51
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Differentiation enhances Zika virus infection of neuronal brain cells. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14543. [PMID: 30266962 PMCID: PMC6162312 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32400-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging, mosquito-borne pathogen associated with a widespread 2015–2016 epidemic in the Western Hemisphere and a proven cause of microcephaly and other fetal brain defects in infants born to infected mothers. ZIKV infections have been also linked to other neurological illnesses in infected adults and children, including Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) and meningoencephalitis, but the viral pathophysiology behind those conditions remains poorly understood. Here we investigated ZIKV infectivity in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, both undifferentiated and following differentiation with retinoic acid. We found that multiple ZIKV strains, representing both the prototype African and contemporary Asian epidemic lineages, were able to replicate in SH-SY5Y cells. Differentiation with resultant expression of mature neuron markers increased infectivity in these cells, and the extent of infectivity correlated with degree of differentiation. New viral particles in infected cells were visualized by electron microscopy and found to be primarily situated inside vesicles; overt damage to the Golgi apparatus was also observed. Enhanced ZIKV infectivity in a neural cell line following differentiation may contribute to viral neuropathogenesis in the developing or mature central nervous system.
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52
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Tuncel G, Kalkan R. Receptor tyrosine kinase-Ras-PI 3 kinase-Akt signaling network in glioblastoma multiforme. Med Oncol 2018; 35:122. [PMID: 30078108 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-018-1185-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant form of the brain tumors and shows different genetic and epigenetic abnormalities. Gene amplification, genetic instability, disruption of apoptotic pathways, deregulated oncogene expression, invasive phenotypical changes, abnormal angiogenesis, and epigenetic changes have all been described in GBMs. These abnormalities indicate that a number of different signaling pathways are deregulated in GBM. Increasing number of studies provide a better understanding of the tumor biology, genetic, and epigenetic background of the GBM. Also, current research provides us useful approaches in designing novel therapies for GBM. In this review, we summarize the receptor tyrosine kinase-Ras-PI 3 kinase-Akt signaling network, focusing on the potential molecular targets for anti-signaling molecular therapies in this pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulten Tuncel
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Near East Boulevard, Nicosia, 99138, Cyprus
| | - Rasime Kalkan
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Near East Boulevard, Nicosia, 99138, Cyprus.
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Wang Y, Guan G, Cheng W, Jiang Y, Shan F, Wu A, Cheng P, Guo Z. ARL2 overexpression inhibits glioma proliferation and tumorigenicity via down-regulating AXL. BMC Cancer 2018; 18:599. [PMID: 29843637 PMCID: PMC5975491 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-018-4517-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioma is the most common primary brain tumor in adults with a poor prognosis. As a member of ARF subfamily GTPase, ARL2 plays a key role in regulating the dynamics of microtubules and mitochondrial functions. Recently, ARL2 has been identified as a prognostic and therapeutic target in a variety range of malignant tumors. However, the biological functional role of ARL2 in glioma still remains unknown. The aim of this study was to explore the expression and functional role of ARL2 in glioma. METHODS In this study, we investigated the expression of ARL2 in glioma samples by using RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and western blot. The correlation between ARL2 expression and the outcomes of glioma patients was evaluated with survival data from TCGA, CGGA and Rembrandt dataset. Lentiviral technique was used for ARL2 overexpression in U87 and U251 cells. CCK8 assay, colony formation assay, wound healing test, transwell invasion assay and in vivo subcutaneous xenograft model were performed to investigated the biological functions of ARL2. RESULTS ARL2 expression was down-regulated in glioma, and was inversely associated with poor prognosis in glioma patients. Furthermore, exogenous ARL2 overexpression attenuated the growth and colony-formation abilities of glioma cells, as well as their migration and invasive capabilities. Moreover, elevated expression of ARL2 inhibited in vivo tumorigenicity of glioma cells. Mechanistically, ARL2 regulated AXL expression, which was known as an important functional regulator of proliferation and tumorigenicity in glioma cells. CONCLUSION Our study suggests that ARL2 inhibits the proliferation, migration and tumorigenicity of glioma cells by regulating the expression of AXL and may conduct as a new prognostic and therapeutic target for glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Gefei Guan
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengping Shan
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, Liaoning, China
| | - Anhua Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zongze Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, 155 Nanjingbei Street, Heping, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110001, People's Republic of China.
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Circadian regulator NR1D2 regulates glioblastoma cell proliferation and motility. Oncogene 2018; 37:4838-4853. [PMID: 29773903 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-018-0319-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear receptor NR1D2 is originally characterized as the repressor of genes involved in circadian rhythm. Recently, it is documented that NR1D2 is overexpressed in various cancers. However, the pathways and biological functions that NR1D2 involved in cancers remain poorly understood. Here, we reported that NR1D2 was abundant in human glioblastoma (GBM) tissue and cell lines but not primary human astrocytes. Silencing of NR1D2 changed the morphology of GBM cells, inhibited cell proliferation and motility, whereas had no effects on apoptosis. Importantly, based on RNA-seq and ChIP assay, we identified receptor tyrosine kinase AXL as a new transcriptional target of NR1D2 in GBM cells. AXL mediated partially the regulatory effects of NR1D2 on PI3K/AKT axis and promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion of GBM cells. Besides, NR1D2 knockdown remarkably impaired the maturation of focal adhesion and assembly of F-actin, along with downregulated p-FAK, and proteins involved in actin nucleation and polymerization (p-Rac1/Cdc42, WAVE and PFN2). Moreover, NR1D2 had more targets other than AXL to regulate epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and cell motility in GBM cells. Altogether, our findings uncover a GBM-promoting role of NR1D2 and provide the rationale for targeting NR1D2 as a potential therapeutic approach.
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55
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Migration/Invasion of Malignant Gliomas and Implications for Therapeutic Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19041115. [PMID: 29642503 PMCID: PMC5979613 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19041115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignant tumors of the central nervous system (CNS) are among cancers with the poorest prognosis, indicated by their association with tumors of high-level morbidity and mortality. Gliomas, the most common primary CNS tumors that arise from neuroglial stem or progenitor cells, have estimated annual incidence of 6.6 per 100,000 individuals in the USA, and 3.5 per 100,000 individuals in Taiwan. Tumor invasion and metastasis are the major contributors to the deaths in cancer patients. Therapeutic goals including cancer stem cells (CSC), phenotypic shifts, EZH2/AXL/TGF-β axis activation, miRNAs and exosomes are relevant to GBM metastasis to develop novel targeted therapeutics for GBM and other brain cancers. Herein, we highlight tumor metastasis in our understanding of gliomas, and illustrate novel exosome therapeutic approaches in glioma, thereby paving the way towards innovative therapies in neuro-oncology.
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56
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Shafit-Zagardo B, Gruber RC, DuBois JC. The role of TAM family receptors and ligands in the nervous system: From development to pathobiology. Pharmacol Ther 2018. [PMID: 29514053 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk, referred to as the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, are instrumental in maintaining cell survival and homeostasis in mammals. TAM receptors interact with multiple signaling molecules to regulate cell migration, survival, phagocytosis and clearance of metabolic products and cell debris called efferocytosis. The TAMs also function as rheostats to reduce the expression of proinflammatory molecules and prevent autoimmunity. All three TAM receptors are activated in a concentration-dependent manner by the vitamin K-dependent growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6). Gas6 and the TAMs are abundantly expressed in the nervous system. Gas6, secreted by neurons and endothelial cells, is the sole ligand for Axl. ProteinS1 (ProS1), another vitamin K-dependent protein functions mainly as an anti-coagulant, and independent of this function can activate Tyro3 and Mertk, but not Axl. This review will focus on the role of the TAM receptors and their ligands in the nervous system. We highlight studies that explore the function of TAM signaling in myelination, the visual cortex, neural cancers, and multiple sclerosis (MS) using Gas6-/- and TAM mutant mice models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Shafit-Zagardo
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States.
