A gene encoding a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase is induced simultaneously with genes for a mitogen-activated protein kinase and an S6 ribosomal protein kinase by touch, cold, and water stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Priming for enhanced defense

When plants recognize potential opponents, invading pathogens, wound signals, or abiotic stress, they often switch to a primed state of enhanced defense. However, defense priming can also be induced by some natural or synthetic chemicals. In the primed state, plants respond to biotic and abiotic stress with faster and stronger activation of defense, and this is often linked to immunity and abiotic stress tolerance. This review covers recent advances in disclosing molecular mechanisms of priming. These include elevated levels of pattern-recognition receptors and dormant signaling enzymes, transcription factor HsfB1 activity, and alterations in chromatin state. They also comprise the identification of aspartyl-tRNA synthetase as a receptor of the priming activator β-aminobutyric acid. The article also illustrates the inheritance of priming, exemplifies the role of recently identified priming activators azelaic and pipecolic acid, elaborates on the similarity to defense priming in mammals, and discusses the potential of defense priming in agriculture.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades in Vitis vinifera

Protein phosphorylation is one of the most important mechanisms to control cellular functions in response to external and endogenous signals. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) are universal signaling molecules in eukaryotes that mediate the intracellular transmission of extracellular signals resulting in the induction of appropriate cellular responses. MAPK cascades are composed of four protein kinase modules: MAPKKK kinases (MAPKKKKs), MAPKK kinases (MAPKKKs), MAPK kinases (MAPKKs), and MAPKs. In plants, MAPKs are activated in response to abiotic stresses, wounding, and hormones, and during plant pathogen interactions and cell division. In this report, we performed a complete inventory of MAPK cascades genes in Vitis vinifera, the whole genome of which has been sequenced. By comparison with MAPK, MAPK kinases, MAPK kinase kinases and MAPK kinase kinase kinase kinase members of Arabidopsis thaliana, we revealed the existence of 14 MAPKs, 5 MAPKKs, 62 MAPKKKs, and 7 MAPKKKKs in Vitis vinifera. We identified orthologs of V. vinifera putative MAPKs in different species, and ESTs corresponding to members of MAPK cascades in various tissues. This work represents the first complete inventory of MAPK cascades in V. vinifera and could help elucidate the biological and physiological functions of these proteins in V. vinifera.

Expression analysis of genes encoding mitogen-activated protein kinases in maize provides a key link between abiotic stress signaling and plant reproduction

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play important roles in stress responses and development in plants. Maize (Zea mays), an important cereal crop, is a model plant species for molecular studies. In the last decade, several MAPKs have been identified in maize; however, their functions have not been studied extensively. Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of maize MAPK genes could provide valuable information for understanding their functions. In this study, 20 non-redundant maize MAPK genes (ZmMPKs) were identified via a genome-wide survey. Phylogenetic analysis of MAPKs from maize, rice (Oryza sativa), Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), poplar (Populus trichocarpa), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) classified them into four major classes. ZmMPKs in the same class had similar domains, motifs, and genomic structures. Gene duplication investigations suggested that segmental duplications made a large contribution to the expansion of ZmMPKs. A number of cis-acting elements related to plant development and response to stress and hormones were identified in the promoter regions of ZmMPKs. Furthermore, transcript profile analysis in eight tissues and organs at various developmental stages demonstrated that most ZmMPKs were preferentially expressed in reproductive tissues and organs. The transcript abundance of most ZmMPKs changed significantly under salt, drought, cold, or abscisic acid (ABA) treatments, implying that they might participate in abiotic stress and ABA signaling. These expression analyses indicated that ZmMPKs might serve as linkers between abiotic stress signaling and plant reproduction. Our data will deepen our understanding of the complexity of the maize MAPK gene family and provide new clues to investigate their functions.

Nitrogen signalling pathways shaping root system architecture: an update

Root system architecture is a fundamentally important trait for resource acquisition in both ecological and agronomic contexts. Because of the plasticity of root development and the almost infinite complexity of the soil, root system architecture is shaped by environmental factors to a much greater degree than shoot architecture. In attempting to understand how roots sense and respond to environmental cues, the striking effects of nitrate and other forms of nitrogen on root growth and branching have received particular attention. This minireview focuses on the latest advances in our understanding of the diverse nitrogen signalling pathways that are now known to act at multiple stages in the process of lateral root development, as well as on primary root growth.

MAPK cascades and major abiotic stresses

Plants have evolved with complex signaling circuits that operate under multiple conditions and govern numerous cellular functions. Stress signaling in plant cells is a sophisticated network composed of interacting proteins organized into tiered cascades where the function of a molecule is dependent on the interaction and the activation of another. In a linear scheme, the receptors of cell surface sense the stimuli and convey stress signals through specific pathways and downstream phosphorylation events controlled by mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases and second messengers, leading to appropriate adaptive responses. The specificity of the pathway is guided by scaffolding proteins and docking domains inside the interacting partners with distinctive structures and functions. The flexibility and the fine-tuned organization of the signaling molecules drive the activated MAP kinases into the appropriate location and connection to control and integrate the information flow. Here, we overview recent findings of the involvement of MAP kinases in major abiotic stresses (drought, cold and temperature fluctuations) and we shed light on the complexity and the specificity of MAP kinase signaling modules.

