The guard cell chloroplast: a perspective for the twenty-first century

Reductions in mesophyll and guard cell photosynthesis impact on the control of stomatal responses to light and CO2

Transgenic antisense tobacco plants with a range of reductions in sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (SBPase) activity were used to investigate the role of photosynthesis in stomatal opening responses. High resolution chlorophyll a fluorescence imaging showed that the quantum efficiency of photosystem II electron transport (F(q)(')/F(m)(')) was decreased similarly in both guard and mesophyll cells of the SBPase antisense plants compared to the wild-type plants. This demonstrated for the first time that photosynthetic operating efficiency in the guard cells responds to changes in the regeneration capacity of the Calvin cycle. The rate of stomatal opening in response to a 30 min, 10-fold step increase in red photon flux density in the leaves from the SBPase antisense plants was significantly greater than wild-type plants. Final stomatal conductance under red and mixed blue/red irradiance was greater in the antisense plants than in the wild-type control plants despite lower CO(2) assimilation rates and higher internal CO(2) concentrations. Increasing CO(2) concentration resulted in a similar stomatal closing response in wild-type and antisense plants when measured in red light. However, in the antisense plants with small reductions in SBPase activity greater stomatal conductances were observed at all C(i) levels. Together, these data suggest that the primary light-induced opening or CO(2)-dependent closing response of stomata is not dependent upon guard or mesophyll cell photosynthetic capacity, but that photosynthetic electron transport, or its end-products, regulate the control of stomatal responses to light and CO(2).

Rapid variations of mesophyll conductance in response to changes in CO2 concentration around leaves

The effects of short-term (minutes) variations of CO2 concentration on mesophyll conductance to CO2 (gm) were evaluated in six different C3 species by simultaneous measurements of gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, online carbon isotope discrimination and a novel curve-fitting method. Depending on the species, gm varied from five- to ninefold, along the range of sub-stomatal CO2 concentrations typically used in photosynthesis CO2-response curves (AN)-Ci curves; where AN is the net photosynthetic flux and Ci is the CO2 concentrations in the sub-stomatal cavity), that is, 50 to 1500 micromol CO2 mol(-1) air. Although the pattern was species-dependent, gm strongly declined at high Ci, where photosynthesis was not limited by CO2, but by regeneration of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate or triose phosphate utilization. Moreover, these changes on gm were found to be totally independent of the velocity and direction of the Ci changes. The response of gm to Ci resembled that of stomatal conductance (gs), but kinetic experiments suggested that the response of gm was actually faster than that of gs. Transgenic tobacco plants differing in the amounts of aquaporin NtAQP1 showed different slopes of the gm-Ci response, suggesting a possible role for aquaporins in mediating CO2 responsiveness of gm. The importance of these findings is discussed in terms of their effects on parameterization of AN-Ci curves.

The response of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance to rising [CO2]: mechanisms and environmental interactions

This review summarizes current understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the response of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance to elevated carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2]), and examines how downstream processes and environmental constraints modulate these two fundamental responses. The results from free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments were summarized via meta-analysis to quantify the mean responses of stomatal and photosynthetic parameters to elevated [CO2]. Elevation of [CO2] in FACE experiments reduced stomatal conductance by 22%, yet, this reduction was not associated with a similar change in stomatal density. Elevated [CO2] stimulated light-saturated photosynthesis (Asat) in C3 plants grown in FACE by an average of 31%. However, the magnitude of the increase in Asat varied with functional group and environment. Functional groups with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco)-limited photosynthesis at elevated [CO2] had greater potential for increases in Asat than those where photosynthesis became ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RubP)-limited at elevated [CO2]. Both nitrogen supply and sink capacity modulated the response of photosynthesis to elevated [CO2] through their impact on the acclimation of carboxylation capacity. Increased understanding of the molecular and biochemical mechanisms by which plants respond to elevated [CO2], and the feedback of environmental factors upon them, will improve our ability to predict ecosystem responses to rising [CO2] and increase our potential to adapt crops and managed ecosystems to future atmospheric [CO2].

