Human cone photoreceptor dependence on RPE65 isomerase

Dog models for blinding inherited retinal dystrophies

Spontaneous canine models exist for several inherited retinal dystrophies. This review will summarize the models and indicate where they have been used in translational gene therapy trials. The RPE65 gene therapy trials to treat childhood blindness are a good example of how studies in dogs have contributed to therapy development. Outcomes in human clinical trials are compared and contrasted with the result of the preclinical dog trials.

Neural population tuning links visual cortical anatomy to human visual perception

The anatomy of cerebral cortex is characterized by two genetically independent variables, cortical thickness and cortical surface area, that jointly determine cortical volume. It remains unclear how cortical anatomy might influence neural response properties and whether such influences would have behavioral consequences. Here, we report that thickness and surface area of human early visual cortices exert opposite influences on neural population tuning with behavioral consequences for perceptual acuity. We found that visual cortical thickness correlated negatively with the sharpness of neural population tuning and the accuracy of perceptual discrimination at different visual field positions. In contrast, visual cortical surface area correlated positively with neural population tuning sharpness and perceptual discrimination accuracy. Our findings reveal a central role for neural population tuning in linking visual cortical anatomy to visual perception and suggest that a perceptually advantageous visual cortex is a thinned one with an enlarged surface area.

CRALBP supports the mammalian retinal visual cycle and cone vision

Mutations in the cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein (CRALBP, encoded by RLBP1) can lead to severe cone photoreceptor-mediated vision loss in patients. It is not known how CRALBP supports cone function or how altered CRALBP leads to cone dysfunction. Here, we determined that deletion of Rlbp1 in mice impairs the retinal visual cycle. Mice lacking CRALBP exhibited M-opsin mislocalization, M-cone loss, and impaired cone-driven visual behavior and light responses. Additionally, M-cone dark adaptation was largely suppressed in CRALBP-deficient animals. While rearing CRALBP-deficient mice in the dark prevented the deterioration of cone function, it did not rescue cone dark adaptation. Adeno-associated virus-mediated restoration of CRALBP expression specifically in Müller cells, but not retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, rescued the retinal visual cycle and M-cone sensitivity in knockout mice. Our results identify Müller cell CRALBP as a key component of the retinal visual cycle and demonstrate that this pathway is important for maintaining normal cone-driven vision and accelerating cone dark adaptation.

Pseudo-fovea formation after gene therapy for RPE65-LCA

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate fixation location and oculomotor characteristics of 15 patients with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) caused by RPE65 mutations (RPE65-LCA) who underwent retinal gene therapy.

METHODS

Eye movements were quantified under infrared imaging of the retina while the subject fixated on a stationary target. In a subset of patients, letter recognition under retinal imaging was performed. Cortical responses to visual stimulation were measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in two patients before and after therapy.

RESULTS

All patients were able to fixate on a 1° diameter visible target in the dark. The preferred retinal locus of fixation was either at the anatomical fovea or at an extrafoveal locus. There were a wide range of oculomotor abnormalities. Natural history showed little change in oculomotor abnormalities if target illuminance was increased to maintain target visibility as the disease progressed. Eleven of 15 study eyes treated with gene therapy showed no differences from baseline fixation locations or instability over an average of follow-up of 3.5 years. Four of 15 eyes developed new pseudo-foveas in the treated retinal regions 9 to 12 months after therapy that persisted for up to 6 years; patients used their pseudo-foveas for letter identification. fMRI studies demonstrated that preservation of light sensitivity was restricted to the cortical projection zone of the pseudo-foveas.

CONCLUSIONS

The slow emergence of pseudo-foveas many months after the initial increases in light sensitivity points to a substantial plasticity of the adult visual system and a complex interaction between it and the progression of underlying retinal disease. The visual significance of pseudo-foveas suggests careful consideration of treatment zones for future gene therapy trials. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00481546.).

Genetic deletion of S-opsin prevents rapid cone degeneration in a mouse model of Leber congenital amaurosis

Mutations in RPE65 or lecithin-retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) disrupt 11-cis-retinal synthesis and cause Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), a severe hereditary blindness occurring in early childhood. The pathology is attributed to a combination of 11-cis-retinal deficiency and photoreceptor degeneration. The mistrafficking of cone membrane-associated proteins including cone opsins (M- and S-opsins), cone transducin (Gαt2), G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 1 (GRK1) and guanylate cyclase 1 (GC1) has been suggested to play a role in cone degeneration. However, their precise role in cone degeneration is unclear. Here we investigated the role of S-opsin (Opn1sw) in cone degeneration in Lrat(-) (/-), a murine model for LCA, by genetic ablation of S-opsin. We show that deletion of just one allele of S-opsin from Lrat(-) (/-) mice is sufficient to prevent the rapid cone degeneration for at least 1 month. Deletion of both alleles of S-opsin prevents cone degeneration for an extended period (at least 12 months). This genetic prevention is accompanied by a reduction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in Lrat(-) (/-) photoreceptors. Despite cone survival in Opn1sw(-/-)Lrat(-) (/-) mice, cone membrane-associated proteins (e.g. Gαt2, GRK1 and GC1) continue to have trafficking problems. Our results suggest that cone opsins are the 'culprit' linking 11-cis-retinal deficiency to cone degeneration in LCA. This result has important implications for the current gene therapy strategy that emphasizes the need for a combinatorial therapy to both improve vision and slow photoreceptor degeneration.

Chemistry and biology of the initial steps in vision: the Friedenwald lecture

Visual transduction is the process in the eye whereby absorption of light in the retina is translated into electrical signals that ultimately reach the brain. The first challenge presented by visual transduction is to understand its molecular basis. We know that maintenance of vision is a continuous process requiring the activation and subsequent restoration of a vitamin A-derived chromophore through a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Diverse biochemical approaches that identified key proteins and reactions were essential to achieve a mechanistic understanding of these visual processes. The three-dimensional arrangements of these enzymes' polypeptide chains provide invaluable insights into their mechanisms of action. A wealth of information has already been obtained by solving high-resolution crystal structures of both rhodopsin and the retinoid isomerase from pigment RPE (RPE65). Rhodopsin, which is activated by photoisomerization of its 11-cis-retinylidene chromophore, is a prototypical member of a large family of membrane-bound proteins called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). RPE65 is a retinoid isomerase critical for regeneration of the chromophore. Electron microscopy (EM) and atomic force microscopy have provided insights into how certain proteins are assembled to form much larger structures such as rod photoreceptor cell outer segment membranes. A second challenge of visual transduction is to use this knowledge to devise therapeutic approaches that can prevent or reverse conditions leading to blindness. Imaging modalities like optical coherence tomography (OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) applied to appropriate animal models as well as human retinal imaging have been employed to characterize blinding diseases, monitor their progression, and evaluate the success of therapeutic agents. Lately two-photon (2-PO) imaging, together with biochemical assays, are revealing functional aspects of vision at a new molecular level. These multidisciplinary approaches combined with suitable animal models and inbred mutant species can be especially helpful in translating provocative cell and tissue culture findings into therapeutic options for further development in animals and eventually in humans. A host of different approaches and techniques is required for substantial progress in understanding fundamental properties of the visual system.