Interaction of the Arabidopsis GTPase RabA4c with its effector PMR4 results in complete penetration resistance to powdery mildew

The (1,3)-β-glucan callose is a major component of cell wall thickenings in response to pathogen attack in plants. GTPases have been suggested to regulate pathogen-induced callose biosynthesis. To elucidate the regulation of callose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana, we screened microarray data and identified transcriptional upregulation of the GTPase RabA4c after biotic stress. We studied the function of RabA4c in its native and dominant negative (dn) isoform in RabA4c overexpression lines. RabA4c overexpression caused complete penetration resistance to the virulent powdery mildew Golovinomyces cichoracearum due to enhanced callose deposition at early time points of infection, which prevented fungal ingress into epidermal cells. By contrast, RabA4c(dn) overexpression did not increase callose deposition or penetration resistance. A cross of the resistant line with the pmr4 disruption mutant lacking the stress-induced callose synthase PMR4 revealed that enhanced callose deposition and penetration resistance were PMR4-dependent. In live-cell imaging, tagged RabA4c was shown to localize at the plasma membrane prior to infection, which was broken in the pmr4 disruption mutant background, with callose deposits at the site of attempted fungal penetration. Together with our interactions studies including yeast two-hybrid, pull-down, and in planta fluorescence resonance energy transfer assays, we concluded that RabA4c directly interacts with PMR4, which can be seen as an effector of this GTPase.

GhMPK17, a cotton mitogen-activated protein kinase, is involved in plant response to high salinity and osmotic stresses and ABA signaling

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades play pivotal roles in mediating biotic and abiotic stress responses. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is the most important textile crop in the world, and often encounters abiotic stress during its growth seasons. In this study, a gene encoding a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) was isolated from cotton, and designated as GhMPK17. The open reading frame (ORF) of GhMPK17 gene is 1494 bp in length and encodes a protein with 497 amino acids. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis indicated that GhMPK17 expression was up-regulated in cotton under NaCl, mannitol and ABA treatments. The transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing GhMPK17 gene showed higher seed germination, root elongation and cotyledon greening/expansion rates than those of the wild type on MS medium containing NaCl, mannitol and exogenous ABA, suggesting that overexpression of GhMPK17 in Arabidopsis increased plant ABA-insensitivity, and enhanced plant tolerance to salt and osmotic stresses. Furthermore, overexpression of GhMPK17 in Arabidopsis reduced H2O2 level and altered expression of ABA- and abiotic stress-related genes in the transgenic plants. Collectively, these data suggested that GhMPK17 gene may be involved in plant response to high salinity and osmotic stresses and ABA signaling.

Glutamate signalling in roots

As a signalling molecule, glutamate is best known for its role as a fast excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system, a role that requires the activity of a family of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). The unexpected discovery in 1998 that Arabidopsis thaliana L. possesses a family of iGluR-related (GLR) genes laid the foundations for an assessment of glutamate's potential role as a signalling molecule in plants that is still in progress. Recent advances in elucidating the function of Arabidopsis GLR receptors has revealed similarities with iGluRs in their channel properties, but marked differences in their ligand specificities. The ability of plant GLR receptors to act as amino-acid-gated Ca(2+) channels with a broad agonist profile, combined with their expression throughout the plant, makes them strong candidates for a multiplicity of amino acid signalling roles. Although root growth is inhibited in the presence of a number of amino acids, only glutamate elicits a specific sequence of changes in growth, root tip morphology, and root branching. The recent finding that the MEKK1 gene is a positive regulator of glutamate sensitivity at the root tip has provided genetic evidence for the existence in plants of a glutamate signalling pathway analogous to those found in animals. This short review will discuss the most recent advances in understanding glutamate signalling in roots, considering them in the context of previous work in plants and animals.

RBOH1-dependent H2O2 production and subsequent activation of MPK1/2 play an important role in acclimation-induced cross-tolerance in tomato

H2O2 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades play important functions in plant stress responses, but their roles in acclimation response remain unclear. This study examined the functions of H2O2 and MPK1/2 in acclimation-induced cross-tolerance in tomato plants. Mild cold, paraquat, and drought as acclimation stimuli enhanced tolerance to more severe subsequent chilling, photooxidative, and drought stresses. Acclimation-induced cross-tolerance was associated with increased transcript levels of RBOH1 and stress- and defence-related genes, elevated apoplastic H2O2 accumulation, increased activity of NADPH oxidase and antioxidant enzymes, reduced glutathione redox state, and activation of MPK1/2 in tomato. Virus-induced gene silencing of RBOH1, MPK1, and MPK2 or MPK1/2 all compromised acclimation-induced cross-tolerance and associated stress responses. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that acclimation-induced cross-tolerance is largely attributed to RBOH1-dependent H2O2 production at the apoplast, which may subsequently activate MPK1/2 to induce stress responses.

Analysis of differentially expressed genes in abiotic stress response and their role in signal transduction pathways

The study of abiotic stress response of plants is important because they have to cope with environmental changes to survive. The plant genomes have evolved to meet environmental challenges. Salt, temperature, and drought are the main abiotic stresses. The tolerance and response to stress vary differently in plants. The idea was to analyze the genes showing differential expression under abiotic stresses. There are many pathways connecting the perception of external stimuli to cellular responses. In plants, these pathways play an important role in the transduction of abiotic stresses. In the present study, the gene expression data have been analyzed for their involvement in different steps of signaling pathways. The conserved genes were analyzed for their role in each pathway. The functional annotations of these genes and their response under abiotic stresses in other plant species were also studied. The enzymes of signal pathways, showing similarity with conserved genes, were analyzed for their role in different abiotic stresses. Our findings will help to understand the expression of genes in response to various abiotic stresses. These genes may be used to study the response of different abiotic stresses in other plant species and the molecular basis of stress tolerance.

