforms labeling (I, II, III, IV, V/VI) is also islet cell-specific and their distribution is age- and species-dependent. The identification of numerous signaling molecule subtypes, together with the discovery of their specific subcellular distribution, will help the functional characterization of their intraregulatory pathways, leading to the extrusion of insulin or glucagon secretory granules, and those leading to differentiation and apoptosis of islet cells.

Glucose activates the carboxyl methylation of gamma subunits of trimeric GTP-binding proteins in pancreatic beta cells. Modulation in vivo by calcium, GTP, and pertussis toxin

The gamma subunits of trimeric G-proteins (gamma1, gamma2, gamma5, and gamma7 isoforms) were found to be methylated at their carboxyl termini in normal rat islets, human islets and pure beta [HIT-T15] cells. Of these, GTPgammaS significantly stimulated the carboxyl methylation selectively of gamma2 and gamma5 isoforms. Exposure of intact HIT cells to either of two receptor-independent agonists--a stimulatory concentration of glucose or a depolarizing concentration of K+--resulted in a rapid (within 30 s) and sustained (at least up to 60 min) stimulation of gamma subunit carboxyl methylation. Mastoparan, which directly activates G-proteins (and insulin secretion from beta cells), also stimulated the carboxyl methylation of gamma subunits in intact HIT cells. Stimulatory effects of glucose or K+ were not demonstrable after removal of extracellular Ca2+ or depletion of intracellular GTP, implying regulatory roles for calcium fluxes and GTP; however, the methyl transferase itself was not directly activated by either. The stimulatory effects of mastoparan were resistant to removal of extracellular Ca2+, implying a mechanism of action that is different from glucose or K+ but also suggesting that dissociation of the alphabetagamma trimer is conducive to gamma subunit carboxyl methylation. Indeed, pertussis toxin also markedly attenuated the stimulatory effects of glucose, K+ or mastoparan without altering the rise in intracellular calcium induced by glucose or K+. Glucose-induced carboxyl methylation of gamma2 and gamma5 isoforms was vitiated by coprovision of any of three structurally different cyclooxygenase inhibitors. Conversely, exogenous PGE2, which activates Gi and Go in HIT cells and which thereby would dissociate alpha from beta(gamma), stimulated the carboxyl methylation of gamma2 and gamma5 isoforms and reversed the inhibition of glucose-stimulated carboxyl methylation of gamma subunits elicited by cyclooxygenase inhibitors. These data indicate that gamma subunits of trimeric G-proteins undergo a glucose- and calcium-regulated methylation-demethylation cycle in insulin-secreting cells, findings that may imply an important role in beta cell function. Furthermore, this is the first example of the regulation of the posttranslational modification of G-protein gamma subunits via nonreceptor-mediated activation mechanisms, which are apparently dependent on calcium influx and the consequent activation of phospholipases releasing arachidonic acid.

Role of subunit diversity in signaling by heterotrimeric G proteins

The heterotrimeric G proteins are extensively involved in the regulation of cells by extracellular signals. The receptors that control them are often the targets of drugs. There are many isoforms of each of the three subunits that make up these proteins. Thus far, genes for at least sixteen alpha subunits, five beta subunits, and eleven gamma subunits have been identified. In addition, some of these proteins have splice variants or are differentially modified. Based upon what is already known, there are well over a thousand possible G protein heterotrimer combinations. The role of subunit diversity in heterotrimer formation and its effect on signaling by G proteins are still not well understood. However, many current lines of research are leading toward an understanding of these roles. The functional significance of subunit heterogeneity is related to the mechanisms used by G proteins to transmit and integrate the many signals coming into cells through this system. Described here are the basic mechanisms by which G proteins integrate cellular responses, the possible role of subunit heterogeneity in these mechanisms, and the evidence for and against their physiological significance. Recent studies suggest the likely possibility that subunit heterogeneity plays an important role in signaling by G proteins. This role has the potential to extend substantially the flexibility of G proteins in mediating cellular responses to extracellular signals. However, the details of this are yet to be worked out, and they are the subject of many different avenues of research.

Subcellular localization of G-proteins in primary-cultured mouse preadipocytes and adipocytes

The subcellular localization of G5 alpha, Gi alpha 1&2, Gi alpha 3, and G beta was studied in primary-cultured undifferentiated and differentiated, lipid replete, adipose cells. The results show a distinct distribution for each of these G-proteins and differences between differentiated and undifferentiated cells. All the G-proteins examined had a cytoplasmic localization; only Gi alpha 1 and 2 showed a significant colocalization with the plasma membrane and this only in differentiated cells. Most studies using cells in culture have reported an intracellular localization for G-proteins, whereas in tissue sections the localization has been reported to be largely with the plasma membrane, with some intracellular localization. The results suggest that the cell-cell interactions or the specific geometry imposed by culture conditions favor the intracellular compared to peripheral localization of G-proteins. Alternately, the posttranslational modifications necessary for G-protein insertion in the plasma membrane may be deficient in cultured cells.