Endogenous fluorophores enable two-photon imaging of the primate eye

PURPOSE

Noninvasive two-photon imaging of a living mammalian eye can reveal details of molecular processes in the retina and RPE. Retinyl esters and all-trans-retinal condensation products are two types of retinoid fluorophores present in these tissues. We measured the content of these two types of retinoids in monkey and human eyes to validate the potential of two-photon imaging for monitoring retinoid changes in human eyes.

METHODS

Two-photon microscopy (TPM) was used to visualize excised retina from monkey eyes. Retinoid composition and content in human and monkey eyes were quantified by HPLC and mass spectrometry (MS).

RESULTS

Clear images of inner and outer segments of rods and cones were obtained in primate eyes at different eccentricities. Fluorescence spectra from outer segments revealed a maximum emission at 480 nm indicative of retinols and their esters. In cynomolgus monkey and human retinal extracts, retinyl esters existed predominantly in the 11-cis configuration along with notable levels of 11-cis-retinol, a characteristic of cone-enriched retinas. Average amounts of di-retinoid-pyridinium-ethanolamine (A2E) in primate and human eyes were 160 and 225 pmol/eye, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These data show that human retina contains sufficient amounts of retinoids for two-photon excitation imaging. Greater amounts of 11-cis-retinyl esters relative to rodent retinas contribute to the fluorescence signal from both monkey and human eyes. These observations indicate that TPM imaging found effective in mice could detect early age- and disease-related changes in human retina.

Two-photon microscopy reveals early rod photoreceptor cell damage in light-exposed mutant mice

Atrophic age-related and juvenile macular degeneration are especially devastating due to lack of an effective cure. Two retinal cell types, photoreceptor cells and the adjacent retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), reportedly display the earliest pathological changes. Abca4(-/-)Rdh8(-/-) mice, which mimic many features of human retinal degeneration, allowed us to determine the sequence of light-induced events leading to retinal degeneration. Using two-photon microscopy with 3D reconstruction methodology, we observed an initial strong retinoid-derived fluorescence and expansion of Abca4(-/-)Rdh8(-/-) mouse rod cell outer segments accompanied by macrophage infiltration after brief exposure of the retina to bright light. Additionally, light-dependent fluorescent compounds produced in rod outer segments were not transferred to the RPE of mice genetically defective in RPE phagocytosis. Collectively, these findings suggest that for light-induced retinopathies in mice, rod photoreceptors are the primary site of toxic retinoid accumulation and degeneration, followed by secondary changes in the RPE.

Scaffolds and stem cells: delivery of cell transplants for retinal degenerations

Retinal degenerations and optic neuropathies often lead to death of photoreceptors or retinal ganglion cells, respectively. Stem cell therapies are showing promise for these diseases in preclinical models and are beginning to transition into human trials, but cell delivery and integration remain major challenges. Focusing on photoreceptor- and progenitor-directed approaches, in this article, the authors review how advances in tissue engineering and cell scaffold design are enhancing cell therapies for retinal degeneration.

Pathophysilogical mechanism and treatment strategies for Leber congenital amaurosis

Mutations in retinoid isomerase, RPE65, or lecithin-retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) disrupt 11-cis-retinal recycling and cause Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), the most severe retinal dystrophy in early childhood. We used Lrat (-/-), a murine model for LCA, to investigate the mechanism of rapid cone degeneration. We found that mislocalized M-opsin was degraded whereas mislocalized S-opsin accumulated in Lrat (-/-) cones before the onset of massive ventral/central cone degeneration. Since the ventral and central retina expresses higher levels of S-opsin than the dorsal retina in mice, our results may explain why ventral and central cones degenerate more rapidly than dorsal cones in Rpe65 (-/-) and Lrat (-/-) LCA models. In addition, human blue opsin and mouse S-opsin, but not mouse M-opsin or human red/green opsins, aggregated to form cytoplasmic inclusions in transfected cells, which may explain why blue cone function is lost earlier than red/green-cone function in LCA patients. The aggregation of short-wavelength opsins likely caused rapid cone degenerations through an ER stress pathway as demonstrated in both the Lrat (-/-) retina and transfected cells. Based on this mechanism, we designed a new therapy of LCA by reducing ER stress. We found that systemic injection of an ER chemical chaperone, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), is effective in reducing ER stress, preventing apoptosis, and preserving cones in Lrat (-/-) mice.

A Phe-rich region in short-wavelength sensitive opsins is responsible for their aggregation in the absence of 11-cis-retinal

Human blue and mouse S-opsin are prone to aggregation in the absence of 11-cis-retinal, which underlie the rapid cone degeneration in human patients and animal models of Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA). By in silico analysis and domain swapping experiments, we show that a Phe-rich region in short-wavelength sensitive (SWS) opsins, but not in medium/long-wavelength sensitive opsins, is responsible for SWS opsin aggregation. Mutagenesis studies suggest that Phe residues in this region are critical in mediating protein aggregation. Fusing the Phe-rich region of SWS opsins to GFP causes the latter to aggregate. Our findings suggest that new therapeutics can be designed to disrupt the Phe-rich region in preventing cone degeneration due to S-opsin aggregation in LCA.

Cis-retinoids and the chemistry of vision

We discuss here principal biochemical transformations of retinoid molecules in the visual cycle. We focus our analysis on the accumulating evidence of alternate pathways and functional redundancies in the cycle. The efficiency of the visual cycle depends, on one hand, on fast regeneration of the photo-bleached chromophores. On the other hand, it is crucial that the cyclic process should be highly selective to avoid accumulation of byproducts. The state-of-the-art knowledge indicates that single enzymatically active components of the cycle are not strictly selective and may require chaperones to enhance their rates. It appears that protein-protein interactions significantly improve the biological stability of the visual cycle. In particular, synthesis of thermodynamically less stable 11-cis-retinoid conformers is favored by physical interactions of the isomerases present in the retina with cellular retinaldehyde binding protein.

Early degeneration of photoreceptor synapse in Ccl2/Cx3cr1-deficient mice on Crb1(rd8) background

Photoreceptor ribbon synapse releases glutamate to postsynaptic targets. The synaptic ribbon may play multiple roles in ribbon synapse development, synaptic vesicle recycling, and synaptic transmission. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) patients appear to have fewer or no detectable synaptic ribbons as well as abnormal swelling in the photoreceptor terminals in the macula. However, reports on changes of photoreceptor synapses in AMD are scarce and photoreceptor type and quantity affected in early AMD is still unclear. Here, we employed multiple anatomical techniques to investigate these questions in Ccl2⁻/⁻/Cx3cr1⁻/⁻ mouse on Crb1(rd8) background (DKO rd8) at one month of age. We found that approximately 17% of photoreceptors over the focal lesion were lost. Immunostaining for synapse-associated proteins (CtBP2, synaptophysin, and vesicular glutamate transporter 1) showed significantly reduced expression and ectopic localization. Cone opsins demonstrated dramatic reduction in expression (S-opsins) and extensive mislocalization (M-opsins). Quantitative ultrastructural analysis confirmed a significant decrease in the number of cone terminals and nuclei, numerous vacuoles in remaining cone terminals, reduction in the number of synaptic ribbons in photoreceptor terminals, and ectopic rod ribbon synapses. In addition, glutamate receptor immunoreactivity on aberrant sprouting of rod bipolar cells and horizontal cells were identified at the ectopic synapses. These results indicate that synaptic alterations occur at the early stages of disease and cones are likely more susceptible to damage caused by DKO rd8 mutation. They provide a new insight into potential mechanism of vision function lost due to synaptic degeneration before cell death in the early stages of AMD.