Phosphorylation of Arabidopsis thaliana MEKK1 via Ca(2+) signaling as a part of the cold stress response

The Arabidopsis mitogen activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MEKK1) plays an important role in stress signaling. However, little is known about the upstream pathways of MEKK1. This report describes the regulation of MEKK1 activity during cold signaling. Immunoprecipitated MEKK1 from cold-treated Arabidopsis seedlings showed elevated kinase activity towards mitogen activated protein kinase kinase2 (MKK2), one of the candidate MEKK1 substrates. To clarify how MEKK1 becomes active in response to cold stress signaling, MEKK1 phosphorylation was monitored by an enzyme extracted from the seedlings grown under cold stress with or without EGTA. MEKK1 was phosphorylated after cold stress, but EGTA inhibited the phosphorylation. MKK2 was also phosphorylated by the same extract, but only when EGTA was absent. These results suggested that Ca(2+) signaling occurred upstream of the MEKK1-MKK2 pathway. Full-length MEKK1 showed almost no activity but MEKK1 without the N-terminal region (MEKK1 KD) that retained the kinase domain had a strong ability to phosphorylate MKK2, demonstrating the inhibitory role of the N-terminal region of MEKK1. In addition, MEKK1 was phosphorylated by calcium/calmodulin-regulated receptor-like kinase (CRLK1), which suggested that CRLK1 is one of candidates located upstream of MEKK1.

The Hordeum vulgare signalling protein MAP kinase 4 is a regulator of biotic and abiotic stress responses

Mitogen activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) signal transduction pathways are important eukaryotic mechanisms for regulating cellular responses to stress. The objective of this work was to investigate the role of the barley MAP kinase HvMPK4 (a homologue of the Arabidopsis MAP kinase AtMPK1) in the plant response to biotic and abiotic stress. Transgenic barley plants bearing antisense or overexpression constructs for HvMPK4 were produced, and RNA blot analysis showed that HvMPK4 gene expression was much reduced in the antisense lines and approximately double in the overexpression lines. Three independent lines of each construct were tested for their response to a fungal pathogen and to salt treatment. The antisense lines were more resistant to the hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen Magnaporthe grisea, and showed enhanced levels of salicylic acid (SA) and of hydrogen peroxide following infection; HvMPK4 is thus a negative regulator of SA production post infection. The overexpression lines had constitutively higher levels of jasmonic acid and enhanced levels of ethylene following infection but were not more resistant to the pathogen. However the overexpression lines showed greater tolerance to abiotic stress, as following 2 weeks of salt treatment these lines showed less reduction in fresh and dry weight, accumulated less salt in the leaves and contained enhanced levels of the osmoprotectant amino acid, proline.

Increased resistance against citrus canker mediated by a citrus mitogen-activated protein kinase

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) play crucial roles in plant immunity. We previously identified a citrus MAPK (CsMAPK1) as a differentially expressed protein in response to infection by Xanthomonas aurantifolii, a bacterium that causes citrus canker in Mexican lime but a hypersensitive reaction in sweet oranges. Here, we confirm that, in sweet orange, CsMAPK1 is rapidly and preferentially induced by X. aurantifolii relative to Xanthomonas citri. To investigate the role of CsMAPK1 in citrus canker resistance, we expressed CsMAPK1 in citrus plants under the control of the PR5 gene promoter, which is induced by Xanthomonas infection and wounding. Increased expression of CsMAPK1 correlated with a reduction in canker symptoms and a decrease in bacterial growth. Canker lesions in plants with higher CsMAPK1 levels were smaller and showed fewer signs of epidermal rupture. Transgenic plants also revealed higher transcript levels of defense-related genes and a significant accumulation of hydrogen peroxide in response to wounding or X. citri infection. Accordingly, nontransgenic sweet orange leaves accumulate both CsMAPK1 and hydrogen peroxide in response to X. aurantifolii but not X. citri infection. These data, thus, indicate that CsMAPK1 functions in the citrus canker defense response by inducing defense gene expression and reactive oxygen species accumulation during infection.

The role of ABA and MAPK signaling pathways in plant abiotic stress responses

As sessile organisms, plants have developed specific mechanisms that allow them to rapidly perceive and respond to stresses in the environment. Among the evolutionarily conserved pathways, the ABA (abscisic acid) signaling pathway has been identified as a central regulator of abiotic stress response in plants, triggering major changes in gene expression and adaptive physiological responses. ABA induces protein kinases of the SnRK family to mediate a number of its responses. Recently, MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) cascades have also been shown to be implicated in ABA signaling. Therefore, besides discussing the role of ABA in abiotic stress signaling, we will also summarize the evidence for a role of MAPKs in the context of abiotic stress and ABA signaling.