Light regulation of stomatal movement

Stomatal pores, each surrounded by a pair of guard cells, regulate CO2 uptake and water loss from leaves. Stomatal opening is driven by the accumulation of K+ salts and sugars in guard cells, which is mediated by electrogenic proton pumps in the plasma membrane and/or metabolic activity. Opening responses are achieved by coordination of light signaling, light-energy conversion, membrane ion transport, and metabolic activity in guard cells. In this review, we focus on recent progress in blue- and red-light-dependent stomatal opening. Because the blue-light response of stomata appears to be strongly affected by red light, we discuss underlying mechanisms in the interaction between blue-light signaling and guard cell chloroplasts.

The Fern Adiantum capillus-veneris Lacks Stomatal Responses to Blue Light

We investigated the responses of stomata to light in the fern Adiantum capillus-veneris, a typical species of Leptosporangiopsida. Stomata in the intact leaves of the sporophytes opened in response to red light, but they did not open when blue light was superimposed on the red light. The results were confirmed in the isolated Adiantum epidermis. The red light-induced stomatal response was not affected by the mutation of phy3, a chimeric protein of phytochrome and phototropin in this fern. The lack of a blue light-specific stomatal response was observed in three other fern species of Leptosporangiopsida, i.e. Pteris cretica, Asplenium scolopendrium and Nephrolepis auriculata. Fusicoccin, an activator of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase, induced both stomatal opening and H(+) release in the Adiantum epidermis. Adiantum phototropin genes AcPHOT1 and AcPHOT2 were expressed in the fern guard cells. The transformation of an Arabidopsis phot1 phot2 double mutant, which lost blue light-specific stomatal opening, with AcPHOT1 restored the stomatal response to blue light. Taken together, these results suggest that ferns of Leptosporangiopsida lack a blue light-specific stomatal response, although the functional phototropin and plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase are present in this species.

Dynamics of stomatal water relations following leaf excision

We examined the stomatal response to leaf excision in an evergreen woody shrub, Photinia x fraseri, using a novel combination of gas exchange, traditional water relations and modelling. Plants were kept outdoors in mild winter conditions (average daily temperature range: -1 to 12 degrees C) before being transferred to a glasshouse (temperature range: 20-30 degrees C) and allowed to acclimate for different periods before experiments. 'Glasshouse plants' were acclimated for at least 9 d, and 'outdoor plants' were acclimated for fewer than 3 d before laboratory gas exchange experiments. The transient stomatal opening response to leaf excision was roughly twice as long in outdoor plants as in glasshouse plants. To elucidate the reason for this difference, we inferred variables of stomatal water relations (epidermal and guard cell turgor pressures and guard cell osmotic pressure: Pe, Pg and pi g, respectively) from stomatal conductance (gs) and bulk leaf water potential (psi l), using a hydromechanical model of gs. psi l was calculated from cumulative post-excision transpirational water loss using empirical relationships between psi l and relative water content obtained on similar leaves. Inferred Pg and Pe both declined immediately after leaf excision. Inferred pi g also declined after a lag period. The kinetics of pi g adjustment after the lag were similar in outdoors and glasshouse plants, but the lag period was much longer in outdoor plants. This suggests that the longer transient opening response in outdoor plants resulted from slower induction, not slower execution, of guard cell osmoregulation. We discuss the implications of our results for the mechanism of short-term stomatal responses to hydraulic perturbations, for dynamic modelling of gs and for leaf water status regulation.