Intervisit variability of visual parameters in Leber congenital amaurosis caused by RPE65 mutations

PURPOSE

To determine the intervisit variability of kinetic visual fields and visual acuity in patients with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) caused by mutations in the RPE65 (Retinal Pigment Epithelium-specific protein 65kDa) gene.

METHODS

RPE65-LCA patients (n = 20; ages 11-40 years) were studied on at least two visits separated by fewer than 120 days using Goldmann visual field (GVF) and ETDRS visual acuity (VA) in a retrospective review. GVFs were quantified by computing the spherical coordinates of their vertices and calculating the solid angle subtended, and reported in normalized solid-angle units (nsu) as a percentage of average normal field extent. Repeatability coefficients were calculated using 95% confidence intervals on log(10)-converted variables.

RESULTS

Visual field extents in RPE65-LCA spanned a wide range from 4 to 95 nsu. The repeatability coefficient was 0.248 (log(10)nsu), suggesting cutoffs for significant change (in nsu) of +77% for improvement and -44% for worsening. VA in RPE65-LCA ranged from logMAR = 0.14 to 1.96 (20/40 to 20/1250). The repeatability coefficient was 0.170 (logMAR) (±8.5 ETDRS letters). Comparisons with published studies of ungenotyped retinitis pigmentosa showed that the RPE65-LCA patients had higher variability in kinetic field extent. VA variability in RPE65-LCA fell within reported results for retinitis pigmentosa.

CONCLUSIONS

Variability data for GVF and VA are provided to permit interpretation of the significance of increases and decreases of these functional outcomes in ongoing and planned clinical trials of therapy for LCA caused by RPE65 mutations.

A comprehensive review of retinal gene therapy

Blindness, although not life threatening, is a debilitating disorder for which few, if any treatments exist. Ocular gene therapies have the potential to profoundly improve the quality of life in patients with inherited retinal disease. As such, tremendous focus has been given to develop such therapies. Several factors make the eye an ideal organ for gene-replacement therapy including its accessibility, immune privilege, small size, compartmentalization, and the existence of a contralateral control. This review will provide a comprehensive summary of (i) existing gene therapy clinical trials for several genetic forms of blindness and (ii) preclinical efficacy and safety studies in a variety of animal models of retinal disease which demonstrate strong potential for clinical application. To be as comprehensive as possible, we include additional proof of concept studies using gene replacement, neurotrophic/neuroprotective, optogenetic, antiangiogenic, or antioxidative stress strategies as well as a description of the current challenges and future directions in the ocular gene therapy field to this review as a supplement.

Human retinal gene therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis shows advancing retinal degeneration despite enduring visual improvement

Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) associated with retinal pigment epithelium-specific protein 65 kDa (RPE65) mutations is a severe hereditary blindness resulting from both dysfunction and degeneration of photoreceptors. Clinical trials with gene augmentation therapy have shown partial reversal of the dysfunction, but the effects on the degeneration are not known. We evaluated the consequences of gene therapy on retinal degeneration in patients with RPE65-LCA and its canine model. In untreated RPE65-LCA patients, there was dysfunction and degeneration of photoreceptors, even at the earliest ages. Examined serially over years, the outer photoreceptor nuclear layer showed progressive thinning. Treated RPE65-LCA showed substantial visual improvement in the short term and no detectable decline from this new level over the long term. However, retinal degeneration continued to progress unabated. In RPE65-mutant dogs, the first one-quarter of their lifespan showed only dysfunction, and there was normal outer photoreceptor nuclear layer thickness retina-wide. Dogs treated during the earlier dysfunction-only stage showed improved visual function and dramatic protection of treated photoreceptors from degeneration when measured 5-11 y later. Dogs treated later during the combined dysfunction and degeneration stage also showed visual function improvement, but photoreceptor loss continued unabated, the same as in human RPE65-LCA. The results suggest that, in RPE65 disease treatment, protection from visual function deterioration cannot be assumed to imply protection from degeneration. The effects of gene augmentation therapy are complex and suggest a need for a combinatorial strategy in RPE65-LCA to not only improve function in the short term but also slow retinal degeneration in the long term.

Vitamin A metabolism in rod and cone visual cycles

The chromophore of all known visual pigments consists of 11-cis-retinal (derived from either vitamin A1 or A2) or a hydroxylated derivative, bound to a protein (opsin) via a Schiff base. Absorption of a photon results in photoisomerization of the chromophore to all-trans-retinal and conversion of the visual pigment to the signaling form. Regeneration of the 11-cis-retinal occurs in an adjacent tissue and involves several enzymes, several water-soluble retinoid-binding proteins, and intra- and intercellular diffusional processes. Rod photoreceptor cells depend completely on the output of 11-cis-retinal from adjacent retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. Cone photoreceptors cells can use 11-cis-retinal from the RPE and from a second more poorly characterized cycle, which appears to involve adjacent Müller (glial) cells. Recent progress in the characterization of rod and cone visual cycle components and reactions will result in the development of approaches to the amelioration of blinding eye diseases associated with visual cycle defects.

Gene networks: dissecting pathways in retinal development and disease

During retinal neurogenesis, diverse cellular subtypes originate from multipotent neural progenitors in a spatiotemporal order leading to a highly specialized laminar structure combined with a distinct mosaic architecture. This is driven by the combinatorial action of transcription factors and signaling molecules which specify cell fate and differentiation. The emerging approach of gene network analysis has allowed a better understanding of the functional relationships between genes expressed in the developing retina. For instance, these gene networks have identified transcriptional hubs that have revealed potential targets and pathways for the development of therapeutic options for retinal diseases. Much of the current knowledge has been informed by targeted gene deletion experiments and gain-of-functional analysis. In this review we will provide an update on retinal development gene networks and address the wider implications for future disease therapeutics.

RPE65 gene therapy slows cone loss in Rpe65-deficient dogs

Recent clinical trials of retinal pigment epithelium gene (RPE65) supplementation therapy in Leber congenital amaurosis type 2 patients have demonstrated improvements in rod and cone function, but it may be some years before the effects of therapy on photoreceptor survival become apparent. The Rpe65-deficient dog is a very useful pre-clinical model in which to test efficacy of therapies, because the dog has a retina with a high degree of similarity to that of humans. In this study, we evaluated the effect of RPE65 gene therapy on photoreceptor survival in order to predict the potential benefit and limitations of therapy in patients. We examined the retinas of Rpe65-deficient dogs after RPE65 gene therapy to evaluate the preservation of rods and cone photoreceptor subtypes. We found that gene therapy preserves both rods and cones. While the moderate loss of rods in the Rpe65-deficient dog retina is slowed by gene therapy, S-cones are lost extensively and gene therapy can prevent that loss, although only within the treated area. Although LM-cones are not lost extensively, cone opsin mislocalization indicates that they are stressed, and this can be partially reversed by gene therapy. Our results suggest that gene therapy may be able to slow cone degeneration in patients if intervention is sufficiently early and also that it is probably important to treat the macula in order to preserve central function.