The MAPKKK gene family in Gossypium raimondii: genome-wide identification, classification and expression analysis

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades are conserved signal transduction pathways in all eukaryotic organisms. MAPKKKs (MAPK kinase kinases) operate at the top levels of these cascades. Recently, this family of genes has been systematically investigated in Arabidopsis, rice and maize, but has not yet been characterized in cotton. In this study, we identified 78 putative MAPKKK genes in the genome of the diploid cotton, Gossypium raimondii. They were classified into three subfamilies, of which 12 were ZIK, 22 were MEKK and 44 were Raf. The ZIK and MEKK genes displayed a scattered genomic distribution across 11 of the 13 chromosomes, whereas Raf genes were distributed across the entire genome. Their conserved patterns observed for introns and additional domains were consistent with the evolutionary relationships inferred from the phylogenetic analysis within subfamily. Transcriptome sequencing data were used to investigate their transcript profiles in mature leaves, 0 day and 3 days post-anthesis (DPA) ovules. Sixty MAPKKK genes were expressed, of which 41 were strongly expressed in mature leaves. Twelve MAPKKK genes were more highly expressed in 3-DPA ovules than in 0-DPA ovules. Our results provide a foundation for future evolutionary and functional characterizations of MAPKKK genes in cotton and probably other Gossypium plants.

Crosstalk between secondary messengers, hormones and MAPK modules during abiotic stress signalling in plants

The crosstalk between second messengers, hormones and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in plant signalling systems facilitates adaptation and survival in the face of diverse environmental stresses. This review focuses on the transduction of second messenger and hormone signals by MAPK modules in plant abiotic stress responses. We discuss how this crosstalk regulates gene expression (e.g. by controlling transcription factor activity) and other cellular and physiological responses to enable adaptation and/or resistance to abiotic stresses.

Systemic cold stress adaptation of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is one of the most important model organisms nowadays phylogenetically situated between higher plants and animals (Merchant et al. 2007). Stress adaptation of this unicellular model algae is in the focus because of its relevance to biomass and biofuel production. Here, we have studied cold stress adaptation of C. reinhardtii hitherto not described for this algae whereas intensively studied in higher plants. Toward this goal, high throughput mass spectrometry was employed to integrate proteome, metabolome, physiological and cell-morphological changes during a time-course from 0 to 120 h. These data were complemented with RT-qPCR for target genes involved in central metabolism, signaling, and lipid biosynthesis. Using this approach dynamics in central metabolism were linked to cold-stress dependent sugar and autophagy pathways as well as novel genes in C. reinhardtii such as CKIN1, CKIN2 and a hitherto functionally not annotated protein named CKIN3. Cold stress affected extensively the physiology and the organization of the cell. Gluconeogenesis and starch biosynthesis pathways are activated leading to a pronounced starch and sugar accumulation. Quantitative lipid profiles indicate a sharp decrease in the lipophilic fraction and an increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids suggesting this as a mechanism of maintaining membrane fluidity. The proteome is completely remodeled during cold stress: specific candidates of the ribosome and the spliceosome indicate altered biosynthesis and degradation of proteins important for adaptation to low temperatures. Specific proteasome degradation may be mediated by the observed cold-specific changes in the ubiquitinylation system. Sparse partial least squares regression analysis was applied for protein correlation network analysis using proteins as predictors and Fv/Fm, FW, total lipids, and starch as responses. We applied also Granger causality analysis and revealed correlations between proteins and metabolites otherwise not detectable. Twenty percent of the proteins responsive to cold are uncharacterized proteins. This presents a considerable resource for new discoveries in cold stress biology in alga and plants.

Glutamate signalling via a MEKK1 kinase-dependent pathway induces changes in Arabidopsis root architecture

A chemical genetic approach has been used to investigate the mechanism by which external glutamate (l-Glu) is able to trigger major changes in root architecture in Arabidopsis thaliana L. An initial screen of 80 agonists and antagonists of mammalian glutamate and GABA receptors, using a specially developed 96-well microphenotyping system, found none that replicated the response of the root to l-Glu or antagonized it. However, a larger screen using >1500 molecules bioactive in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) identified two groups that interfered with the l-Glu response. One of the antagonists, 2-(4-chloro-3-methylphenyl)-2-oxoethyl thiocyanate (CMOT), has been reported to target Ste11, an evolutionarily conserved MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K) in yeast. This led to the discovery that root growth in a triple mekk1 mekk2 mekk3 mutant (mekk1/2/3), defective in a set of three tandemly arranged MAP3Ks, was almost insensitive to l-Glu. However, the sensitivity of mekk1/2/3 roots to inhibition by other amino acids reported to act as agonists of glutamate receptor-like (GLR) channels in Arabidopsis roots (Asn, Cys, Gly and Ser) was unaffected. The l-Glu sensitivity of the mekk1/2/3 mutant was restored by transformation with a construct carrying the intact MEKK1 gene. These results demonstrate that MEKK1 plays a key role in transducing the l-Glu signal that elicits large-scale changes in root architecture, and provide genetic evidence for the existence in plants of an l-Glu signalling pathway analogous to that found in animals.

Salt-responsive ERF1 regulates reactive oxygen species-dependent signaling during the initial response to salt stress in rice

Early detection of salt stress is vital for plant survival and growth. Still, the molecular processes controlling early salt stress perception and signaling are not fully understood. Here, we identified salt-responsive ERF1 (SERF1), a rice (Oryza sativa) transcription factor (TF) gene that shows a root-specific induction upon salt and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) treatment. Loss of SERF1 impairs the salt-inducible expression of genes encoding members of a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade and salt tolerance-mediating TFs. Furthermore, we show that SERF1-dependent genes are H2O2 responsive and demonstrate that SERF1 binds to the promoters of MAPK kinase kinase6 (MAP3K6), MAPK5, dehydration-responsive element bindinG2A (DREB2A), and zinc finger protein179 (ZFP179) in vitro and in vivo. SERF1 also directly induces its own gene expression. In addition, SERF1 is a phosphorylation target of MAPK5, resulting in enhanced transcriptional activity of SERF1 toward its direct target genes. In agreement, plants deficient for SERF1 are more sensitive to salt stress compared with the wild type, while constitutive overexpression of SERF1 improves salinity tolerance. We propose that SERF1 amplifies the reactive oxygen species-activated MAPK cascade signal during the initial phase of salt stress and translates the salt-induced signal into an appropriate expressional response resulting in salt tolerance.