| | - Ross C Gruber
- Sanofi, Neuroinflammation and MS Research, 49 New York Ave, Framingham, MA 01701, United States
| | - Juwen C DuBois
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Department of Pathology, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, United States
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57
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Meel MH, Schaper SA, Kaspers GJL, Hulleman E. Signaling pathways and mesenchymal transition in pediatric high-grade glioma. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:871-887. [PMID: 29164272 PMCID: PMC5809527 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2714-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric high-grade gliomas (pHGG), including diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPG), are the most lethal types of cancer in children. In recent years, it has become evident that these tumors are driven by epigenetic events, mainly mutations involving genes encoding Histone 3, setting them apart from their adult counterparts. These tumors are exceptionally resistant to chemotherapy and respond only temporarily to radiotherapy. Moreover, their delicate location and diffuse growth pattern make complete surgical resection impossible. In many other forms of cancer, chemo- and radioresistance, in combination with a diffuse, invasive phenotype, are associated with a transcriptional program termed the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Activation of this program allows cancer cells to survive individually, invade surrounding tissues and metastasize. It also enables them to survive exposure to cytotoxic therapy, including chemotherapeutic drugs and radiation. We here suggest that EMT plays an important, yet poorly understood role in the biology and therapy resistance of pHGG and DIPG. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the major signal transduction pathways and transcription factors involved in the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in cancer in general and in pediatric HGG and DIPG in particular. Despite the fact that the mesenchymal transition has not yet been specifically studied in pHGG and DIPG, activation of pathways and high levels of transcription factors involved in EMT have been described. We conclude that the mesenchymal transition is likely to be an important element of the biology of pHGG and DIPG and warrants further investigation for the development of novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël H Meel
- Departments of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Neuro-oncology Research Group, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie A Schaper
- Departments of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Neuro-oncology Research Group, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gertjan J L Kaspers
- Departments of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Neuro-oncology Research Group, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Hulleman
- Departments of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Neuro-oncology Research Group, Cancer Center Amsterdam, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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58
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Shen Y, Chen X, He J, Liao D, Zu X. Axl inhibitors as novel cancer therapeutic agents. Life Sci 2018; 198:99-111. [PMID: 29496493 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression and activation of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase have been widely accepted to promote cell proliferation, chemotherapy resistance, invasion, and metastasis in several human cancers, such as lung, breast, and pancreatic cancers. Axl, a member of the TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mer) family, and its inhibitors can specifically break the kinase signaling nodes, allowing advanced patients to regain drug sensitivity with improved therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, the research on Axl is promising and it is worthy of further investigations. In this review, we present an update on the Axl inhibitors and provide new insights into their latent application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Shen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Xiguang Chen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Jun He
- Department of Spine Surgery, the Affiliated Nanhua Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Duanfang Liao
- Division of Stem Cell Regulation and Application, Key Laboratory for Quality Evaluation of Bulk Herbs of Hunan Province, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, Hunan, PR China
| | - Xuyu Zu
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China.
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59
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Divine LM, Nguyen MR, Meller E, Desai RA, Arif B, Rankin EB, Bligard KH, Meyerson C, Hagemann IS, Massad M, Thaker PH, Hagemann AR, McCourt CK, Powell MA, Mutch DG, Fuh KC. AXL modulates extracellular matrix protein expression and is essential for invasion and metastasis in endometrial cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 7:77291-77305. [PMID: 27764792 PMCID: PMC5340229 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.12637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase AXL promotes migration, invasion, and metastasis. Here, we evaluated the role of AXL in endometrial cancer. High immunohistochemical expression of AXL was found in 76% (63/83) of advanced-stage, and 77% (82/107) of high-grade specimens and correlated with worse survival in uterine serous cancer patients. In vitro, genetic silencing of AXL inhibited migration and invasion but had no effect on proliferation of ARK1 endometrial cancer cells. AXL-deficient cells showed significantly decreased expression of phospho-AKT as well as uPA, MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, and MMP-9. In a xenograft model of human uterine serous carcinoma with AXL-deficient ARK1 cells, there was significantly less tumor burden than xenografts with control ARK1 cells. Together, these findings underscore the therapeutic potentials of AXL as a candidate target for treatment of metastatic endometrial cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Divine
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Mai R Nguyen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Eric Meller
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Riva A Desai
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Batool Arif
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Erinn B Rankin
- Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Katherine H Bligard
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Cherise Meyerson
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ian S Hagemann
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Maria Massad
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Premal H Thaker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Andrea R Hagemann
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Carolyn K McCourt
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Matt A Powell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - David G Mutch
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Katherine C Fuh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.,Center for Reproductive Health Sciences (CRepHS), Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
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李 树, 于 鸿, 张 耿. [Advances in Long Non-coding RNAs on Resistant to EGFR-TKIs
in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer]. ZHONGGUO FEI AI ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF LUNG CANCER 2018; 21:121-128. [PMID: 29526180 PMCID: PMC5973017 DOI: 10.3779/j.issn.1009-3419.2018.02.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most non-small cell lung cancer patients with active epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation will eventually acquire drug resistant to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as gefitinib, resulting in disease progression, which involves a variety of complex mechanisms. Up to now, the molecular mechanisms of long non-coding RNAs mediated EGFR-TKIs resistance remains poorly understood. This review aims to outline the current state of information on lncRNAs and progress on its role in EGFR-TKIs resistance in non-small cell lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- 树斌 李
- 102600 北京, 中国中医科学院广安门医院南区内科Department of Internal Medicine, Southern Branch of Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 102600, China
| | - 鸿 于
- 130012 长春, 吉林省肿瘤医院吉林省肿瘤防治研究所细胞生物研究室Cell Biology Laboratory, Jilin Province Institute of Cancer Prevention and Treatment, Jilin Cancer Hospital, Changchun 130012, China
| | - 耿月 张
- 130012 长春, 吉林省肿瘤医院吉林省肿瘤防治研究所细胞生物研究室Cell Biology Laboratory, Jilin Province Institute of Cancer Prevention and Treatment, Jilin Cancer Hospital, Changchun 130012, China
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Expression and role of TYRO3 and AXL as potential therapeutical targets in leiomyosarcoma. Br J Cancer 2017; 117:1787-1797. [PMID: 29024938 PMCID: PMC5729471 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2017.354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Leiomyosarcoma (LMS) are 15% of adult sarcomas and remain seldom curable in metastatic phase. The TAM receptors and their ligands are overexpressed or activated in multiple malignancies, including LMS. Methods: The TAM receptor and ligand expression was evaluated in LMS cell lines and 358 sarcoma samples by either gene expression or immunohistochemistry. TYRO3 and AXL were knocked down. Crizotinib and foretinib were investigated in vitro. Results: High expression of TYRO3 and AXL was detected in LMS cell lines. TYRO3 or AXL gene knockdown reduced cell proliferation/colony formation. Crizotinib and foretinib decreased TYRO3 and AXL phosphorylation, apoptosis, G2/arrest and reduced colony formation. Immunohistochemistry performed in 107 sarcomas showed higher expression of TYRO3 and GAS6 in LMS vs other sarcomas and nuclear TYRO3 only in LMS. Microarray gene expression performed in 251 sarcomas revealed significantly higher expression of TYRO3 and GAS6 in LMS than other sarcomas. Leiomyosarcoma patients with high expression of GAS6 or PROS1 present a significantly worse PFS. Conclusions: Leiomyosarcoma patients, especially those whom develop metastasis, express higher levels of TYRO3 and GAS6. Crizotinib and foretinib showed effective antitumour activity in LMS through TYRO3 and AXL deactivation indicating that clinical trials using TYRO3 and AXL inhibitors are warranted in advanced LMS.
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Abstract
A major challenge in anticancer treatment is the pre-existence or emergence of resistance to therapy. AXL and MER are two members of the TAM (TYRO3-AXL-MER) family of receptor tyrosine kinases, which, when activated, can regulate tumor cell survival, proliferation, migration and invasion, angiogenesis, and tumor-host interactions. An increasing body of evidence strongly suggests that these receptors play major roles in resistance to targeted therapies and conventional cytotoxic agents. Multiple resistance mechanisms exist, including the direct and indirect crosstalk of AXL and MER with other receptors and the activation of feedback loops regulating AXL and MER expression and activity. These mechanisms may be innate, adaptive, or acquired. A principal role of AXL appears to be in sustaining a mesenchymal phenotype, itself a major mechanism of resistance to diverse anticancer therapies. Both AXL and MER play a role in the repression of the innate immune response which may also limit response to treatment. Small molecule and antibody inhibitors of AXL and MER have recently been described, and some of these have already entered clinical trials. The optimal design of treatment strategies to maximize the clinical benefit of these AXL and MER targeting agents are discussed in relation to the different cancer types and the types of resistance encountered. One of the major challenges to successful development of these therapies will be the application of robust predictive biomarkers for clear-cut patient stratification.