Chemical chaperone TUDCA preserves cone photoreceptors in a mouse model of Leber congenital amaurosis

PURPOSE

Mutations in either retinoid isomerase (RPE65) or lecithin-retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) lead to Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA). By using the Lrat(-/-) mouse model, previous studies have shown that the rapid cone degeneration in LCA was caused by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induced by S-opsin aggregation. The purpose of this study is to examine the efficacy of an ER chemical chaperone, tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), in preserving cones in the Lrat(-/-) model.

METHODS

Lrat(-/-) mice were systemically administered with TUDCA and vehicle (0.15 M NaHCO(3)) every 3 days from P9 to P28. Cone cell survival was determined by counting cone cells on flat-mounted retinas. The expression and subcellular localization of cone-specific proteins were analyzed by western blotting and immunohistochemistry, respectively.

RESULTS

TUDCA treatment reduced ER stress and apoptosis in Lrat(-/-) retina. It significantly slowed down cone degeneration in Lrat(-/-) mice, resulting in a ∼3-fold increase in cone density in the ventral and central retina as compared with the vehicle-treated mice at P28. Furthermore, TUDCA promoted the degradation of cone membrane-associated proteins by enhancing the ER-associated protein degradation pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Systemic injection of TUDCA is effective in reducing ER stress, preventing apoptosis, and preserving cones in Lrat(-/-) mice. TUDCA has the potential to lead to the development of a new class of therapeutic drugs for treating LCA.

Retinal cone and rod photoreceptor cells exhibit differential susceptibility to light-induced damage

All-trans-retinal and its condensation-products can cause retinal degeneration in a light-dependent manner and contribute to the pathogenesis of human macular diseases such as Stargardt's disease and age-related macular degeneration. Although these toxic retinoid by-products originate from rod and cone photoreceptor cells, the contribution of each cell type to light-induced retinal degeneration is unknown. In this study, the primary objective was to learn whether rods or cones are more susceptible to light-induced, all-trans-retinal-mediated damage. Previously, we reported that mice lacking enzymes that clear all-trans-retinal from the retina, ATP-binding cassette transporter 4 and retinol dehydrogenase 8, manifested light-induced retinal dystrophy. We first examined early-stage age-related macular degeneration patients and found retinal degenerative changes in rod-rich rather than cone-rich regions of the macula. We then evaluated transgenic mice with rod-only and cone-like-only retinas in addition to progenies of such mice inbred with Rdh8(-/-) Abca4(-/-) mice. Of all these strains, Rdh8(-/-) Abca4(-/-) mice with a mixed rod-cone population showed the most severe retinal degeneration under regular cyclic light conditions. Intense light exposure induced acute retinal damage in Rdh8(-/-) Abca4(-/-) and rod-only mice but not cone-like-only mice. These findings suggest that progression of retinal degeneration in Rdh8(-/-) Abca4(-/-) mice is affected by differential vulnerability of rods and cones to light.

Gene therapy for retinitis pigmentosa caused by MFRP mutations: human phenotype and preliminary proof of concept

Autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (RP), a heterogeneous group of degenerations of the retina, can be due to mutations in the MFRP (membrane-type frizzled-related protein) gene. A patient with RP with MFRP mutations, one of which is novel and the first splice site mutation reported, was characterized by noninvasive retinal and visual studies. The phenotype, albeit complex, suggested that this retinal degeneration may be a candidate for gene-based therapy. Proof-of-concept studies were performed in the rd6 Mfrp mutant mouse model. The fast-acting tyrosine-capsid mutant AAV8 (Y733F) vector containing the small chicken β-actin promoter driving the wild-type mouse Mfrp gene was used. Subretinal vector delivery on postnatal day 14 prevented retinal degeneration. Treatment rescued rod and cone photoreceptors, as assessed by electroretinography and retinal histology at 2 months of age. This AAV-mediated gene delivery also resulted in robust MFRP expression predominantly in its normal location within the retinal pigment epithelium apical membrane and its microvilli. The clinical features of MFRP-RP and our preliminary data indicating a response to gene therapy in the rd6 mouse suggest that this form of RP is a potential target for gene-based therapy.

The susceptibility of the retina to photochemical damage from visible light

The photoreceptor/RPE complex must maintain a delicate balance between maximizing the absorption of photons for vision and retinal image quality while simultaneously minimizing the risk of photodamage when exposed to bright light. We review the recent discovery of two new effects of light exposure on the photoreceptor/RPE complex in the context of current thinking about the causes of retinal phototoxicity. These effects are autofluorescence photobleaching in which exposure to bright light reduces lipofuscin autofluorescence and, at higher light levels, RPE disruption in which the pattern of autofluorescence is permanently altered following light exposure. Both effects occur following exposure to visible light at irradiances that were previously thought to be safe. Photopigment, retinoids involved in the visual cycle, and bisretinoids in lipofuscin have been implicated as possible photosensitizers for photochemical damage. The mechanism of RPE disruption may follow either of these paths. On the other hand, autofluorescence photobleaching is likely an indicator of photooxidation of lipofuscin. The permanent changes inherent in RPE disruption might require modification of the light safety standards. AF photobleaching recovers after several hours although the mechanisms by which this occurs are not yet clear. Understanding the mechanisms of phototoxicity is all the more important given the potential for increased susceptibility in the presence of ocular diseases that affect either the visual cycle and/or lipofuscin accumulation. In addition, knowledge of photochemical mechanisms can improve our understanding of some disease processes that may be influenced by light exposure, such as some forms of Leber's congenital amaurosis, and aid in the development of new therapies. Such treatment prior to intentional light exposures, as in ophthalmic examinations or surgeries, could provide an effective preventative strategy.

Early apoptosis of rod photoreceptors in Rpe65(-/-) mice is associated with the upregulated expression of lysosomal-mediated autophagic genes

RPE65-related Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA) is a rod-cone dystrophy whose clinical outcome is mainly attributed to the loss of rod photoreceptors followed by cone degeneration. Pathogenesis in Rpe65(-/-) mice is characterized by a slow and progressive degeneration of rods dependent on the constitutive activation of unliganded opsin. We previously reported that this opsin-mediated apoptosis of rods was dependent on Bcl-2-apoptotic pathway and Bax-induced pro-death activity. In this study, we report early initial apoptosis in the newly differentiated retina of Rpe65(-/-) mice. Apoptotic photoreceptors were identified as rods and resulted from pathological phototransduction signaling. This wave of early apoptosis triggered Bcl-2-related pathway and Bax apoptotic activity, while activation of the caspases was not induced. Following cellular stress, multiple signaling pathways are initiated which either commit cells to death or trigger pro-survival responses including autophagy. We report that Bcl-2-related early rod apoptosis was associated with the upregulation of autophagy markers including chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) substrate receptor LAMP-2 and lysosomal hydrolases Cathepsin S and Lysozyme. This suggests that lysosomal-mediated autophagy may be triggered in response to early rod apoptosis in Rpe65-LCA disease. These results highlight that Rpe65-related primary stress induces early signaling events, which trigger Bax-induced-apoptotic pathway and autophagy-mediated cellular response. These events may determine retinal cell fate, progression and severity of the disease.