Post-translational regulation of cold acclimation response

Cold acclimation is an adaptive response whereby plants from temperate regions increase their capacity to tolerate freezing in response to low-nonfreezing temperatures. Numerous studies have unveiled the large transcriptome re-programming that takes place during cold acclimation in diverse species, and a number of proteins have been identified as important regulators of this adaptive response. Post-translational mechanisms regulating the function of proteins involved in cold acclimation have been, however, much less studied. Several components of the signal transduction pathways mediating cold response have been described to be post-translationally modified. These post-translational modifications, including protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, N-glycosylation and lipid modification, determine key aspects of protein function such as sub-cellular localization, stability, activity or ability to interact with other proteins. Integrating these post-translational mechanisms within the appropriate spatio-temporal context of cold acclimation is essential to develop new crops with improved cold tolerance. Here, we review available evidence regarding the post-translational regulation of cold acclimation, discuss its relevance for the accurate development of this response, and highlight significant missing data.

Complexity and Modularity of MAPK Signaling Networks

Signaling through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades is a conserved and fundamental process in all eukaryotes. This chapter reviews recent progress made in the identification of components of MAPK signaling networks using novel large scale experimental methods. It also presents recent landmarks in the computational modeling and simulation of the dynamics of MAPK signaling modules. The in vitro MAPK signaling network reconstructed from predicted phosphorylation events is dense, supporting the hypothesis of a combinatorial control of transcription through selective phosphorylation of sets of transcription factors. Despite the fact that additional co-factors and scaffold proteins may regulate the dynamics of signal transduction in vivo, the complexity of MAPK signaling networks supports a new model that departs significantly from that of the classical definition of a MAPK cascade.

Overexpression of the trehalase gene AtTRE1 leads to increased drought stress tolerance in Arabidopsis and is involved in abscisic acid-induced stomatal closure

Introduction of microbial trehalose biosynthesis enzymes has been reported to enhance abiotic stress resistance in plants but also resulted in undesirable traits. Here, we present an approach for engineering drought stress tolerance by modifying the endogenous trehalase activity in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). AtTRE1 encodes the Arabidopsis trehalase, the only enzyme known in this species to specifically hydrolyze trehalose into glucose. AtTRE1-overexpressing and Attre1 mutant lines were constructed and tested for their performance in drought stress assays. AtTRE1-overexpressing plants had decreased trehalose levels and recovered better after drought stress, whereas Attre1 mutants had elevated trehalose contents and exhibited a drought-susceptible phenotype. Leaf detachment assays showed that Attre1 mutants lose water faster than wild-type plants, whereas AtTRE1-overexpressing plants have a better water-retaining capacity. In vitro studies revealed that abscisic acid-mediated closure of stomata is impaired in Attre1 lines, whereas the AtTRE1 overexpressors are more sensitive toward abscisic acid-dependent stomatal closure. This observation is further supported by the altered leaf temperatures seen in trehalase-modified plantlets during in vivo drought stress studies. Our results show that overexpression of plant trehalase improves drought stress tolerance in Arabidopsis and that trehalase plays a role in the regulation of stomatal closure in the plant drought stress response.

Rapid phosphatidic acid accumulation in response to low temperature stress in Arabidopsis is generated through diacylglycerol kinase

Phosphatidic acid (PtdOH) is emerging as an important signaling lipid in abiotic stress responses in plants. The effect of cold stress was monitored using (32)P-labeled seedlings and leaf discs of Arabidopsis thaliana. Low, non-freezing temperatures were found to trigger a very rapid (32)P-PtdOH increase, peaking within 2 and 5 min, respectively. In principle, PtdOH can be generated through three different pathways, i.e., (1) via de novo phospholipid biosynthesis (through acylation of lyso-PtdOH), (2) via phospholipase D hydrolysis of structural phospholipids, or (3) via phosphorylation of diacylglycerol (DAG) by DAG kinase (DGK). Using a differential (32)P-labeling protocol and a PLD-transphosphatidylation assay, evidence is provided that the rapid (32)P-PtdOH response was primarily generated through DGK. A simultaneous decrease in the levels of (32)P-PtdInsP, correlating in time, temperature dependency, and magnitude with the increase in (32)P-PtdOH, suggested that a PtdInsP-hydrolyzing PLC generated the DAG in this reaction. Testing T-DNA insertion lines available for the seven DGK genes, revealed no clear changes in (32)P-PtdOH responses, suggesting functional redundancy. Similarly, known cold-stress mutants were analyzed to investigate whether the PtdOH response acted downstream of the respective gene products. The hos1, los1, and fry1 mutants were found to exhibit normal PtdOH responses. Slight changes were found for ice1, snow1, and the overexpression line Super-ICE1, however, this was not cold-specific and likely due to pleiotropic effects. A tentative model illustrating direct cold effects on phospholipid metabolism is presented.