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63
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Uchida M, Miyoshi T, Miyamoto Y. Pharmacological effects of a vitamin K 1 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) inhibitor, 3-acetyl-5-methyltetronic acid, on cisplatin-induced fibrosis in rats. J Vet Med Sci 2017; 79:1507-1515. [PMID: 28717059 PMCID: PMC5627320 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.17-0216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin (CDDP) is a chemotherapeutic agent that is widely used in the treatment of lymphomas and solid malignancies. However, its clinical usage is limited by its severe side effects in the kidneys. Glomerular and tubular
injuries in the kidneys commonly progress to interstitial fibrosis and, ultimately, the end stage of renal failure. We previously reported that 3-acetyl-5-methyltetronic acid (AMT) had inhibitory effects on rat renal vitamin
K1 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) in vitro and also suppressed mesangial cell proliferation and, consequently, the formation of fibrosis via the vitamin K-dependent activation of the growth
arrest-specific 6 (Gas6)/Axl pathway in anti-Thy-1 glomerulonephritis (Thy-1 GN) in rats. In the present study, we demonstrated that AMT alleviated the progression of renal fibrosis in CDDP-treated rats. The repeated intravenous
administration of AMT for 28 days dose-dependently suppressed increases in plasma urea nitrogen and plasma creatinine levels as well as creatinine clearance in CDDP-treated rats. Furthermore, the treatment suppressed the
expression of α-smooth muscle actin (SMA)-positive cells and ameliorated the extracellular matrix accumulation of collagen III, indicating an antifibrotic effect. In conclusion, our toxicological and histopathological results
demonstrated quantitatively the pharmacological inhibitory effects of AMT on the progression of renal fibrosis in CDDP-treated rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Uchida
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan
| | - Tomoya Miyoshi
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan
| | - Yohei Miyamoto
- Toxicology and Pharmacokinetics Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Laboratories, Toray Industries, Inc., 6-10-1 Tebiro, Kamakura, Kanagawa 248-8555, Japan.,Pharmaceutical Clinical Research Department, Toray Industries, Inc., 1-1, Nihonbashi-muromachi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8666, Japan
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Antony J, Huang RYJ. AXL-Driven EMT State as a Targetable Conduit in Cancer. Cancer Res 2017; 77:3725-3732. [PMID: 28667075 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-17-0392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL has been intrinsically linked to epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promoting cell survival, anoikis resistance, invasion, and metastasis in several cancers. AXL signaling has been shown to directly affect the mesenchymal state and confer it with aggressive phenotype and drug resistance. Recently, the EMT gradient has also been shown to rewire the kinase signaling nodes that facilitate AXL-RTK cross-talk, protracted signaling, converging on ERK, and PI3K axes. The molecular mechanisms underplaying the regulation between the kinome and EMT require further elucidation to define targetable conduits. Therapeutically, as AXL inhibition has shown EMT reversal and resensitization to other tyrosine kinase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and platinum-based therapy, there is a need to stratify patients based on AXL dependence. This review elucidates the role of AXL in EMT-mediated oncogenesis and highlights the reciprocal control between AXL signaling and the EMT state. In addition, we review the potential in inhibiting AXL for the development of different therapeutic strategies and inhibitors. Cancer Res; 77(14); 3725-32. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Antony
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,NUS Graduate School for Integrative Sciences and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ruby Yun-Ju Huang
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore. .,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, National University Health System, Singapore.,Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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65
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Onken J, Vajkoczy P, Torka R, Hempt C, Patsouris V, Heppner FL, Radke J. Phospho-AXL is widely expressed in glioblastoma and associated with significant shorter overall survival. Oncotarget 2017; 8:50403-50414. [PMID: 28881571 PMCID: PMC5584143 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.18468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinase AXL (RTK-AXL) is regarded as a suitable target in glioblastoma (GBM) therapy. Since AXL kinase inhibitors are about to get approval for clinical use, patients with a potential benefit from therapy targeting AXL need to be identified. We therefore assessed the expression pattern of Phospho-AXL (P-AXL), the biologically active form of AXL, in 90 patients with newly diagnosed GBM, which was found to be detectable in 67 patients (corresponding to 74%). We identified three main P-AXL expression patterns: i) exclusively in the tumor vasculature (13%), ii) in areas of hypercellularity (35%), or iii) both, in the tumor vasculature and in hypercellular areas of the tumor tissue (52%). Pattern iii) is associated with significant decrease in overall survival (Hazard ratio 2.349, 95% confidence interval 1.069 to 5.162, *p=0.03). Our data suggest that P-AXL may serve as a therapeutic target in the majority of GBM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Onken
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Vajkoczy
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Torka
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Claudia Hempt
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Victor Patsouris
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank L Heppner
- Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neuropathology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence, NeuroCure, Berlin, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany, Partner Site Charité Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josefine Radke
- Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neuropathology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Heidelberg, Germany, Partner Site Charité Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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66
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Bi S, Wang C, Li Y, Zhang W, Zhang J, Lv Z, Wang J. LncRNA-MALAT1-mediated Axl promotes cell invasion and migration in human neuroblastoma. Tumour Biol 2017; 39:1010428317699796. [PMID: 28468579 DOI: 10.1177/1010428317699796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpression of Axl has been noted to correlate with several human cancers. However, the regulatory mechanisms and effects of Axl in human neuroblastoma development remain unclear. Here, we explore the expression of Axl in neurobalstoma and related upstream regulatory mechanisms of invasion and migration. We found that Axl was overexpressed in metastatic neuroblastoma tissues and positively associated with long non-coding RNA metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1. Meanwhile, our data suggested that metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 upregulated Axl expression in neuroblastoma cells, resulting in cell invasion and migration. Furthermore, we found that targeting Axl by inhibitor R428 significantly suppressed the abilities of tumor cell invasion and migration. In summary, these results suggested that Axl, which is regulated by long non-coding RNA metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1, may exert great influence on invasion and migration of neuroblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojie Bi
- 1 Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Chunyan Wang
- 2 Department of Emergency Medicine, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yixin Li
- 3 Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- 1 Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- 1 Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhaopeng Lv
- 1 Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Junxia Wang
- 4 Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
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67
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Shin CH, Robinson JP, Sonnen JA, Welker AE, Yu DX, VanBrocklin MW, Holmen SL. HBEGF promotes gliomagenesis in the context of Ink4a/Arf and Pten loss. Oncogene 2017; 36:4610-4618. [PMID: 28368403 PMCID: PMC5552427 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like growth factor (HBEGF) is a ligand for the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), one of the most commonly amplified receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) in glioblastoma. While HBEGF has been found to be expressed in a subset of malignant gliomas, its sufficiency for glioma initiation has not been evaluated. In this study, we demonstrate that HBEGF can initiate glioblastoma (GBM) in mice in the context of Ink4a/Arf and Pten loss, and that these tumors are similar to the classical GBM subtype observed in patients. Isogenic astrocytes from these mice showed activation not only of Egfr but also the RTK Axl in response to HBEGF stimulation. Deletion of either Egfr or Axl decreased the tumorigenic properties of HBEGF transformed cells; however only EGFR was able to rescue the phenotype in cells lacking both RTKs indicating that Egfr is required for activation of Axl in this context. Silencing of HBEGF in vivo resulted in tumor regression and significantly increased survival suggesting that HBEGF may be a clinically relevant target.
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Affiliation(s)
- C H Shin
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - J P Robinson
- Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN, USA
| | - J A Sonnen
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,ARUP Laboratories, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - A E Welker
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - D X Yu
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - M W VanBrocklin
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - S L Holmen
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Oncological Sciences, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Utah Health Sciences Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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68
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Abstract
ZBTB transcription factors orchestrate gene transcription during tissue development. However, their roles in glioblastoma (GBM) remain unexplored. Here, through a functional screening of ZBTB genes, we identify that BCL6 is required for GBM cell viability and that BCL6 overexpression is associated with worse prognosis. In a somatic transgenic mouse model, depletion of Bcl6 inhibits the progression of KrasG12V-driven high-grade glioma. Transcriptome analysis demonstrates the involvement of BCL6 in tumor protein p53 (TP53), erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog (ErbB), and MAPK signaling pathways. Indeed, BCL6 represses the expression of wild-type p53 and its target genes in GBM cells. Knockdown of BCL6 augments the activation of TP53 pathway in response to radiation. Importantly, we discover that receptor tyrosine kinase AXL is a transcriptional target of BCL6 in GBM and mediates partially the regulatory effects of BCL6 on both MEK-ERK (mitogen-activated protein/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase-extracellular signal-regulated kinase) and S6K-RPS6 (ribosomal protein S6 kinase-ribosomal protein S6) axes. Similar to BCL6 silencing, depletion of AXL profoundly attenuates GBM proliferation both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, targeted inhibition of BCL6/nuclear receptor corepressor 1 (NCoR) complex by peptidomimetic inhibitor not only significantly decreases AXL expression and the activity of MEK-ERK and S6K-RPS6 cascades but also displays a potent antiproliferative effect against GBM cells. Together, these findings uncover a glioma-promoting role of BCL6 and provide the rationale of targeting BCL6 as a potential therapeutic approach.