Histopathology and functional correlations in a patient with a mutation in RPE65, the gene for retinol isomerase

PURPOSE

Here the authors describe the structural features of the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in postmortem donor eyes of a 56-year-old patient with a homozygous missense RPE65 mutation (Ala132Thr) and correlate the pathology with the patient's visual function last measured at age 51.

METHODS

Eyes were enucleated within 13.5 hours after death. Representative areas from the macula and periphery were processed for light and electron microscopy. Immunofluorescence was used to localize the distribution of RPE65, rhodopsin, and cone arrestin. The autofluorescence in the RPE was compared with that of two normal eyes from age-similar donors.

RESULTS

Histologic examination revealed the loss of rods and cones across most areas of the retina, attenuated retinal vessels, and RPE thinning in both eyes. A small number of highly disorganized cones were present in the macula that showed simultaneous labeling with cone arrestin and red/green or blue opsin. RPE65 immunoreactivity and RPE autofluorescence were reduced compared with control eyes in all areas studied. Rhodopsin labeling was observed in rods in the far periphery. The optic nerve showed a reduced number of axons.

CONCLUSIONS

The clinical findings of reduced visual acuity, constricted fields, and reduced electroretinograms (ERGs) 5 years before death correlated with the small number of cones present in the macula and the extensive loss of photoreceptors in the periphery. The absence of autofluorescence in the RPE suggests that photoreceptor cells were probably missing across the retina for extended periods of time. Possible mechanisms that could lead to photoreceptor cell death are discussed.

Gene therapy for leber congenital amaurosis caused by RPE65 mutations: safety and efficacy in 15 children and adults followed up to 3 years

OBJECTIVE

To determine the safety and efficacy of subretinal gene therapy in the RPE65 form of Leber congenital amaurosis using recombinant adeno-associated virus 2 (rAAV2) carrying the RPE65 gene.

DESIGN

Open-label, dose-escalation phase I study of 15 patients (range, 11-30 years of age) evaluated after subretinal injection of the rAAV2- RPE65 vector into the worse-functioning eye. Five cohorts represented 4 dose levels and 2 different injection strategies.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary outcomes were systemic and ocular safety. Secondary outcomes assayed visual function with dark-adapted full-field sensitivity testing and visual acuity with Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study charts. Further assays included immune responses to the vector, static visual fields, pupillometry, mobility performance, and optical coherence tomography.

RESULTS

No systemic toxicity was detected; ocular adverse events were related to surgery. Visual function improved in all patients to different degrees; improvements were localized to treated areas. Cone and rod sensitivities increased significantly in the study eyes but not in the control eyes. Minor acuity improvements were recorded in many study and control eyes. Major acuity improvements occurred in study eyes with the lowest entry acuities and parafoveal fixation loci treated with subretinal injections. Other patients with better foveal structure lost retinal thickness and acuity after subfoveal injections.

CONCLUSIONS

Gene therapy for Leber congenital amaurosis caused by RPE65 mutations is sufficiently safe and substantially efficacious in the extrafoveal retina. There is no benefit and some risk in treating the fovea. No evidence of age-dependent effects was found. Our results point to specific treatment strategies for subsequent phases.

APPLICATION TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Gene therapy for inherited retinal disease has the potential to become a future part of clinical practice.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00481546.

Spectral domain optical coherence tomography and adaptive optics: imaging photoreceptor layer morphology to interpret preclinical phenotypes

Recent years have seen the emergence of advances in imaging technology that enable in vivo evaluation of the living retina. Two of the more promising techniques, spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and adaptive optics (AO) fundus imaging provide complementary views of the retinal tissue. SD-OCT devices have high axial resolution, allowing assessment of retinal lamination, while the high lateral resolution of AO allows visualization of individual cells. The potential exists to use one modality to interpret results from the other. As a proof of concept, we examined the retina of a 32 year-old male, previously diagnosed with a red-green color vision defect. Previous AO imaging revealed numerous gaps throughout his cone mosaic, indicating that the structure of a subset of cones had been compromised. Whether the affected cells had completely degenerated or were simply morphologically deviant was not clear. Here an AO fundus camera was used to re-examine the retina (~6 years after initial exam) and SD-OCT to examine retinal lamination. The static nature of the cone mosaic disruption combined with the normal lamination on SD-OCT suggests that the affected cones are likely still present.

Clinical gene therapy for the treatment of RPE65-associated Leber congenital amaurosis

INTRODUCTION

The positive results of pioneering clinical trials using gene therapy as treatment for patients with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) have ushered in a new era of molecular retinal therapeutics for LCA, other blinding retinal disorders and gene therapy applications.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the role of retinal pigment epithelium-specific 65 kDa protein (RPE65) in the visual cycle and how RPE65 deficiency results in LCA; the extensive preclinical studies with recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-RPE65 gene vectors; and the human rAAV-RPE65 and related gene therapy clinical trials and studies. The literature search included a review of primary sources (e.g., journal articles) that reported study data results and key secondary sources such as meta-reviews available through PubMed, as well as reviews of clinical trial descriptions and results as reported in clinicaltrials.gov, conference publications and news releases.

EXPERT OPINION

LCA-RPE65 gene therapy is an example of successful, innovative, translational research. Further research is needed regarding how retinal gene therapy can be improved.

Cone opsin determines the time course of cone photoreceptor degeneration in Leber congenital amaurosis

Mutations in RPE65 or lecithin-retinol acyltransferase (LRAT) disrupt 11-cis-retinal recycling and cause Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), the most severe retinal dystrophy in early childhood. We used Lrat(-)(/-), a murine model for LCA, to investigate the mechanism of rapid cone degeneration. Although both M and S cone opsins mistrafficked as reported previously, mislocalized M-opsin was degraded whereas mislocalized S-opsin accumulated in Lrat(-)(/-) cones before the onset of massive ventral/central cone degeneration. As the ventral and central retina express higher levels of S-opsin than the dorsal retina in mice, our results may explain why ventral and central cones degenerate more rapidly than dorsal cones in Rpe65(-)(/-) and Lrat(-)(/-) LCA models. In addition, human blue opsin and mouse S-opsin, but not mouse M-opsin or human red/green opsins, aggregated to form cytoplasmic inclusions in transfected cells, which may explain why blue cone function is lost earlier than red/green-cone function in patients with LCA. The aggregation of short-wavelength opsins likely caused rapid cone degenerations through an endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway, as demonstrated in both the Lrat(-)(/-) retina and transfected cells. Replacing rhodopsin with S-opsin in Lrat(-)(/-) rods resulted in mislocalization and aggregation of S-opsin in the inner segment and the synaptic region of rods, ER stress, and dramatically accelerated rod degeneration. Our results demonstrate that cone opsins play a major role in determining the degeneration rate of photoreceptors in LCA.

Light prevents exogenous 11-cis retinal from maintaining cone photoreceptors in chromophore-deficient mice

PURPOSE

To determine the effect of light/dark cycles on the cones of 11-cis retinal-treated RPE65/rhodopsin double knockout (Rpe65(-/-)Rho(-/-)) mice. Studies have shown that cones degenerate in chromophore-deficient mouse models for Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA), but exogenous supplementation of the native 11-cis retinal chromophore can inhibit this degeneration, suggesting that 11-cis retinal could be used as a therapeutic agent for preserving functional cones in patients with LCA. However, these treated mice were maintained in the dark.