Evidence for involvement of photosynthetic processes in the stomatal response to CO2

Stomatal conductance (gs) typically declines in response to increasing intercellular CO2 concentration (ci). However, the mechanisms underlying this response are not fully understood. Recent work suggests that stomatal responses to ci and red light (RL) are linked to photosynthetic electron transport. We investigated the role of photosynthetic electron transport in the stomatal response to ci in intact leaves of cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) plants by examining the responses of gs and net CO2 assimilation rate to ci in light and darkness, in the presence and absence of the photosystem II inhibitor 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU), and at 2% and 21% ambient oxygen. Our results indicate that (1) gs and assimilation rate decline concurrently and with similar spatial patterns in response to DCMU; (2) the response of gs to ci changes slope in concert with the transition from Rubisco- to electron transport-limited photosynthesis at various irradiances and oxygen concentrations; (3) the response of gs to ci is similar in darkness and in DCMU-treated leaves, whereas the response in light in non-DCMU-treated leaves is much larger and has a different shape; (4) the response of gs to ci is insensitive to oxygen in DCMU-treated leaves or in darkness; and (5) stomata respond normally to RL when ci is held constant, indicating the RL response does not require a reduction in ci by mesophyll photosynthesis. Together, these results suggest that part of the stomatal response to ci involves the balance between photosynthetic electron transport and carbon reduction either in the mesophyll or in guard cell chloroplasts.

The control of stomata by water balance

It is clear that stomata play a critical role in regulating water loss from terrestrial vegetation. What is not clear is how this regulation is achieved. Stomata appear to respond to perturbations of many aspects of the soil-plant-atmosphere hydraulic continuum, but there is little agreement regarding the mechanism (or mechanisms) by which stomata sense such perturbations. This review discusses feedback and feedforward mechanisms by which hydraulic perturbations are putatively transduced into stomatal movements, in relation to generic empirical features of those responses. It is argued that a metabolically mediated feedback response of stomatal guard cells to the water status in their immediate vicinity ('hydro-active local feedback') remains the best explanation for many well-known features of hydraulically related stomatal behaviour, such as transient 'wrong-way' responses and the equivalence of hydraulic supply and demand as stomatal effectors. Furthermore, many curious phenomena that appear inconsistent with feedback, such as 'apparent feedforward' humidity responses and 'isohydric' behaviour (water potential homeostasis), are in fact expected to emerge from the juxtaposition of hydro-active local feedback and the well-known hysteretic and threshold-like effect of water potential on xylem hydraulic resistance.

Programmed cell death in plants: ultrastructural changes in pea guard cells

Treatment with cyanide of epidermal peels isolated from pea leaves resulted in destruction of nuclei in the guard cells of stomata, which is visible with a light microscope. The process was accelerated by illumination. Electron microscopy revealed significant CN--induced changes in the ultrastructure of guard cells, which increased with time. Margination of chromatin, which is one of the first signs of apoptosis, was observed in the guard cells even after 1 h incubation of the isolated epidermis with CN-. Subsequent chromatin condensation, swelling of the endoplasmic reticulum with formation of large tanks covered with ribosomes, changes in the structure of dictyosomes, and a slight swelling of mitochondria were observed after 3 h of the epidermis incubation with CN-. After 6 h of incubation with CN-, the bulk volume of the guard cells was filled with vacuoles, the cytoplasm occupied the thin marginal layer, the nucleus was in the center similarly to the control experiment, but it was polylobal, extended in narrow cytoplasmic bands, and, despite the loss of the nuclear envelope integrity, appeared to be a self-dependent structure. In the envelope-free open regions of the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts directly contacted with chromatin. Much like the cell nucleus, chloroplasts lost the integrity of the membrane, but did not swell and retained the stroma and integrity of the thylakoid system. An antioxidant di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene prevented ultrastructural changes in the cells observed after 6 h of incubation with CN-. Thus, the CN--induced death of the guard cells of stomata occurs through the mechanism of apoptosis.