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69
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Wu G, Ma Z, Hu W, Wang D, Gong B, Fan C, Jiang S, Li T, Gao J, Yang Y. Molecular insights of Gas6/TAM in cancer development and therapy. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2700. [PMID: 28333143 PMCID: PMC5386520 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) was discovered in 1988, numerous studies have highlighted the role of the Gas6 protein and its receptors Tyro3, Axl and Mer (collectively referred to as TAM), in proliferation, apoptosis, efferocytosis, leukocyte migration, sequestration and platelet aggregation. Gas6 has a critical role in the development of multiple types of cancers, including pancreatic, prostate, oral, ovarian and renal cancers. Acute myelocytic leukaemia (AML) is a Gas6-dependent cancer, and Gas6 expression predicts poor prognosis in AML. Interestingly, Gas6 also has a role in establishing tumour dormancy in the bone marrow microenvironment and in suppressing intestinal tumorigenesis. Numerous studies regarding cancer therapy have targeted Gas6 and TAM receptors with good results. However, some findings have suggested that Gas6 is associated with the development of resistance to cancer therapies. Concerning these significant effects of Gas6 in numerous cancers, we discuss the roles of Gas6 in cancer development in this review. First, we introduce basic knowledge on Gas6 and TAM receptors. Next, we describe and discuss the involvement of Gas6 and TAM receptors in cancers from different organ systems. Finally, we highlight the progress in therapies targeting Gas6 and TAM receptors. This review presents the significant roles of Gas6 in cancers from different systems and may contribute to the continued promotion of Gas6 as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiling Wu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China.,Department of Geriatrics, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 127 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 1 Xinsi Road, Xi'an 710038, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Dongjin Wang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China
| | - Bing Gong
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China
| | - Chongxi Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- Department of Aerospace Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Tian Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Jianyuan Gao
- Department of Geriatrics, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 127 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
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70
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Onken J, Torka R, Korsing S, Radke J, Krementeskaia I, Nieminen M, Bai X, Ullrich A, Heppner F, Vajkoczy P. Inhibiting receptor tyrosine kinase AXL with small molecule inhibitor BMS-777607 reduces glioblastoma growth, migration, and invasion in vitro and in vivo. Oncotarget 2017; 7:9876-89. [PMID: 26848524 PMCID: PMC4891090 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.7130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Receptor tyrosine kinase AXL (RTK-AXL) is regarded as suitable target in glioma therapy. Here we evaluate the anti-tumoral effect of small molecule inhibitor BMS-777607 targeting RTK-AXL in a preclinical glioma model and provide evidence that RTK-AXL is expressed and phosphorylated in primary and recurrent glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Experimental design We studied the impact of BMS-777607 targeting RTK-AXL in GBM models in vitro and in vivo utilizing glioma cells SF126 and U118MG. Impact on proliferation, apoptosis and angiogenesis was investigated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and functional assays in vitro and in vivo. Tumor growth was assessed with MRI. Human GBM tissue was analyzed in terms of RTK-AXL phosphorylation by immunoprecipitation and immunohistochemistry. Results BMS-777607 displayed various anti-cancer effects dependent on increased apoptosis, decreased proliferation and migration in vitro and ex vivo in SF126 and U118 GBM cells. In vivo we observed a 56% tumor volume reduction in SF126 xenografts and remission in U118MG xenografts of more than 91%. The tube formation assay confirmed the anti-angiogenic effect of BMS-777607, which became also apparent in tumor xenografts. IHC of human GBM tissue localized phosphorylated RTK-AXL in hypercellular tumor regions, the migratory front of tumor cells in pseudo-palisades, and in vascular proliferates within the tumor. We further proved RTK-AXL phosphorylation in primary and recurrent disease state. Conclusion Collectively, these data strongly suggest that targeting RTK-AXL with BMS-777607 could represent a novel and potent regimen for the treatment of primary and recurrent GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Onken
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Torka
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sören Korsing
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Xi Bai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité, Berlin, Germany
| | - Axel Ullrich
- Department of Molecular Biology, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Frank Heppner
- Institute of Neuropathology, Charité, Berlin, Germany
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71
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Implication of the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase AXL in Head and Neck Cancer Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 18:ijms18010007. [PMID: 28025482 PMCID: PMC5297642 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) remains a clinical challenge and identification of novel therapeutic targets is necessary. The receptor tyrosine kinase AXL has been implicated in several tumor entities and a selective AXL small molecule inhibitor (BGB324) is currently being tested in clinical trials for patients suffering from non-small cell lung cancer or acute myeloid leukemia. Our study investigates AXL expression during HNSCC progression and its use as a potential therapeutic target in HNSCC. AXL protein expression was determined in a HNSCC cohort (n = 364) using immunohistochemical staining. For functional validation, AXL was either overexpressed or inhibited with BGB324 in HNSCC cell lines to assess proliferation, migration and invasion. We found AXL protein expression increasing during tumor progression with highest expression levels in recurrent tumors. In HNSCC cell lines in vitro, AXL overexpression increased migration as well as invasion. Both properties could be reduced through treatment with BGB324. In contrast, proliferation was neither affected by AXL overexpression nor by inhibition with BGB324. Our patient-derived data and in vitro results show that, in HNSCC, AXL is important for the progression to more advanced tumor stages. Moreover, they suggest that AXL could be a target for precision medicine approaches in this dismal tumor entity.
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72
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Structure-based optimization of 1H-imidazole-2-carboxamides as Axl kinase inhibitors utilizing a Mer mutant surrogate. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016; 27:1099-1104. [PMID: 28082036 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Axl has been a target of interest in the oncology field for several years based on its role in various oncogenic processes. To date, no wild-type Axl crystal structure has been reported. Herein, we describe the structure-based optimization of a novel chemotype of Axl inhibitors, 1H-imidazole-2-carboxamide, using a mutated kinase homolog, Mer(I650M), as a crystallographic surrogate. Iterative optimization of the initial lead compound (1) led to compound (21), a selective and potent inhibitor of wild-type Axl. Compound (21) will serve as a useful compound for further in vivo studies.
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73
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Fan L, Hu Z. [Progress of Long Non-coding RNAs in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer]. ZHONGGUO FEI AI ZA ZHI = CHINESE JOURNAL OF LUNG CANCER 2016; 19:108-12. [PMID: 26903166 PMCID: PMC6015147 DOI: 10.3779/j.issn.1009-3419.2016.02.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer related death is the most common cause of cancer death worldwide. Non-coding RNA has no protein coding capacity, but can play roles in a variety of biology. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is at least 200 nt long. A variety of lncRNAs could promote or inhibit tumor development and progression in many tumors, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Due to their fundamental role in regulating gene expression, they involve in biological mechanism of the tumor, and so they are expected to be new cancer biomarkers. In this review, we emphasized the roles of lncRNAs in NSCLC, and discuss them as diagnostic and prognostic markers and as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Fan
- Department of Medical Clinical Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
| | - Zhidong Hu
- Department of Medical Clinical Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 300052 Tianjin, China
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74
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Che Mat MF, Abdul Murad NA, Ibrahim K, Mohd Mokhtar N, Wan Ngah WZ, Harun R, Jamal R. Silencing of PROS1 induces apoptosis and inhibits migration and invasion of glioblastoma multiforme cells. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:2359-2366. [PMID: 27840905 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor and most patients have poor prognosis. Despite many advances in research, there has been no significant improvement in the patient survival rate. New molecular therapies are being studied and RNA interference (RNAi) therapy is one of the promising approaches to improve prognosis and increase survival in patients with GBM. We performed a meta‑analysis of five different microarray datasets and identified 460 significantly upregulated genes in GBM. Loss‑of‑function screening of these upregulated genes using LN18 cells was performed to identify the significant target genes for glioma. Further investigations were performed using siRNA in LN18 cells and various functional assays were carried out on the selected candidate gene to understand further its role in GBM. We identified PROS1 as a candidate gene for GBM from the meta‑analysis and RNAi screening. Knockdown of PROS1 in LN18 cells significantly induced apoptosis compared to siPROS1‑untreated cells (p<0.05). Migration in cells treated with siPROS1 was reduced significantly (p<0.05) and this was confirmed with wound-healing assay. PROS1 knockdown showed substantial reduction in cell invasion up to 82% (p<0.01). In addition, inhibition of PROS1 leads to decrease in cellular proliferation by 18%. Knockdown of PROS1 in LN18 cells caused activation of both of the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. It caused major upregulation of FasL which is important for death receptor signaling activation and also downregulation of GAS6 and other members of TAM family of receptors. PROS1 may play an important role in the development of GBM through cellular proliferation, migration and invasion as well as apoptosis. Targeting PROS1 in GBM could be a novel therapeutic strategy in GBM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Firdaus Che Mat
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Nor Azian Abdul Murad
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Kamariah Ibrahim
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Norfilza Mohd Mokhtar
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Wan Zurinah Wan Ngah
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Roslan Harun
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
| | - Rahman Jamal
- UKM Medical Molecular Biology Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia
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75
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Kariolis MS, Miao YR, Diep A, Nash SE, Olcina MM, Jiang D, Jones DS, Kapur S, Mathews II, Koong AC, Rankin EB, Cochran JR, Giaccia AJ. Inhibition of the GAS6/AXL pathway augments the efficacy of chemotherapies. J Clin Invest 2016; 127:183-198. [PMID: 27893463 DOI: 10.1172/jci85610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor and its activating ligand, growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6), are important drivers of metastasis and therapeutic resistance in human cancers. Given the critical roles that GAS6 and AXL play in refractory disease, this signaling axis represents an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. However, the strong picomolar binding affinity between GAS6 and AXL and the promiscuity of small molecule inhibitors represent important challenges faced by current anti-AXL therapeutics. Here, we have addressed these obstacles by engineering a second-generation, high-affinity AXL decoy receptor with an apparent affinity of 93 femtomolar to GAS6. Our decoy receptor, MYD1-72, profoundly inhibited disease progression in aggressive preclinical models of human cancers and induced cell killing in leukemia cells. When directly compared with the most advanced anti-AXL small molecules in the clinic, MYD1-72 achieved superior antitumor efficacy while displaying no toxicity. Moreover, we uncovered a relationship between AXL and the cellular response to DNA damage whereby abrogation of AXL signaling leads to accumulation of the DNA-damage markers γH2AX, 53BP1, and RAD51. MYD1-72 exploited this relationship, leading to improvements upon the therapeutic index of current standard-of-care chemotherapies in preclinical models of advanced pancreatic and ovarian cancer.