METHODS

11-cis Retinal was introduced into Rpe65(-/-)Rho(-/-) mice at postnatal day 10 as a single subcutaneous injection mixed with a basement membrane matrix. The mice were maintained in either normal light/dark cycles or constant dark conditions. Fluorescence microscopy was used to assess retinal morphology. Cone cell survival was determined by counting cone opsin-containing cells on flat-mounted P30 retinas. Cross-sections of P21 mouse retina were used to assess cone cell integrity by visualizing opsin localization. Cone function was determined by electroretinography (ERG).

RESULTS

Previous studies have shown that 11-cis retinal-treated mice lacking RPE65 and raised in constant dark have higher cone photoreceptor cell number, improved cone opsin localization, and enhanced cone ERG signals when compared with untreated mice. However, in this study the authors show that 11-cis retinal-treated Rpe65(-/-)Rho(-/-) mice raised in cyclic light did not show the improvements seen with the dark-reared mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, 11-cis retinal by itself, as well as other agents that form photosensitive pigments, will not be good therapeutic candidates for preserving cones in LCA.

The retinal pigment epithelium in health and disease

Retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE) constitute a simple layer of cuboidal cells that are strategically situated behind the photoreceptor (PR) cells. The inconspicuousness of this monolayer contrasts sharply with its importance [1]. The relationship between the RPE and PR cells is crucial to sight; this is evident from basic and clinical studies demonstrating that primary dysfunctioning of the RPE can result in visual cell death and blindness. RPE cells carry out many functions including the conversion and storage of retinoid, the phagocytosis of shed PR outer segment membrane, the absorption of scattered light, ion and fluid transport and RPE-PR apposition. The magnitude of the demands imposed on this single layer of cells in order to execute these tasks, will become apparent to the reader of this review as will the number of clinical disorders that take origin from these cells.

Gene therapy regenerates protein expression in cone photoreceptors in Rpe65(R91W/R91W) mice

Cone photoreceptors mediate visual acuity under daylight conditions, so loss of cone-mediated central vision of course dramatically affects the quality of life of patients suffering from retinal degeneration. Therefore, promoting cone survival has become the goal of many ocular therapies and defining the stage of degeneration that still allows cell rescue is of prime importance. Using the Rpe65^R91W/R91W mouse, which carries a mutation in the Rpe65 gene leading to progressive photoreceptor degeneration in both patients and mice, we defined stages of retinal degeneration that still allow cone rescue. We evaluated the therapeutic window within which cones can be rescued, using a subretinal injection of a lentiviral vector driving expression of RPE65 in the Rpe65^R91W/R91W mice. Surprisingly, when applied to adult mice (1 month) this treatment not only stalls or slows cone degeneration but, actually, induces cone-specific protein expression that was previously absent. Before the intervention only part of the cones (40% of the number found in wild-type animals) in the Rpe65^R91W/R91W mice expressed cone transducin (GNAT2); this fraction increased to 64% after treatment. Correct S-opsin localization is also recovered in the transduced region. In consequence these results represent an extended therapeutic window compared to the Rpe65^-/- mice, implying that patients suffering from missense mutations might also benefit from a prolonged therapeutic window. Moreover, cones are not only rescued during the course of the degeneration, but can actually recover their initial status, meaning that a proportion of altered cones in chromophore deficiency-related disease can be rehabilitated even though they are severely affected.

The genomic, biochemical, and cellular responses of the retina in inherited photoreceptor degenerations and prospects for the treatment of these disorders

The association of more than 140 genes with human photoreceptor degenerations, together with studies of animal models of these monogenic diseases, has provided great insight into their pathogenesis. Here we review the responses of the retina to photoreceptor mutations, including mechanisms of photoreceptor death. We discuss the roles of oxidative metabolism, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, metabolic stress, protein misfolding, and defects in ciliary proteins, as well as the responses of Müller glia, microglia, and the retinal vasculature. Finally, we report on potential pharmacologic and biologic therapies, the critical role of histopathology as a prerequisite to treatment, and the exciting promise of gene therapy in animal models and in phase 1 trials in humans.

Gene therapy rescues cone structure and function in the 3-month-old rd12 mouse: a model for midcourse RPE65 leber congenital amaurosis

PURPOSE

RPE65 function is necessary in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) to generate chromophore for all opsins. Its absence results in vision loss and rapid cone degeneration. Recent Leber congenital amaurosis type 2 (LCA with RPE65 mutations) phase I clinical trials demonstrated restoration of vision on RPE65 gene transfer into RPE cells overlying cones. In the rd12 mouse, a naturally occurring model of RPE65-LCA early cone degeneration was observed; however, some peripheral M-cones remained. A prior study showed that AAV-mediated RPE65 expression can prevent early cone degeneration. The present study was conducted to test whether the remaining cones in older rd12 mice can be rescued.

METHODS

Subretinal treatment with the scAAV5-smCBA-hRPE65 vector was initiated at postnatal day (P)14 and P90. After 2 months, electroretinograms were recorded, and cone morphology was analyzed by using cone-specific peanut agglutinin and cone opsin-specific antibodies.

RESULTS

Cone degeneration started centrally and spread ventrally, with cells losing cone-opsin staining before that for the PNA-lectin-positive cone sheath. Gene therapy starting at P14 resulted in almost wild-type M- and S-cone function and morphology. Delaying gene-replacement rescued the remaining M-cones, and most important, more M-cone opsin-positive cells were identified than were present at the onset of gene therapy, suggesting that opsin expression could be reinitiated in cells with cone sheaths.

CONCLUSIONS

The results support and extend those of the previous study that gene therapy can stop early cone degeneration, and, more important, they provide proof that delayed treatment can restore the function and morphology of the remaining cones. These results have important implications for the ongoing LCA2 clinical trials.

Molecular anthropology meets genetic medicine to treat blindness in the North African Jewish population: human gene therapy initiated in Israel

The history of the North African Jewish community is ancient and complicated with a number of immigration waves and persecutions dramatically affecting its population size. A decade-long process in Israel of clinical-molecular screening of North African Jews with incurable autosomal recessive blindness led to the identification of a homozygous splicing mutation (c.95-2A > T; IVS2-2A > T) in RPE65, the gene encoding the isomerase that catalyzes a key step in the retinoid-visual cycle, in patients from 10 unrelated families. A total of 33 patients (four now deceased) had the severe childhood blindness known as Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), making it the most common cause of retinal degeneration in this population. Haplotype analysis in seven of the patients revealed a shared homozygous region, indicating a population-specific founder mutation. The age of the RPE65 founder mutation was estimated to have emerged 100-230 (mean, 153) generations ago, suggesting it originated before the establishment of the Jewish community in North Africa. Individuals with this RPE65 mutation were characterized with retinal studies to determine if they were candidates for gene replacement, the recent and only therapy to date for this otherwise incurable blindness. The step from molecular anthropological studies to application of genetic medicine was then taken, and a representative of this patient subgroup was treated with subretinal rAAV2-RPE65 gene therapy. An increase in vision was present in the treated area as early as 15 days after the intervention. This process of genetically analyzing affected isolated populations as a screen for gene-based therapy suggests a new paradigm for disease diagnosis and treatment.