G protein beta gamma subunits

Guanine nucleotide binding (G) proteins relay extracellular signals encoded in light, small molecules, peptides, and proteins to activate or inhibit intracellular enzymes and ion channels. The larger G proteins, made up of G alpha beta gamma heterotrimers, dissociate into G alpha and G beta gamma subunits that separately activate intracellular effector molecules. Only recently has the G beta gamma subunit been recognized as a signal transduction molecule in its own right; G beta gamma is now known to directly regulate as many different protein targets as the G alpha subunit. Recent X-ray crystallography of G alpha, G beta gamma, and G alpha beta gamma subunits will guide the investigation of structure-function relationships.

Mechanisms of coronary microvascular dilation induced by the activation of pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins are vessel-size dependent. Heterogeneous involvement of nitric oxide pathway and ATP-sensitive K+ channels

G proteins are critically important mediators of many signal transduction systems. In the present study, we investigated the effect of direct activation of pertussis toxin (PTX)-sensitive G protein (GPTX) on coronary arterial microvascular tone in 37 open-chest anesthetized dogs in vivo. Coronary arterial microvessels on the surface of the beating left ventricle were visualized by performing fluorescence coronary microangiography using an intravital microscope with a floating objective system. Microvessels were divided into two groups, small microvessels (inner diameter, < or = 130 microns) and large microvessels (inner diameter, > 130 microns). Topically applied mastoparan (G protein activator, 10, 30, and 100 mumol/L) produced homogeneous microvascular dilation in a concentration-dependent manner (10 mumol/L, 7.9 +/- 2.0%; 30 mumol/L, 10.3 +/- 2.4%; and 100 mumol/L, 16.7 +/- 4.5% in small microvessels; 10 mumol/L, 5.3 +/- 1.2%; 30 mumol/L, 9.8 +/- 2.5%; and 100 mumol/L, 15.5 +/- 3.9% in large microvessels). These dilations were reversed to constriction by pretreatment with PTX (300 ng/mL, 2 hours) in both microvessel groups. Blockade of nitric oxide production by NG-nitro-L-arginine (LNNA, 300 mumol/L) offset the mastoparan-induced dilation in large microvessels but not in small microvessels. Cosuperfusion of glibenclamide (10 mumol/L) with LNNA produced constriction of all sizes of microvessels in response to mastoparan, whereas charybdotoxin (10 nmol/L) did not affect the mastoparan effect. Pretreatment with glibenclamide alone reversed mastoparan dilation to constriction in small microvessels, whereas it only offset the dilation without producing constriction in large microvessels. We conclude that the activation of GPTX produces homogeneous coronary arterial microvascular dilation and that the underlining mechanisms of the dilation are vessel size dependent. The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway mediates the dilation only in large microvessels, whereas ATP-sensitive K+ channel activation plays a central role in the dilation of small microvessels when GPTX is directly activated. ATP-sensitive K+ channels are also involved in the dilation of large microvessels in a synergistic fashion with nitric oxide production.

Glucose- and GTP-dependent stimulation of the carboxyl methylation of CDC42 in rodent and human pancreatic islets and pure beta cells. Evidence for an essential role of GTP-binding proteins in nutrient-induced insulin secretion

Several GTP-binding proteins (G-proteins) undergo post-translational modifications (isoprenylation and carboxyl methylation) in pancreatic beta cells. Herein, two of these were identified as CDC42 and rap 1, using Western blotting and immunoprecipitation. Confocal microscopic data indicated that CDC42 is localized only in islet endocrine cells but not in acinar cells of the pancreas. CDC42 undergoes a guanine nucleotide-specific membrane association and carboxyl methylation in normal rat islets, human islets, and pure beta (HIT or INS-1) cells. GTPgammaS-dependent carboxyl methylation of a 23-kD protein was also demonstrable in secretory granule fractions from normal islets or beta cells. AFC (a specific inhibitor of prenyl-cysteine carboxyl methyl transferases) blocked the carboxyl methylation of CDC42 in five types of insulin-secreting cells, without blocking GTPgammaS-induced translocation, implying that methylation is a consequence (not a cause) of transfer to membrane sites. High glucose (but not a depolarizing concentration of K+) induced the carboxyl methylation of CDC42 in intact cells, as assessed after specific immunoprecipitation. This effect was abrogated by GTP depletion using mycophenolic acid and was restored upon GTP repletion by coprovision of guanosine. In contrast, although rap 1 was also carboxyl methylated, it was not translocated to the particulate fraction by GTPgammaS; furthermore, its methylation was also stimulated by 40 mM K+ (suggesting a role which is not specific to nutrient stimulation). AFC also impeded nutrient-induced (but not K+-induced) insulin secretion from islets and beta cells under static or perifusion conditions, whereas an inactive structural analogue of AFC failed to inhibit insulin release. These effects were reproduced not only by S-adenosylhomocysteine (another methylation inhibitor), but also by GTP depletion. Thus, the glucose- and GTP-dependent carboxyl methylation of G-proteins such as CDC42 is an obligate step in the stimulus-secretion coupling of nutrient-induced insulin secretion, but not in the exocytotic event itself. Furthermore, AFC blocked glucose-activated phosphoinositide turnover, which may provide a partial biochemical explanation for its effect on secretion, and implies that certain G-proteins must be carboxyl methylated for their interaction with signaling effector molecules, a step which can be regulated by intracellular availability of GTP.