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76
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The Receptor Tyrosine Kinase AXL in Cancer Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8110103. [PMID: 27834845 PMCID: PMC5126763 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8110103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/03/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for cancer therapy. Recent studies have revealed a central role of AXL signaling in tumor proliferation, survival, stem cell phenotype, metastasis, and resistance to cancer therapy. Moreover, AXL is expressed within cellular components of the tumor microenvironment where AXL signaling contributes to the immunosuppressive and protumorigenic phenotypes. A variety of AXL inhibitors have been developed and are efficacious in preclinical studies. These agents offer new opportunities for therapeutic intervention in the prevention and treatment of advanced disease. Here we review the literature that has illuminated the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which AXL signaling promotes tumor progression and we will discuss the therapeutic potential of AXL inhibition for cancer therapy.
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77
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ALK inhibitor resistance in ALK(F1174L)-driven neuroblastoma is associated with AXL activation and induction of EMT. Oncogene 2016; 35:3681-91. [PMID: 26616860 PMCID: PMC4885798 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The crizotinib-resistant ALK(F1174L) mutation arises de novo in neuroblastoma (NB) and is acquired in ALK translocation-driven cancers, lending impetus to the development of novel anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) inhibitors with different modes of action. The diaminopyrimidine TAE684 and its derivative ceritinib (LDK378), which are structurally distinct from crizotinib, are active against NB cells expressing ALK(F1174L). Here we demonstrate acquired resistance to TAE684 and LDK378 in ALK(F1174L)-driven human NB cells that is linked to overexpression and activation of the AXL tyrosine kinase and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). AXL phosphorylation conferred TAE684 resistance to NB cells through upregulated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. Inhibition of AXL partly rescued TAE684 resistance, resensitizing these cells to this compound. AXL activation in resistant cells was mediated through increased expression of the active form of its ligand, GAS6, that also served to stabilize the AXL protein. Although ectopic expression of AXL and TWIST2 individually in TAE684-sensitive parental cells led to the elevated expression of mesenchymal markers and invasive capacity, only AXL overexpression induced resistance to TAE684 as well. TAE684-resistant cells showed greater sensitivity to HSP90 inhibition than did their parental counterparts, with downregulation of AXL and AXL-mediated ERK signaling. Our studies indicate that aberrant AXL signaling and development of an EMT phenotype underlie resistance of ALK(F1174L)-driven NB cells to TAE684 and its derivatives. We suggest that the combination of ALK and AXL or HSP90 inhibitors be considered to delay the emergence of such resistance.
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78
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Mer receptor tyrosine kinase is frequently overexpressed in human non-small cell lung cancer, confirming resistance to erlotinib. Oncotarget 2016; 6:9206-19. [PMID: 25826078 PMCID: PMC4496212 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mer is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) with oncogenic properties that is often overexpressed or activated in various malignancies. Using both immunohistochemistry and microarray analyses, we demonstrated that Mer was overexpressed in both tumoral and stromal compartments of about 70% of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) samples relative to surrounding normal lung tissue. This was validated in freshly harvested NSCLC samples; however, no associations were found between Mer expression and patient features. Although Mer overexpression did not render normal lung epithelial cell tumorigenic in vivo, it promoted the in vitro cell proliferation, clonogenic colony formation and migration of normal lung epithelial cells as well as NSCLC cells primarily depending on MAPK and FAK signaling, respectively. Importantly, Mer overexpression induced resistance to erlotinib (EGFR inhibitor) in otherwise erlotinib-sensitive cells. Furthermore, Mer-specific inhibitor rendered erlotinib-resistant cells sensitive to erlotinib. We conclude that Mer enhances malignant phenotype and pharmacological inhibition of Mer overcomes resistance of NSCLC to EGFR-targeted agents.
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79
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Long noncoding RNAs: new insights into non-small cell lung cancer biology, diagnosis and therapy. Med Oncol 2016; 33:18. [PMID: 26786153 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-016-0731-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in tiling array and high throughput analyses revealed that at least 87.3 % of the human genome is actively transcribed, though <3 % of the human genome encodes proteins. This unexpected truth suggests that most of the transcriptome is constituted by noncoding RNA. Among them, high-resolution microarray and massively parallel sequencing analyses identified long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) as nonprotein-coding transcripts. lncRNAs are largely polyadenylated and >200 nucleotides in length transcripts, involved in gene expression through epigenetic and transcriptional regulation, splicing, imprinting and subcellular transport. Although lncRNAs functions are largely uncharacterized, accumulating data indicate that they are involved in fundamental biological functions. Conversely, their dysregulation has increasingly been recognized to contribute to the development and progression of several human malignancies, especially lung cancer, which represents the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. We conducted a comprehensive review of the published literature focusing on lncRNAs function and disruption in nonsmall cell lung cancer biology, also highlighting their value as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. lncRNAs are involved in NSCLC pathogenesis, modulating fundamental cellular processes such as proliferation, cell growth, apoptosis, migration, stem cell maintenance and epithelial to mesenchymal transition, also serving as signaling transducers, molecular decoys and scaffolds. Also, lncRNAs represent very promising biomarkers in early-stage NSCLC patients and may become particularly useful in noninvasive screening protocols. lncRNAs may be used as predictive biomarkers for chemotherapy and targeted therapies sensitivity. Furthermore, selectively targeting oncogenic lncRNAs could provide a new therapeutic tool in treating NSCLC patients. lncRNAs disruption plays a pivotal role in NSCLC development and progression. These molecules also serve as diagnostic, prognostic and predictive biomarkers. Characterization of lncRNA genes and their mechanisms of action will enable us to develop a more comprehensive clinical approach, with the final goal to benefit our patients.
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80
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Scaltriti M, Elkabets M, Baselga J. Molecular Pathways: AXL, a Membrane Receptor Mediator of Resistance to Therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2016; 22:1313-7. [PMID: 26763248 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-15-1458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
AXL is a tyrosine kinase membrane receptor that signals via PI3K, MAPK, and protein kinase C (PKC), among other pathways. AXL has oncogenic potential and interacts with other membrane receptors, depending on their relative abundance and availability. The increased expression of AXL in cancer is often the result of pharmacologic selective pressure to a number of chemotherapies and targeted therapies and acts as a mechanism of acquired drug resistance. This resistance phenotype, frequently accompanied by epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, can be reversed by AXL inhibition. In tumors with high levels of EGFR, including lung, head and neck, and triple-negative breast cancer, AXL dimerizes with this receptor and initiates signaling that circumvents the antitumor effects of anti-EGFR therapies. Likewise, AXL overexpression and dimerization with EGFR can overcome PI3K inhibition by activating the phospholipase C-γ-PKC cascade that, in turn, sustains mTORC1 activity. The causative role of AXL in inducing drug resistance is underscored by the fact that the suppression of AXL restores sensitivity to these agents. Hence, these observations indicate that AXL is selectively expressed in tumor cells refractory to therapy and that cotargeting AXL in this setting would potentially overcome drug resistance. The use of AXL inhibitors should be considered in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Scaltriti
- Human Oncology & Pathogenesis Program (HOPP), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York. Department of Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York.
| | - Moshe Elkabets
- The Shraga Segal Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - José Baselga
- Human Oncology & Pathogenesis Program (HOPP), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York. Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York.
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81
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Myers SH, Brunton VG, Unciti-Broceta A. AXL Inhibitors in Cancer: A Medicinal Chemistry Perspective. J Med Chem 2015; 59:3593-608. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel H. Myers
- Edinburgh Cancer Research
UK Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, U.K
| | - Valerie G. Brunton
- Edinburgh Cancer Research
UK Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, U.K
| | - Asier Unciti-Broceta
- Edinburgh Cancer Research
UK Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, U.K
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82
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Yin Y, Qiu S, Peng Y. Functional roles of enhancer of zeste homolog 2 in gliomas. Gene 2015; 576:189-94. [PMID: 26435191 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.09.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Gliomas are the most common and lethal type of primary malignant brain tumor. Due to the infiltrative nature and high resistance to standard first line treatment with combinations of radiation and chemotherapy, the prognosis of patient is very poor. Recently, accumulated evidence suggests that enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) serves as an oncogene and is involved in multiple glioma cell processes, including cell cycle, invasion, glioma stem cell maintenance, drug and radiotherapy resistance and so on. In this review, we will focus on updating current knowledge of EZH2 in gliomas. Moreover, the regulation of EZH2 by microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs and the therapeutic strategies targeting EZH2 for gliomas will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yatao Yin
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Shuwei Qiu
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Ying Peng
- Department of Neurology, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Malignant Tumor Epigenetics and Gene Regulation, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510120, China.