Deciphering systemic wound responses of the pumpkin extrafascicular phloem by metabolomics and stable isotope-coded protein labeling

In cucurbits, phloem latex exudes from cut sieve tubes of the extrafascicular phloem (EFP), serving in defense against herbivores. We analyzed inducible defense mechanisms in the EFP of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) after leaf damage. As an early systemic response, wounding elicited transient accumulation of jasmonates and a decrease in exudation probably due to partial sieve tube occlusion by callose. The energy status of the EFP was enhanced as indicated by increased levels of ATP, phosphate, and intermediates of the citric acid cycle. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry also revealed that sucrose transport, gluconeogenesis/glycolysis, and amino acid metabolism were up-regulated after wounding. Combining ProteoMiner technology for the enrichment of low-abundance proteins with stable isotope-coded protein labeling, we identified 51 wound-regulated phloem proteins. Two Sucrose-Nonfermenting1-related protein kinases and a 32-kD 14-3-3 protein are candidate central regulators of stress metabolism in the EFP. Other proteins, such as the Silverleaf Whitefly-Induced Protein1, Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase6, and Heat Shock Protein81, have known defensive functions. Isotope-coded protein labeling and western-blot analyses indicated that Cyclophilin18 is a reliable marker for stress responses of the EFP. As a hint toward the induction of redox signaling, we have observed delayed oxidation-triggered polymerization of the major Phloem Protein1 (PP1) and PP2, which correlated with a decline in carbonylation of PP2. In sum, wounding triggered transient sieve tube occlusion, enhanced energy metabolism, and accumulation of defense-related proteins in the pumpkin EFP. The systemic wound response was mediated by jasmonate and redox signaling.

Comparative proteome analysis of Milnesium tardigradum in early embryonic state versus adults in active and anhydrobiotic state

Tardigrades have fascinated researchers for more than 300 years because of their extraordinary capability to undergo cryptobiosis and survive extreme environmental conditions. However, the survival mechanisms of tardigrades are still poorly understood mainly due to the absence of detailed knowledge about the proteome and genome of these organisms. Our study was intended to provide a basis for the functional characterization of expressed proteins in different states of tardigrades. High-throughput, high-accuracy proteomics in combination with a newly developed tardigrade specific protein database resulted in the identification of more than 3000 proteins in three different states: early embryonic state and adult animals in active and anhydrobiotic state. This comprehensive proteome resource includes protein families such as chaperones, antioxidants, ribosomal proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, transporters, protein channels, nutrient reservoirs, and developmental proteins. A comparative analysis of protein families in the different states was performed by calculating the exponentially modified protein abundance index which classifies proteins in major and minor components. This is the first step to analyzing the proteins involved in early embryonic development, and furthermore proteins which might play an important role in the transition into the anhydrobiotic state.

Identification of three MAPKKKs forming a linear signaling pathway leading to programmed cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana

BACKGROUND

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade is an evolutionarily ancient mechanism of signal transduction found in eukaryotic cells. In plants, MAPK cascades are associated with responses to various abiotic and biotic stresses such as plant pathogens. MAPK cascades function through sequential phosphorylation: MAPK kinase kinases (MAPKKKs) phosphorylate MAPK kinases (MAPKKs), and phosphorylated MAPKKs phosphorylate MAPKs. Of these three types of kinase, the MAPKKKs exhibit the most divergence in the plant genome. Their great diversity is assumed to allow MAPKKKs to regulate many specific signaling pathways in plants despite the relatively limited number of MAPKKs and MAPKs. Although some plant MAPKKKs, including the MAPKKKα of Nicotiana benthamiana (NbMAPKKKα), are known to play crucial roles in plant defense responses, the functional relationship among MAPKKK genes is poorly understood. Here, we performed a comparative functional analysis of MAPKKKs to investigate the signaling pathway leading to the defense response.

RESULTS

We cloned three novel MAPKKK genes from N. benthamiana: NbMAPKKKβ, NbMAPKKKγ, and NbMAPKKKε2. Transient overexpression of full-length NbMAPKKKβ or NbMAPKKKγ or their kinase domains in N. benthamiana leaves induced hypersensitive response (HR)-like cell death associated with hydrogen peroxide production. This activity was dependent on the kinase activity of the overexpressed MAPKKK. In addition, virus-induced silencing of NbMAPKKKβ or NbMAPKKKγ expression significantly suppressed the induction of programmed cell death (PCD) by viral infection. Furthermore, in epistasis analysis of the functional relationships among NbMAPKKKβ, NbMAPKKKγ, and NbMAPKKKα (previously shown to be involved in plant defense responses) conducted by combining transient overexpression analysis and virus-induced gene silencing, silencing of NbMAPKKKα suppressed cell death induced by the overexpression of the NbMAPKKKβ kinase domain or of NbMAPKKKγ, but silencing of NbMAPKKKβ failed to suppress cell death induced by the overexpression of NbMAPKKKα or NbMAPKKKγ. Silencing of NbMAPKKKγ suppressed cell death induced by the NbMAPKKKβ kinase domain but not that induced by NbMAPKKKα.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that in addition to NbMAPKKKα, NbMAPKKKβ and NbMAPKKKγ also function as positive regulators of PCD. Furthermore, these three MAPKKKs form a linear signaling pathway leading to PCD; this pathway proceeds from NbMAPKKKβ to NbMAPKKKγ to NbMAPKKKα.