Inhibition of the visual cycle by A2E through direct interaction with RPE65 and implications in Stargardt disease

Stargardt disease (STGD) is the major form of inherited juvenile macular degeneration. Pyridinium bis-retinoid A2E is a major component of lipofuscin which accumulates in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells in STGD and contributes to the disease pathogenesis. However, the precise role of A2E in vision loss is unclear. Here we report that A2E efficiently inhibits RPE65 isomerohydrolase, a key enzyme in the visual cycle. Subretinal injection of A2E significantly inhibited retinoid isomerohydrolase activity in mice. Likewise, A2E also inhibited isomerohydrolase activity in cells coexpressing RPE65, lecithin retinol acyltransferase (LRAT), and cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein. In vitro isomerohydrolase activity assays confirmed that A2E inhibited enzymatic activity of recombinant RPE65 in a concentration-dependent manner, but did not inhibit LRAT activity. The inhibition type for isomerohydrolase was found to be reversible and competitive with K(i) = 13.6 μM. To determine the direct interaction of A2E with RPE65 protein, fluorescence binding assays were performed. As shown by fluorimetric titration, binding of purified RPE65 with A2E enhanced the bis-retinoid fluorescence. Consistently, the fluorescence of RPE65 decreased upon incubation with A2E. Both of these experiments suggest a direct, specific binding of A2E to RPE65. The binding constant for A2E and purified RPE65 was calculated to be 250 nM. These results demonstrate that A2E inhibits the regeneration of 11-cis retinal, the chromophore of visual pigments, which represents a unique mechanism by which A2E may impair vision in STGD.

Retinoids for treatment of retinal diseases

Knowledge about retinal photoreceptor signal transduction and the visual cycle required for normal eyesight has increased exponentially over the past decade. Substantial progress in human genetics has facilitated the identification of candidate genes and complex networks underlying inherited retinal diseases. Natural mutations in animal models that mimic human diseases have been characterized and advanced genetic manipulation can now be used to generate small mammalian models of human retinal diseases. Pharmacological repair of defective visual processes in animal models not only validates their involvement in vision, but also provides great promise for the development of improved therapies for millions who are progressing towards blindness or are almost completely robbed of their eyesight.

Effective and sustained delivery of hydrophobic retinoids to photoreceptors

PURPOSE

Delivery of hydrophobic compounds to the retina/RPE has been challenging. The purpose of this study was to develop an effective method for the sustained delivery of retinoids to rod and cone photoreceptors of young mice lacking a normal supply of 11-cis retinal.

METHODS

Solubilized basement membrane matrix (Matrigel; BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) loaded with 9-cis retinal was administered subcutaneously into Rpe65(-/-) mouse pups for assessment of delivery to rods and cones and to Rpe65(-/-)Rho(-/-) mouse pups for assessment of delivery to cones. Intraperitoneal injections of 9-cis retinal were used for comparison. Cone density and opsin localization were evaluated with immunohistochemistry. Cone opsin protein levels were assayed with immunoblots, and cone function was analyzed by electroretinography (ERG) recordings. Retinoid content was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of retinal extracts. Pigment levels were quantified in homogenized retinas by absorption spectroscopy before and after light exposure.

RESULTS

Single administration of Matrigel loaded with 9-cis retinal to Rpe65(-/-) mice increased cone densities in all analyzed regions of the retina compared with mice treated using intraperitoneal delivery. Cone opsin levels increased to near wild-type levels. Similar treatment in Rpe65(-/-)Rho(-/-) mice increased b-wave ERG amplitudes significantly, indicating the maintenance of cone function. Matrigel was shown to continuously release 9-cis retinal for periods up to 1 week.

CONCLUSIONS

As a method for sustained drug delivery, subcutaneous administration using Matrigel proved more efficacious than intraperitoneal injection for in vivo delivery of retinoids to cone photoreceptors. These experiments are the first to show a sustained delivery of retinoids in mice and suggest a strategy for potential clinical therapeutic development.

Leber congenital amaurosis due to RPE65 mutations and its treatment with gene therapy

Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) is a rare hereditary retinal degeneration caused by mutations in more than a dozen genes. RPE65, one of these mutated genes, is highly expressed in the retinal pigment epithelium where it encodes the retinoid isomerase enzyme essential for the production of chromophore which forms the visual pigment in rod and cone photoreceptors of the retina. Congenital loss of chromophore production due to RPE65-deficiency together with progressive photoreceptor degeneration cause severe and progressive loss of vision. RPE65-associated LCA recently gained recognition outside of specialty ophthalmic circles due to early success achieved by three clinical trials of gene therapy using recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors. The trials were built on multitude of basic, pre-clinical and clinical research defining the pathophysiology of the disease in human subjects and animal models, and demonstrating the proof-of-concept of gene (augmentation) therapy. Substantial gains in visual function of clinical trial participants provided evidence for physiologically relevant biological activity resulting from a newly introduced gene. This article reviews the current knowledge on retinal degeneration and visual dysfunction in animal models and human patients with RPE65 disease, and examines the consequences of gene therapy in terms of improvement of vision reported.

S-opsin protein is incompletely modified during N-glycan processing in Rpe65(-/-) mice

Retinal pigment epithelium-specific protein 65 kDa (RPE65) is a key enzyme for the visual cycle in the eye. Rpe65(-/-) mice lack 11-cis-retinal, and show early cone degeneration and mislocalization of cone opsins. The present study investigated whether abnormal modification of cone opsins at the protein level is present in Rpe65(-/-) mice. Retina-RPE-choroids of Rpe65(-/-) mice at 3, 5 and 7 weeks old were used. Immunohistochemistry of opsins was performed using cryosections and retinal flatmounts. We evaluated levels of mRNA for cone and rod opsin genes by RT-PCR and levels of proteins by western blotting. To examine modification patterns of N-glycan in Rpe65(-/-) mice, cone opsins were digested with peptide-N-glycosidase (PNGase) F. S-opsin protein was detected at approximately 40-kDa as a major band in wild-type mice, whereas approximately 42-kDa S-opsin protein was detected in Rpe65(-/-) mice. After PNGase F treatment, mobility of S-opsin protein in wild-type and Rpe65(-/-) mice on SDS-PAGE was similar. In addition, approximately 25-kDa S-opsin polypeptide was notably detected in Rpe65(-/-) mice. Conversely, M-opsin proteins were not observed by immunohistochemistry or western blotting in Rpe65(-/-) mice, but expression of M-opsin mRNA in Rpe65(-/-) mice did not differ significantly from that in wild-type mice at 3 and 5 weeks. Mobility of M-opsin protein in Rpe65(-/-) mice was unchanged. Our data suggest that S-opsin protein is incompletely modified during N-glycan processing in Rpe65(-/-) mice, whereas M-opsin protein is severely reduced by posttranslational degradation in the absence of incomplete N-glycan processing in Rpe65(-/-) mice.