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83
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Hattori S, Kikuchi E, Kosaka T, Miyazaki Y, Tanaka N, Miyajima A, Mikami S, Oya M. Relationship Between Increased Expression of the Axl/Gas6 Signal Cascade and Prognosis of Patients with Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2015; 23:663-70. [PMID: 26350366 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-015-4848-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Axl, which is in the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases, and its ligand, growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6), have been associated with worse prognoses after the surgical treatment of some types of cancers. We herein investigated the biological significance of the protein expression of Axl and Gas6 on the outcomes of patients with upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC). METHODS The protein expression of Axl and Gas6 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry, and their relationships with clinicopathological features were investigated in surgical specimens obtained from 161 patients who had been surgically treated for UTUC. RESULTS Axl labeling was strong in 67 of 161 (42 %) cases, while Gas6 labeling was strong in 72 of 161 (45 %) cases. The strong expression of Axl correlated with that of Gas6. A high pathological stage (p = 0.009), strong expression of Gas6 (p = 0.038), and strong expression of Axl (p = 0.016) were independent factors for predicting worse cancer-specific survival (CSS). In a subgroup analysis of patients with pT < 2 (N = 53), no significant difference in CSS was observed between patients weakly and strongly expressing Axl/Gas6. In contrast, a subgroup analysis of patients with pT ≥ 2 (N = 108) revealed that the expression levels of Axl and Gas6 correlated with CSS. CONCLUSION The protein expression of Axl and its ligand Gas6 may be a useful indicator for a worse clinical outcome in UTUC patients, especially patients with pT ≥ 2, who underwent radical nephroureterectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiya Hattori
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Eiji Kikuchi
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Takeo Kosaka
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Miyazaki
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Tanaka
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akira Miyajima
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shuji Mikami
- Department of Pathology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mototsugu Oya
- Department of Urology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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84
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Biodegradable interstitial release polymer loading a novel small molecule targeting Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and reducing brain tumour migration and invasion. Oncogene 2015; 35:2156-65. [PMID: 26257061 PMCID: PMC4855077 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive brain tumour. The neoplasms are difficult to resect entirely because of their highly infiltration property and leading to the tumour edge is unclear. Gliadel wafer has been used as an intracerebral drug delivery system to eliminate the residual tumour. However, because of its local low concentration and short diffusion distance, patient survival improves non-significantly. Axl is an essential regulator in cancer metastasis and patient survival. In this study, we developed a controlled-release polyanhydride polymer loading a novel small molecule, n-butylidenephthalide (BP), which is not only increasing local drug concentration and extending its diffusion distance but also reducing tumour invasion, mediated by reducing Axl expression. First, we determined that BP inhibited the expression of Axl in a dose- and time-dependent manner and reduced the migratory and invasive capabilities of GBM cells. In addition, BP downregulated matrix metalloproteinase activity, which is involved in cancer cell invasion. Furthermore, we demonstrated that BP regulated Axl via the extracellular signal-regulated kinases pathway. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is related to epithelial cells in the invasive migratory mesenchymal cells that underlie cancer progression; we demonstrated that BP reduced the expression of EMT-related genes. Furthermore, we used the overexpression of Axl in GBM cells to prove that Axl is a crucial target in the inhibition of GBM EMT, migration and invasion. In an in vivo study, we demonstrated that BP inhibited tumour growth and suppressed Axl expression in a dose-dependent manner according to a subcutaneous tumour model. Most importantly, in an intracranial tumour model with BP wafer in situ treatment, we demonstrated that the BP wafer not only significantly increased the survival rate but also decreased Axl expression, and inhibited tumour invasion. These results contribute to the development of a BP wafer for a novel therapeutic strategy for treating GBM invasion and increasing survival in clinical subjects.
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85
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Wu X, Liu X, Koul S, Lee CY, Zhang Z, Halmos B. AXL kinase as a novel target for cancer therapy. Oncotarget 2015; 5:9546-63. [PMID: 25337673 PMCID: PMC4259419 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The AXL receptor tyrosine kinase and its major ligand, GAS6 have been demonstrated to be overexpressed and activated in many human cancers (such as lung, breast, and pancreatic cancer) and have been correlated with poor prognosis, promotion of increased invasiveness/metastasis, the EMT phenotype and drug resistance. Targeting AXL in different model systems with specific small molecule kinase inhibitors or antibodies alone or in combination with other drugs can lead to inactivation of AXL-mediated signaling pathways and can lead to regained drug sensitivity and improved therapeutic efficacy, defining AXL as a promising novel target for cancer therapeutics. This review highlights the data supporting AXL as a novel treatment candidate in a variety of cancers as well as the current status of drug development targeting the AXL/GAS6 axis and future perspectives in this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Wu
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuewen Liu
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China. Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sanjay Koul
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chang Youl Lee
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital Hallym University Medical Center, Chuncheon-si Gangwon-do 200-704 Republic of Korea
| | - Zhenfeng Zhang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Balazs Halmos
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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86
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Conway K, Edmiston SN, Tse CK, Bryant C, Kuan PF, Hair BY, Parrish EA, May R, Swift-Scanlan T. Racial variation in breast tumor promoter methylation in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2015; 24:921-30. [PMID: 25809865 PMCID: PMC4452445 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-14-1228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND African American (AA) women are diagnosed with more advanced breast cancers and have worse survival than white women, but a comprehensive understanding of the basis for this disparity remains unclear. Analysis of DNA methylation, an epigenetic mechanism that can regulate gene expression, could help to explain racial differences in breast tumor clinical biology and outcomes. METHODS DNA methylation was evaluated at 1,287 CpGs in the promoters of cancer-related genes in 517 breast tumors of AA (n = 216) or non-AA (n = 301) cases in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study (CBCS). RESULTS Multivariable linear regression analysis of all tumors, controlling for age, menopausal status, stage, intrinsic subtype, and multiple comparisons [false discovery rate (FDR)], identified seven CpG probes that showed significant (adjusted P < 0.05) differential methylation between AAs and non-AAs. Stratified analyses detected an additional four CpG probes differing by race within hormone receptor-negative (HR(-)) tumors. Genes differentially methylated by race included DSC2, KCNK4, GSTM1, AXL, DNAJC15, HBII-52, TUSC3, and TES; the methylation state of several of these genes may be associated with worse survival in AAs. TCGA breast tumor data confirmed the differential methylation by race and negative correlations with expression for most of these genes. Several loci also showed racial differences in methylation in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) from CBCS cases, indicating that these variations were not necessarily tumor-specific. CONCLUSIONS Racial differences in the methylation of cancer-related genes are detectable in both tumors and PBLs from breast cancer cases. IMPACT Epigenetic variation could contribute to differences in breast tumor development and outcomes between AAs and non-AAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Conway
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
| | - Sharon N Edmiston
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Chiu-Kit Tse
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Christopher Bryant
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Pei Fen Kuan
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Brionna Y Hair
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Eloise A Parrish
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Ryan May
- The EMMES Corporation, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Theresa Swift-Scanlan
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. School of Nursing, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Vouri M, An Q, Birt M, Pilkington GJ, Hafizi S. Small molecule inhibition of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase potently suppresses multiple malignant properties of glioma cells. Oncotarget 2015; 6:16183-97. [PMID: 25980499 PMCID: PMC4599264 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) often features a combination of tumour suppressor gene inactivation and multiple oncogene overactivation. The Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is found overexpressed in GBM and thought to contribute to invasiveness, chemoresistance and poor survival. Here, we have evaluated the effect of BGB324, a clinical candidate Axl-specific small molecule inhibitor, on the invasive behaviour of human GBM cells in vitro, as an indicator of its potential in GBM therapy and also to elucidate the role of Axl in GBM pathogenesis.Two cultured adult GBM cell lines, SNB-19 and UP007, were treated with Gas6 and/or BGB324, and analysed in assays for survival, 3D colony growth, motility, migration and invasion. Western blot was used to detect protein expression and signal protein phosphorylation. In both cell lines, BGB324 inhibited specifically phosphorylation of Axl as well as Akt kinase further downstream. BGB324 also inhibited survival and proliferation of both cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner, as well as completely suppressing migration and invasion. Furthermore, our results indicate co-operative activation between the Axl and Tyro3 receptors, as well as ligand-independent Axl signalling, to take place in GBM cells. In conclusion, small molecule inhibitor-led targeting of Axl may be a promising therapy for GBM progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaella Vouri
- 1 Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Qian An
- 1 Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Matthew Birt
- 1 Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Geoffrey J. Pilkington
- 1 Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Sassan Hafizi
- 1 Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Science, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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Cheng P, Phillips E, Kim SH, Taylor D, Hielscher T, Puccio L, Hjelmeland AB, Lichter P, Nakano I, Goidts V. Kinome-wide shRNA screen identifies the receptor tyrosine kinase AXL as a key regulator for mesenchymal glioblastoma stem-like cells. Stem Cell Reports 2015; 4:899-913. [PMID: 25921812 PMCID: PMC4437464 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is a highly lethal cancer for which novel therapeutics are urgently needed. Two distinct subtypes of glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSCs) were recently identified: mesenchymal (MES) and proneural (PN). To identify mechanisms to target the more aggressive MES GSCs, we combined transcriptomic expression analysis and kinome-wide short hairpin RNA screening of MES and PN GSCs. In comparison to PN GSCs, we found significant upregulation and phosphorylation of the receptor tyrosine kinase AXL in MES GSCs. Knockdown of AXL significantly decreased MES GSC self-renewal capacity in vitro and inhibited the growth of glioblastoma patient-derived xenografts. Moreover, inhibition of AXL with shRNA or pharmacologic inhibitors also increased cell death significantly more in MES GSCs. Clinically, AXL expression was elevated in the MES GBM subtype and significantly correlated with poor prognosis in multiple cancers. In conclusion, we identified AXL as a potential molecular target for novel approaches to treat glioblastoma and other solid cancers. shRNA screen identified kinases that alter GSC viability in a subtype-dependent manner AXL is highly expressed in mesenchymal GSCs Targeting AXL decreases mesenchymal GSC self-renewal, viability, and tumorigenicity AXL expression predicts poor prognosis in several tumor types
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Cheng
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
| | - Emma Phillips
- Division of Molecular Genetics, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Sung-Hak Kim
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - David Taylor
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Thomas Hielscher
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Laura Puccio
- Division of Molecular Genetics, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Anita B Hjelmeland
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology (CDIB), University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Peter Lichter
- Division of Molecular Genetics, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Ichiro Nakano
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; James Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Violaine Goidts
- Division of Molecular Genetics, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.