Biochemical identification of the OsMKK6-OsMPK3 signalling pathway for chilling stress tolerance in rice

MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathways have been implicated in stress signalling in plants. In the present study, we performed yeast two-hybrid screening to identify partner MAPKs for OsMKK (Oryza sativa MAPK kinase) 6, a rice MAPK kinase, and revealed specific interactions of OsMKK6 with OsMPK3 and OsMPK6. OsMPK3 and OsMPK6 each co-immunoprecipitated OsMKK6, and both were directly phosphorylated by OsMKK6 in vitro. An MBP (myelin basic protein) kinase assay of the immunoprecipitation complex indicated that OsMPK3 and OsMPK6 were activated in response to a moderately low temperature (12°C), but not a severely low temperature (4°C) in rice seedlings. A constitutively active form of OsMKK6, OsMKK6DD, showed elevated phosphorylation activity against OsMPK3 and OsMPK6 in vitro. OsMPK3, but not OsMPK6, was constitutively activated in transgenic plants overexpressing OsMKK6DD, indicating that OsMPK3 is an in vivo target of OsMKK6. Enhanced chilling tolerance was observed in the transgenic plants overexpressing OsMKK6DD. Taken together, our data suggest that OsMKK6 and OsMPK3 constitute a moderately low-temperature signalling pathway and regulate cold stress tolerance in rice.

An omics approach to understand the plant abiotic stress

Abiotic stress can lead to changes in development, productivity, and severe stress and may even threaten survival of plants. Several environmental stresses cause drastic changes in the growth, physiology, and metabolism of plants leading to the increased accumulation of secondary metabolites. As medicinal plants are important sources of drugs, steps are taken to understand the effect of stress on the physiology, biochemistry, genomic, proteomic, and metabolic levels. The molecular responses of plants to abiotic stress are often considered as a complex process. They are mainly based on the modulation of transcriptional activity of stress-related genes. Many genes have been induced under stress conditions. The products of stress-inducible genes protecting against these stresses includes the enzymes responsible for the synthesis of various osmoprotectants. Genetic engineering of tolerance to abiotic stresses help in molecular understanding of pathways induced in response to one or more of the abiotic stresses. Systems biology and virtual experiments allow visualizing and understanding how plants work to overcome abiotic stress. This review discusses the omic approach to understand the plant response to abiotic stress with special emphasis on medicinal plant.

Identification of drought tolerant progenies in tea by gene expression analysis

Understanding the genes that govern tea plant (Camellia sinensis) architecture and response to drought stress is urgently needed to enhance breeding in tea with improved water use efficiency. Field drought is a slow mechanism and the plants go through an adaptive process in contrast to the drastic changes of rapid dehydration in case of controlled experiments. We identified a set of drought responsive genes under controlled condition using SSH, and validated the identified genes and their pattern of expression under field drought condition. The study was at three stages of water deficit stress viz., before wilting, wilting and recovery, which revealed a set of genes with higher expression at before wilting stage including dehydrin, abscissic acid ripening protein, glutathione peroxidase, cinnamoyl CoA reductase, calmodulin binding protein. The higher expression of these genes was related with increase tolerance character of DT/TS-463 before wilting, these five tolerant progenies could withstand drought stress and thus are candidates for breeding. We observed that physiological parameter like water use efficiency formed a close group with genes such as calmodulin related, DRM3, hexose transporter, hydrogen peroxide induced protein, ACC oxidase, lipase, ethylene responsive transcription factor and diaminopimelate decarboxylase, during wilting point. Our data provides valuable information for the gene components and the dynamics of gene expression in second and third leaf against drought stress in tea, which could be regarded as candidate targets potentially associated with drought tolerance. We propose that the identified five tolerant progenies on the basis of their drought tolerance can thus be utilised for future breeding programmes.

Phosphorylation by AtMPK6 is required for the biological function of AtMYB41 in Arabidopsis

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MPKs) are involved in a number of signaling pathways that control plant development and stress tolerance via the phosphorylation of target molecules. However, so far only a limited number of target molecules have been identified. Here, we provide evidence that MYB41 represents a new target of MPK6. MYB41 interacts with MPK6 not only in vitro but also in planta. MYB41 was phosphorylated by recombinant MPK6 as well as by plant MPK6. Ser(251) in MYB41 was identified as the site phosphorylated by MPK6. The phosphorylation of MYB41 by MPK6 enhanced its DNA binding to the promoter of a LTP gene. Interestingly, transgenic plants over-expressing MYB41(WT) showed enhanced salt tolerance, whereas transgenic plants over-expressing MYB41(S251A) showed decreased salt tolerance during seed germination and initial root growth. These results indicate that the phosphorylation of MYB41 by MPK6 is required for the biological function of MYB41 in salt tolerance.

Identification and characterization of a salt stress-inducible zinc finger protein from Festuca arundinacea

Background

Increased biotic and abiotic plant stresses due to climate change together with an expected global human population of over 9 billion by 2050 intensifies the demand for agricultural production on marginal lands. Soil salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses responsible for reduced crop productivity worldwide and the salinization of arable land has dramatically increased over the last few decades. Consequently, as land becomes less amenable for conventional agriculture, plants grown on marginal soils will be exposed to higher levels of soil salinity. Forage grasses are a critical component of feed used in livestock production worldwide, with many of these same species of grasses being utilized for lawns, erosion prevention, and recreation. Consequently, it is important to develop a better understanding of salt tolerance in forage and related grass species.