Lateral diffusion of CO2 in leaves of the crassulacean acid metabolism plant Kalanchoe daigremontiana Hamet et Perrier

Dynamic patchiness of photosystem II (PSII) activity in leaves of the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Kalanchoe daigremontiana Hamet et Perrier, which was independent of stomatal control and was observed during both the day/night cycle and circadian endogenous oscillations of CAM, was previously explained by lateral CO2 diffusion and CO2 signalling in the leaves [Rascher et al. (2001) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:11801-11805; Rascher and Luttge (2002) Plant Biol 4:671-681]. The aim here was to actually demonstrate the importance of lateral CO2 diffusion and its effects on localized PSII activity. Covering small sections of entire leaves with silicone grease was used for local exclusion of a contribution of atmospheric CO2 to internal CO2 via transport through stomata. A setup for combined measurement of gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence imaging was used for recording photosynthetic activity with a spatiotemporal resolution. When remobilization of malic acid from vacuolar storage and its decarboxylation in the CAM cycle caused increasing internal CO2 concentrations sustaining high PSII activity behind closed stomata, PSII activity was also increased in adjacent leaf sections where vacuolar malic acid accumulation was minimal as a result of preventing external CO2 supply due to leaf-surface greasing, and where therefore CO2 could only be supplied by diffusion from the neighbouring malic acid-remobilizing leaf tissue. This demonstrates lateral CO2 diffusion and its effect on local photosynthetic activity.

The Blue Light-Specific Response of Vicia faba Stomata Acclimates to Growth Environment

Stomata in epidermal strips from growth chamber-grown Vicia faba leaves opened less in response to white light than did stomata from greenhouse-grown leaves. Chlorophyll-mediated, red light-stimulated opening was similar in stomata from the two growth conditions, but stomata from the growth chamber environment had a severely reduced response to blue light. Transfer of plants between the two growth conditions resulted in an acclimation of the stomatal blue light response. Stomata lost blue light sensitivity within 1 d of transfer to growth chamber conditions and gained sensitivity to blue light over an 8 d period after transfer to a greenhouse. Short-term transfer experiments confirmed that the rapid loss of blue light sensitivity was an acclimation response, requiring between 12 and 20 h exposure to growth chamber conditions. The acclimation of the stomatal response to blue light was inversely related to a previously reported acclimation response in which stomata change between high CO2 sensitivity under growth chamber conditions and low CO2 sensitivity under greenhouse conditions. The time courses of the blue light and CO2 acclimation responses were virtually identical, suggesting the possibility of a common acclimation mechanism.

Guard cells: a dynamic signaling model

The year 2003 has provided a continuing accretion of knowledge concerning the diverse ways in which guard cells sense and respond to abscisic acid. A deeper understanding of the biochemical mechanisms governing the response of guard cells to blue light has been gained, and new insights have been garnered regarding roles of the extracellular matrix in stomatal regulation.

Stomatal conductance does not correlate with photosynthetic capacity in transgenic tobacco with reduced amounts of Rubisco

High-resolution imaging of chlorophyll a fluorescence from intact tobacco leaves was used to compare the quantum yield of PSII electron transport in the chloroplasts of guard cells with that in the underlying mesophyll cells. Transgenic tobacco plants with reduced amounts of Rubisco (anti-Rubisco plants) were compared with wild-type tobacco plants. The quantum yield of PSII in both guard cells and underlying mesophyll cells was less in anti-Rubisco plants than in wild-type plants, but closely matched between the two cell types regardless of genotype. CO2 assimilation rates of anti-Rubisco plants were 4.4 micromol m(-2) s(-1) compared with 17.3 micromol m(-2) s(-1) for the wild type, when measured at a photon irradiance of 1000 micromol m(-2) s(-1) and ambient CO2 of 380 micromol mol(-1). Despite the large difference in photosynthetic capacity between the anti-Rubisco and wild-type plants, there was no discernible difference in the rate of stomatal opening, steady-state stomatal conductance or response of stomatal conductance to ambient CO2 concentration. These data demonstrate clearly that the commonly observed correlation between photosynthetic capacity and stomatal conductance can be disrupted in the long term by manipulation of photosynthetic capacity via antisense RNA technology. It was concluded that stomatal conductance is not directly determined by the photosynthetic capacity of guard cells or the leaf mesophyll.