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89
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Li D, Liu S, Liu R, Park R, Yu H, Krasnoperov V, Gill PS, Li Z, Shan H, Conti PS. Axl-targeted cancer imaging with humanized antibody h173. Mol Imaging Biol 2015; 16:511-8. [PMID: 24424460 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-013-0714-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The tyrosine kinase receptor Axl is overexpressed in various types of cancer and correlated with cancer malignancy. Selective Axl blockade reduces tumor growth and metastasis. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the humanized anti-Axl antibody humanized 173 (h173) labeled with near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) dye Cy5.5 could be applied as a molecular imaging probe for NIRF imaging of Axl expression in tumor models. PROCEDURES NIRF dye Cy5.5 was conjugated to h173 or human normal immunoglobulin G (hIgG) control through amino groups. The resulting probes were evaluated in both A549 (Axl positive) and NCI-H249 (Axl negative) lung cancer xenografts through in vivo NIRF imaging. Ex vivo imaging and probe distribution assay were also carried out to confirm the in vivo imaging results. RESULTS After conjugation, binding activity of h173-Cy5.5 was determined to be 97.75 % ± 2.09 % of the unmodified h173. In vitro fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and fluorescence microscopy analysis validated the specific binding of h173 toward Axl-positive A549 cells. h173-Cy5.5 was then applied to image Axl expression in vivo. In A549 (Axl positive) cancer xenografts, the tumor uptake of h173-Cy5.5 was significantly higher than that of the hIgG-Cy5.5 control (P < 0.05) at late time points (1, 2, 3, 4, and 7 days). On the contrary, in NCI-H249 (Axl negative) cancer xenografts, the tumor uptake of both hIgG-Cy5.5 and h173-Cy5.5 was low and showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) at all time points examined. Ex vivo imaging and immunofluorescence staining analysis further validated the in vivo imaging results. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, all in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo data suggested that h173-Cy5.5 could serve as a valid probe for Axl-targeted cancer imaging, which could therefore aid in tumor diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Molecular Imaging Center, Department of Radiology, University of Southern California, 2250 Alcazar St. CSC103, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
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AXL as a modulator of sunitinib response in glioblastoma cell lines. Exp Cell Res 2015; 332:1-10. [PMID: 25637219 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2015.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) targeted therapy has been explored for glioblastoma treatment. However, it is unclear which RTK inhibitors are the most effective and there are no predictive biomarkers available. We recently identified the RTK AXL as a putative target for the pan-RTK inhibitors cediranib and sunitinib, which are under clinical trials for glioblastoma patients. Here, we provide evidence that AXL activity can modulate sunitinib response in glioblastoma cell lines. We found that AXL knockdown conferred lower sensitivity to sunitinib by rescuing migratory defects and inhibiting apoptosis in cells expressing high AXL basal levels. Accordingly, overactivation of AXL by its ligand GAS6 rendered AXL positive glioblastoma cells more sensitive to sunitinib. AXL knockdown induced a cellular rewiring of several growth signaling pathways through activation of RTKs, such as EGFR, as well as intracellular pathways such as MAPK and AKT. The combination of sunitinib with a specific AKT inhibitor reverted the resistance of AXL-silenced cells to sunitinib. Together, our results suggest that sunitinib inhibits AXL and AXL activation status modulates therapy response of glioblastoma cells to sunitinib. Moreover, it indicates that combining sunitinib therapy with AKT pathway inhibitors could overcome sunitinib resistance.
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91
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Knubel KH, Pernu BM, Sufit A, Nelson S, Pierce AM, Keating AK. MerTK inhibition is a novel therapeutic approach for glioblastoma multiforme. Oncotarget 2015; 5:1338-51. [PMID: 24658326 PMCID: PMC4012720 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.1793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is an aggressive tumor that occurs in both adult and pediatric patients and is known for its invasive quality and high rate of recurrence. Current therapies for glioblastoma result in high morbidity and dismal outcomes. The TAM subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases includes Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK. Axl and MerTK exhibit little to no expression in normal brain but are highly expressed in glioblastoma and contribute to the critical malignant phenotypes of survival, chemosensitivity and migration. We have found that Foretinib, a RTK inhibitor currently in clinical trial, inhibited phosphorylation of TAM receptors, with highest efficacy against MerTK, and blocked downstream activation of Akt and Erk in adult and pediatric glioblastoma cell lines, findings that are previously unreported. Survival, proliferation, migration, and collagen invasion were hindered in vitro. Foretinib treatment in vivo abolished MerTK phosphorylation and reduced tumor growth 3-4 fold in a subcutaneous mouse model. MerTK targeted shRNA completely prevented intracranial and subcutaneous glioma growth further delineating the impact of MerTK inhibition on glioblastoma. Our findings provide additional target validation for MerTK inhibition in glioblastoma and demonstrate that robust MerTK inhibition can be achieved with the multi-kinase inhibitor Foretinib as an innovative and translational therapeutic approach to glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina H Knubel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
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92
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Activation of HER3 interferes with antitumor effects of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors: suggestion of combination therapy. Neoplasia 2015; 16:301-18. [PMID: 24862757 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2014.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The Axl receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) has been established as a strong candidate for targeted therapy of cancer. However, the benefits of targeted therapies are limited due to acquired resistance and activation of alternative RTKs. Therefore, we asked if cancer cells are able to overcome targeted Axl therapies. Here, we demonstrate that inhibition of Axl by short interfering RNA or the tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) BMS777607 induces the expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 3 (HER3) and the neuregulin 1(NRG1)-dependent phosphorylation of HER3 in MDA-MB231 and Ovcar8 cells. Moreover, analysis of 20 Axl-expressing cancer cell lines of different tissue origin indicates a low basal phosphorylation of RAC-α serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT) as a general requirement for HER3 activation on Axl inhibition. Consequently, phosphorylation of AKT arises as an independent biomarker for Axl treatment. Additionally, we introduce phosphorylation of HER3 as an independent pharmacodynamic biomarker for monitoring of anti-Axl therapy response. Inhibition of cell viability by BMS777607 could be rescued by NRG1-dependent activation of HER3, suggesting an escape mechanism by tumor microenvironment. The Axl-TKI MPCD84111 simultaneously blocked Axl and HER2/3 signaling and thereby prohibited HER3 feedback activation. Furthermore, dual inhibition of Axl and HER2/3 using BMS777607 and lapatinib led to a significant inhibition of cell viability in Axl-expressing MDA-MB231 and Ovcar8 cells. Therefore, we conclude that, in patient cohorts with expression of Axl and low basal activity of AKT, a combined inhibition of Axl and HER2/3 kinase would be beneficial to overcome acquired resistance to Axl-targeted therapies.
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93
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Veliz I, Loo Y, Castillo O, Karachaliou N, Nigro O, Rosell R. Advances and challenges in the molecular biology and treatment of glioblastoma-is there any hope for the future? ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2015; 3:7. [PMID: 25705639 PMCID: PMC4293478 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2014.10.06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Malignant gliomas, such as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), present some of the greatest challenges in the management of cancer patients worldwide. Even with aggressive surgical resections and recent advances in radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the prognosis for GBM patients remains dismal and quality of life is poor. Although new molecular pathways crucial to the biology and invasive ability of GBM are coming to light, translation of basic science achievements into clinical practice is slow. Optimal management requires a multidisciplinary approach and knowledge of potential complications arising from both disease and treatment. To help illustrate "where we are going" with GBM, we here include a detailed depiction of the molecular alterations underlying this fatal disease, as well as intensive research over the past two decades that has led to considerable advances in the understanding of basic GBM biology, pathogenesis and therapeutic approaches.
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94
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Abstract
The control of cellular growth and proliferation is key to the maintenance of homeostasis. Survival, proliferation, and arrest are regulated, in part, by Growth Arrest Specific 6 (Gas6) through binding to members of the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family. Activation of the TAM receptors leads to downstream signaling through common kinases, but the exact mechanism within each cellular context varies and remains to be completely elucidated. Deregulation of the TAM family, due to its central role in mediating cellular proliferation, has been implicated in multiple diseases. Axl was cloned as the first TAM receptor in a search for genes involved in the progression of chronic to acute-phase leukemia, and has since been established as playing a critical role in the progression of cancer. The oncogenic nature of Axl is demonstrated through its activation of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, migration, inhibition of apoptosis, and therapeutic resistance. Despite its recent discovery, significant progress has been made in the development of effective clinical therapeutics targeting Axl. In order to accurately define the role of Axl in normal and diseased processes, it must be analyzed in a cell type-specific context.