Membrane-binding and enzymatic properties of RPE65

Regeneration of visual pigments is essential for sustained visual function. Although the requirement for non-photochemical regeneration of the visual chromophore, 11-cis-retinal, was recognized early on, it was only recently that the trans to cis retinoid isomerase activity required for this process was assigned to a specific protein, a microsomal membrane enzyme called RPE65. In this review, we outline progress that has been made in the functional characterization of RPE65. We then discuss general concepts related to protein-membrane interactions and the mechanism of the retinoid isomerization reaction and describe some of the important biochemical and structural features of RPE65 with respect to its membrane-binding and enzymatic properties.

Self-complementary AAV-mediated gene therapy restores cone function and prevents cone degeneration in two models of Rpe65 deficiency

To test whether fast-acting, self-complimentary (sc), adeno-associated virus-mediated RPE65 expression prevents cone degeneration and/or restores cone function, we studied two mouse lines: the Rpe65-deficient rd12 mouse and the Rpe65-deficient, rhodopsin null ('that is, cone function-only') Rpe65(-/-)::Rho(-/-) mouse. scAAV5 expressing RPE65 was injected subretinally into one eye of rd12 and Rpe65(-/-)::Rho(-/-) mice at postnatal day 14 (P14). Contralateral rd12 eyes were injected later, at P35. Rd12 behavioral testing revealed that rod vision loss was prevented with either P14 or P35 treatment, whereas cone vision was only detected after P14 treatment. Consistent with this observation, P35 treatment only restored rod electroretinogram (ERG) signals, a result likely due to reduced cone densities at this time point. For Rpe65(-/-)::Rho(-/-) mice in which there is no confounding rod contribution to the ERG signal, cone cells and cone-mediated ERGs were also maintained with treatment at P14. This work establishes that a self-complimentary AAV5 vector can restore substantial visual function in two genetically distinct models of Rpe65 deficiency within 4 days of treatment. In addition, this therapy prevents cone degeneration but only if administered before extensive cone degeneration, thus supporting continuation of current Leber's congenital amaurosis-2 clinical trials with an added emphasis on cone subtype analysis and early intervention.

Visual acuity in patients with Leber's congenital amaurosis and early childhood-onset retinitis pigmentosa

PURPOSE

To correlate visual acuity of patients with Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA) and early childhood-onset retinitis pigmentosa (RP) with mutations in underlying LCA genes.

DESIGN

Multicentered retrospective observational study.

PARTICIPANTS

After exclusion of 28 subjects, 169 patients with the diagnosis of LCA and 27 patients with early childhood-onset RP were included in the study because the underlying mutations in AIPL1, GUCY2D, RDH12, RPE65, CRX, CRB1, RPGRIP1, CEP290, LCA5, and TULP1 genes could be identified in this cohort of patients.

METHODS

We collected data on best-corrected visual acuity as recorded at the time of the patient's most recent visit to one of the participating ophthalmology departments. The median and range of visual acuities for each genetic subtype were calculated separately for the LCA and early childhood-onset RP groups.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The range and median best-corrected visual acuities for each genetic subtype and age-related mean visual acuities for each genetic subtype.

RESULTS

A wide variation in visual acuity was observed in patients with LCA and RPE65, RDH12, and CRB1 mutations, whereas AIPL1, GUCY2D, CRX, and RPGRIP1 gene mutations were associated with severely decreased visual acuities beginning within the first year of life. It was also noted that patients with either an RPE65 or CRB1 mutation have progressive visual loss with advancing age. Onset of visual symptoms after infancy was associated with a relatively better visual prognosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The data obtained from this study will help clinicians provide counseling on visual prognosis to patients with known mutations in LCA genes and be of value in future studies aimed at the treatment of LCA and early childhood-onset RP.

Visualization of retinoid storage and trafficking by two-photon microscopy

Vertebrate vision is maintained by the retinoid (visual) cycle, a complex enzymatic pathway that operates in the retina to regenerate the visual chromophore, 11-cis-retinal, a prosthetic group of rhodopsin that undergoes activation by light. Many different mutations in genes encoding retinoid cycle proteins can cause a variety of human blinding diseases. Two-photon microscopy is an evolving, non-invasive, and repetitive imaging technology that can be used to monitor biomolecules within the vertebrate retina at a subcellular resolution. This method has the great advantage of portraying endogenous retinoid fluorophores in their native state without the need for artificial staining. Such real-time retinal imaging permits rapid evaluation not only of various stages of retinal disease in live animal models of human retinopathies but also of the outcome from intended pharmacological therapies. Two-photon microscopy offers substantial potential for early detection of age- and disease-related changes in the eye, long before clinical or pathological manifestations become apparent.

Assays for inverse agonists in the visual system

Visual pigment proteins belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors and are the light-sensitive molecules in rod and cone photoreceptor cells. The protein moiety is known as opsin and the ligand in the dark is 11-cis retinal, which serves as both the photon detector and an inverse agonist. While much is known about properties of the rod pigment rhodopsin, much less is understood about cone visual pigments. Being able to identify ligands that effect opsins give an insight into structure-activity relationships. The action of some ligands indicates that there are differences between not only rod and cone opsins but also among the different classes of cone opsins. Furthermore, inverse agonists of cone opsins may have potential therapeutic uses under conditions when the native 11-cis retinal ligand is absent. A method for determining the effects of ligands on rod and cone opsin activity is described.

Molecular biology and analytical chemistry methods used to probe the retinoid cycle

The retinoid (visual) cycle is a complex enzymatic pathway essential for regeneration of the visual chromophore, 11-cis-retinal, a component of rhodopsin that undergoes activation by light in vertebrate eyes. Pathogenic mutations within genes encoding proteins involved in the retinoid cycle lead to abnormalities in retinoid homeostasis and numerous congenital blinding diseases of humans. Thus, elucidation of disease-specific changes in enzymatic activities and retinoid content of the retina can provide important insights into the mechanisms of disease initiation and progression. Here, we use the protein RPE65 as an example to describe generally applicable methods for determining the stability and enzymatic activity of proteins and their mutants involved in retinoid metabolism. Additionally, we introduce a range of analytical techniques involving high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to detect and quantify retinoids and their derivatives in eye extracts. Biochemical protocols combined with advanced mass spectrometry should facilitate fundamental biological studies of vision.

Retinal light damage: mechanisms and protection

By its action on rhodopsin, light triggers the well-known visual transduction cascade, but can also induce cell damage and death through phototoxic mechanisms - a comprehensive understanding of which is still elusive despite more than 40 years of research. Herein, we integrate recent experimental findings to address several hypotheses of retinal light damage, premised in part on the close anatomical and metabolic relationships between the photoreceptors and the retinal pigment epithelium. We begin by reviewing the salient features of light damage, recently joined by evidence for retinal remodeling which has implications for the prognosis of recovery of function in retinal degenerations. We then consider select factors that influence the progression of the damage process and the extent of visual cell loss. Traditional, genetically modified, and emerging animal models are discussed, with particular emphasis on cone visual cells. Exogenous and endogenous retinal protective factors are explored, with implications for light damage mechanisms and some suggested avenues for future research. Synergies are known to exist between our long term light environment and photoreceptor cell death in retinal disease. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of light damage in a variety of animal models can provide valuable insights into the effects of light in clinical disorders and may form the basis of future therapies to prevent or delay visual cell loss.