Blue light and phytochrome-mediated stomatal opening in the npq1 and phot1 phot2 mutants of Arabidopsis

Recent studies have shown that blue light-specific stomatal opening is reversed by green light and that far-red light can be used to probe phytochrome-dependent stomatal movements. Here, blue-green reversibility and far-red light were used to probe the stomatal responses of the npq1 mutant and the phot1 phot2 double mutant of Arabidopsis. In plants grown at 50 micromol m-2 s-1, red light (photosynthetic)-mediated opening in isolated stomata from wild type (WT) and both mutants saturated at 100 micromol m-2 s-1. Higher fluence rates caused stomatal closing, most likely due to photo-inhibition. Blue light-specific opening, probed by adding blue light (10 micromol m-2 s-1) to a 100 micromol m-2 s-1 red background, was found in WT, but not in npq1 or phot1 phot2 double mutant stomata. Under 50 micromol m-2 s-1 red light, 10 micromol m-2 s-1 blue light opened stomata in both WT and npq1 mutant stomata but not in the phot1 phot2 double mutant. In npq1, blue light-stimulated opening was reversed by far-red but not green light, indicating that npq1 has a phytochrome-mediated response and lacks a blue light-specific response. Stomata of the phot1 phot2 double mutant opened in response to 20 to 50 micromol m-2 s-1 blue light. This opening was green light reversible and far-red light insensitive, indicating that stomata of the phot1 phot2 double mutant have a detectable blue light-specific response.

The physiology of circadian rhythms in plants

Circadian rhythms regulate many aspects of plant physiology including leaf, organ and stomatal movements, growth and signalling. The genetic identity of some of the components of the core circadian oscillator has recently become known. Similarly, the photoperception and phototransduction pathways that entrain the oscillator to the day and night cycle are being determined. Less clear are the pathways by which the circadian oscillator regulates cellular physiology. Circadian oscillations in cytosolic free calcium might act to transduce the temporal outputs of the circadian oscillator. This hypothesis requires rigorous testing using novel noninvasive technologies. Plants might gain advantage from the circadian clock by being able to predict changes in the environment and coordinate physiological processes, presumably increasing survival and hence, reproductive fitness. Technical advances coupled with cell-specific measurement techniques will allow the advantages of the circadian regulation of physiology to be quantified. Summary 281 I. Introduction 282 II. The circadian clock 283 III. The regulation of cellular physiology by circadian oscillations in cytosolic free Ca²⁺ 286 IV. The circadian regulation of physiology 292 V. The benefits of the circadian regulation of physiology 298 VI. Future prospects 299 VIII. Conclusions 300 Acknowledgements 300 References 300.

Metabolite export of isolated guard cell chloroplasts of Vicia faba

•  Stomatal opening is caused by guard cell swelling due to an accumulation of osmotica. We investigated the release of carbon from guard cell chloroplasts as a source for the production of organic osmotica. •  Photosynthetically active chloroplasts were isolated from guard cell protoplasts of Vicia faba. Export of metabolites into the surrounding medium was analyzed by silicone oil filtering centrifugation and spectrophotometrically by coupled metabolite assays. Effects of external oxaloacetate and 3-phosphoglycerate on photosynthetic electron transport were examined by recording chlorophyll fluorescence. •  In the light, guard cell chloroplasts exported triose phosphates, glucose, maltose and hexose phosphates. The presence of phosphate in the medium was essential for the release of phosphorylated compounds and also strongly enhanced the export of glucose and maltose. Total efflux of carbon from illuminated guard cell chloroplasts was on average 486 µatom C (mg Chl)^-1  h^-1 , which was significant with respect to the carbon requirement for stomatal opening. •  Metabolites released by illuminated guard cell chloroplasts originated predominantly from starch breakdown. Photosynthetic electron transport provided redox power for the reduction of oxaloacetate and 3-phosphoglycerate.