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95
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Messoussi A, Peyronnet L, Feneyrolles C, Chevé G, Bougrin K, Yasri A. Structural elucidation of the DFG-Asp in and DFG-Asp out states of TAM kinases and insight into the selectivity of their inhibitors. Molecules 2014; 19:16223-39. [PMID: 25310149 PMCID: PMC6271404 DOI: 10.3390/molecules191016223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Structural elucidation of the active (DFG-Asp in) and inactive (DFG-Asp out) states of the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases is required for future development of TAM inhibitors as drugs. Herein we report a computational study on each of the three TAM members Tyro-3, Axl and Mer. DFG-Asp in and DFG-Asp out homology models of each one were built based on the X-ray structure of c-Met kinase, an enzyme with a closely related sequence. Structural validation and in silico screening enabled identification of critical amino acids for ligand binding within the active site of each DFG-Asp in and DFG-Asp out model. The position and nature of amino acids that differ among Tyro-3, Axl and Mer, and the potential role of these residues in the design of selective TAM ligands, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellah Messoussi
- OriBase Pharma, Parc Euromedecine, Cap Gamma, 1682, rue de la Valsière, 34189 Montpellier, France.
| | - Lucile Peyronnet
- OriBase Pharma, Parc Euromedecine, Cap Gamma, 1682, rue de la Valsière, 34189 Montpellier, France.
| | - Clémence Feneyrolles
- OriBase Pharma, Parc Euromedecine, Cap Gamma, 1682, rue de la Valsière, 34189 Montpellier, France.
| | - Gwénaël Chevé
- OriBase Pharma, Parc Euromedecine, Cap Gamma, 1682, rue de la Valsière, 34189 Montpellier, France.
| | - Khalid Bougrin
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Plantes et de Synthèse Organique et Bioorganique, URAC23, Université Mohammed V, Faculté des Sciences B.P., 1014 Rabat, Morocco.
| | - Aziz Yasri
- OriBase Pharma, Parc Euromedecine, Cap Gamma, 1682, rue de la Valsière, 34189 Montpellier, France.
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96
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Chen J, Wang R, Zhang K, Chen LB. Long non-coding RNAs in non-small cell lung cancer as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. J Cell Mol Med 2014; 18:2425-36. [PMID: 25297942 PMCID: PMC4302648 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer-associated mortality is the most common cause of cancer death worldwide. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), with no protein-coding ability, have multiple biological roles. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a recently characterized class of ncRNAs that are over 200 nucleotides in length. Many lncRNAs have the ability of facilitating or inhibiting the development and progression of tumours, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Because of their fundamental roles in regulating gene expression, along with their involvement in the biological mechanisms underlying tumourigenesis, they are a promising class of tissue- and/or blood-based cancer biomarkers. In this review, we highlight the emerging roles of lncRNAs in NSCLC, and discuss their potential clinical applications as diagnostic and prognostic markers and as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Chen
- Department of Medical Oncology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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97
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An engineered Axl 'decoy receptor' effectively silences the Gas6-Axl signaling axis. Nat Chem Biol 2014; 10:977-83. [PMID: 25242553 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant signaling through the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase has been associated with a myriad of human diseases, most notably metastatic cancer, identifying Axl and its ligand Gas6 as important therapeutic targets. Using rational and combinatorial approaches, we engineered an Axl 'decoy receptor' that binds Gas6 with high affinity and inhibits its function, offering an alternative approach from drug discovery efforts that directly target Axl. Four mutations within this high-affinity Axl variant caused structural alterations in side chains across the Gas6-Axl binding interface, stabilizing a conformational change on Gas6. When reformatted as an Fc fusion, the engineered decoy receptor bound Gas6 with femtomolar affinity, an 80-fold improvement compared to binding of the wild-type Axl receptor, allowing effective sequestration of Gas6 and specific abrogation of Axl signaling. Moreover, increased Gas6 binding affinity was critical and correlative with the ability of decoy receptors to potently inhibit metastasis and disease progression in vivo.
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98
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Bitting RL, Schaeffer D, Somarelli JA, Garcia-Blanco MA, Armstrong AJ. The role of epithelial plasticity in prostate cancer dissemination and treatment resistance. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2014; 33:441-68. [PMID: 24414193 PMCID: PMC4230790 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-013-9483-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nearly 30,000 men die annually in the USA of prostate cancer, nearly uniformly from metastatic dissemination. Despite recent advances in hormonal, immunologic, bone-targeted, and cytotoxic chemotherapies, treatment resistance and further dissemination are inevitable in men with metastatic disease. Emerging data suggests that the phenomenon of epithelial plasticity, encompassing both reversible mesenchymal transitions and acquisition of stemness traits, may underlie this lethal biology of dissemination and treatment resistance. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of this cellular plasticity from preclinical models of prostate cancer and from biomarker studies of human metastatic prostate cancer has provided clues to novel therapeutic approaches that may delay or prevent metastatic disease and lethality over time. This review will discuss the preclinical and clinical evidence for epithelial plasticity in this rapidly changing field and relate this to clinical phenotype and resistance in prostate cancer while suggesting novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhonda L. Bitting
- Division of Medical Oncology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, NC 27710, USA. Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Daneen Schaeffer
- Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jason A. Somarelli
- Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Mariano A. Garcia-Blanco
- Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Andrew J. Armstrong
- Division of Medical Oncology, Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, DUMC Box 102002, Durham, NC 27710, USA. Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Center for RNA Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA. Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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99
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Abstract
Three receptor tyrosine kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) and their ligands Gas6 and Protein S, have emerged as potent negative regulators of innate immune responses. A number of studies using genetic ablation of TAM loci in mice have elucidated the mechanism of TAM engagement and function during the immune response and removal of apoptotic cells. Following phagocytosis of apoptotic cells or the induction of T-cell dependent adaptive immune responses, ligand-induced TAM signaling dampens proinflammatory cytokine production and thus prevents exaggerated or prolonged inflammation. It is believed that the TAM pathway may play an important role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. Suppression of inflammation and removal of apoptotic cells followed by tissue repair are essential processes for disease remission and the successful management of inflammatory bowel disease. In light of the key role of TAMs in controlling inflammatory responses, here, we review the recent advances on TAM research vis-à-vis the resolution of intestinal inflammation. Targeted activation of TAM receptor tyrosine kinases may represent a potent therapeutic opportunity in inflammatory bowel disease.
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100
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Nguyen KQN, Tsou WI, Calarese DA, Kimani SG, Singh S, Hsieh S, Liu Y, Lu B, Wu Y, Garforth SJ, Almo SC, Kotenko SV, Birge RB. Overexpression of MERTK receptor tyrosine kinase in epithelial cancer cells drives efferocytosis in a gain-of-function capacity. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25737-49. [PMID: 25074939 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.570838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
MERTK, a member of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK) receptor tyrosine kinases, has complex and diverse roles in cell biology. On the one hand, knock-out of MERTK results in age-dependent autoimmunity characterized by failure of apoptotic cell clearance, while on the other, MERTK overexpression in cancer drives classical oncogene pathways leading to cell transformation. To better understand the interplay between cell transformation and efferocytosis, we stably expressed MERTK in human MCF10A cells, a non-tumorigenic breast epithelial cell line devoid of endogenous MERTK. While stable expression of MERTK in MCF10A resulted in enhanced motility and AKT-mediated chemoprotection, MERTK-10A cells did not form stable colonies in soft agar, or enhance proliferation compared with parental MCF10A cells. Concomitant to chemoresistance, MERTK also stimulated efferocytosis in a gain-of-function capacity. However, unlike AXL, MERTK activation was highly dependent on apoptotic cells, suggesting MERTK may preferentially interface with phosphatidylserine. Consistent with this idea, knockdown of MERTK in breast cancer cells MDA-MB 231 reduced efferocytosis, while transient or stable expression of MERTK stimulated apoptotic cell clearance in all cell lines tested. Moreover, human breast cancer cells with higher endogenous MERTK showed higher levels of efferocytosis that could be blocked by soluble TAM receptors. Finally, through MERTK, apoptotic cells induced PD-L1 expression, an immune checkpoint blockade, suggesting that cancer cells may adopt MERTK-driven efferocytosis as an immune suppression mechanism for their advantage. These data collectively identify MERTK as a significant link between cancer progression and efferocytosis, and a potentially unrealized tumor-promoting event when MERTK is overexpressed in epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanh-Quynh N Nguyen
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center
| | - Wen-I Tsou
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, and
| | - Daniel A Calarese
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Stanley G Kimani
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center
| | - Sukhwinder Singh
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Flow Cytometry and Immunology Core Laboratory, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey 07103
| | - Shelly Hsieh
- Rutgers, New Jersey Medical School of Yeshiva University, Newark, New Jersey 07103
| | - Yongzhang Liu
- Institute of Biophysics and Attardi Institute of Mitochondrial Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China, and
| | - Bin Lu
- Institute of Biophysics and Attardi Institute of Mitochondrial Biomedicine, School of Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China, and
| | - Yi Wu
- Cyrus Tang Hematology Center, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Scott J Garforth
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Steve C Almo
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Sergei V Kotenko
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center, Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, and
| | - Raymond B Birge
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center,
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