Findings

A gene encoding a ZnF protein was identified during the analysis of a salt-stress suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) expression library from the forage grass species Festuca arundinacea. The expression pattern of FaZnF was compared to that of the well characterized gene for delta 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS), a key enzyme in proline biosynthesis, which was also identified in the salt-stress SSH library. The FaZnF and P5CS genes were both up-regulated in response to salt and drought stresses suggesting a role in dehydration stress. FaZnF was also up-regulated in response to heat and wounding, suggesting that it might have a more general function in multiple abiotic stress responses. Additionally, potential downstream targets of FaZnF (a MAPK [Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase], GST [Glutathione-S-Transferase] and lipoxygenase L2) were found to be up-regulated in calli overexpressing FaZnF when compared to control cell lines.

Conclusions

This work provides evidence that FaZnF is an AN1/A20 zinc finger protein that is involved in the regulation of at least two pathways initiated by the salt stress response, thus furthering our understanding of the mechanisms of cellular action during a stress that is applicable to commercial crops worldwide.

Comparative proteomic study and functional analysis of translationally controlled tumor protein in rice roots under Hg2+ stress

So far, very little is known about mercury stress-induced intercellular metabolic changes in rice roots at the proteome level. To investigate the response of rice roots to mercury stress, changes in protein expression in rice roots were analyzed using a comparative proteomics approach. Six-leaf stage rice seedlings were treated with 50 micromol/L HgCl2 for 3 hr; 29 protein spots showed a significant changes in abundance under stress when compared with the Hg2+ -tolerant rice mutant and wild type (Zhonghua 11). Furthermore, all these protein spots were identified by mass spectrometry to match 27 diverse protein species. The identified proteins were involved in several processes, including stress response, redox homeostasis, signal transduction, regulation and metabolism; some were found to be cellular structure proteins and a few were unknown. Among the up-regulated proteins, OsTCTP (translationally controlled tumor protein) was chosen to perform hetereologous expression in yeast which was presumed to participate in the Hg2+ tolerance of rice, providing evidence for its role in alleviating Hg2+ damage. Among the many tests, we found that OsTCTP-overexpressed yeast strains were more resistant to Hg2+ than wild-type yeast. Thus, we propose that OsTCTP contributes to Hg2+ resistance. Here we present, for the first time, the functional characterization of OsTCTP in connection with Hg2+ stress in plants.

Improvement of stress tolerance in plants by genetic manipulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases

Plant stress tolerance depends on many factors among which signaling by mitogen-activated protein-kinase (MAPK) modules plays a crucial role. Reversible phosphorylation of MAPKs, their upstream activators and downstream targets such as transcription factors can trigger a myriad of transcriptomic, cellular and physiological responses. Genetic manipulation of abundance and/or activity of some of these modular MAPK components can lead to better stress tolerance in Arabidopsis and crop plant species such as tobacco and cereals. The main focus of this review is devoted to the MAPK-related signaling components which show the most promising biotechnological potential. Additionally, recent studies identified MAPK components to be involved both in plant development as well as in stress responses, suggesting that these processes are tightly linked in plants.

Molecular aspects of defence priming

Plants can be primed for more rapid and robust activation of defence to biotic or abiotic stress. Priming follows perception of molecular patterns of microbes or plants, recognition of pathogen-derived effectors or colonisation by beneficial microbes. However the process can also be induced by treatment with some natural or synthetic compounds and wounding. The primed mobilization of defence is often associated with development of immunity and stress tolerance. Although the phenomenon has been known for decades, the molecular basis of priming is poorly understood. Here, I summarize recent progress made in unravelling molecular aspects of defence priming that is the accumulation of dormant mitogen-activated protein kinases, chromatin modifications and alterations of primary metabolism.

Membrane transport, sensing and signaling in plant adaptation to environmental stress

Plants are generally well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions. Even though they have notably prospered in our planet, stressful conditions such as salinity, drought and cold or heat, which are increasingly being observed worldwide in the context of the ongoing climate changes, limit their growth and productivity. Behind the remarkable ability of plants to cope with these stresses and still thrive, sophisticated and efficient mechanisms to re-establish and maintain ion and cellular homeostasis are involved. Among the plant arsenal to maintain homeostasis are efficient stress sensing and signaling mechanisms, plant cell detoxification systems, compatible solute and osmoprotectant accumulation and a vital rearrangement of solute transport and compartmentation. The key role of solute transport systems and signaling proteins in cellular homeostasis is addressed in the present work. The full understanding of the plant cell complex defense mechanisms under stress may allow for the engineering of more tolerant plants or the optimization of cultivation practices to improve yield and productivity, which is crucial at the present time as food resources are progressively scarce.

The Bphi008a gene interacts with the ethylene pathway and transcriptionally regulates MAPK genes in the response of rice to brown planthopper feeding

We examined ways in which the Brown planthopper induced008a (Bphi008a; AY256682) gene of rice (Oryza sativa) enhances the plant's resistance to a specialist herbivore, the brown planthopper (BPH; Nilaparvata lugens). Measurement of the expression levels of ethylene synthases and of ethylene emissions showed that BPH feeding rapidly initiated the ethylene signaling pathway and up-regulated Bphi008a transcript levels after 6 to 96 h of feeding. In contrast, blocking ethylene transduction (using 1-methylcyclopropene) reduced Bphi008a transcript levels in wild-type plants fed upon by BPH. In vitro kinase assays showed that Bphi008a can be phosphorylated by rice Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase5 (OsMPK5), and yeast two-hybrid assays demonstrated that the carboxyl-terminal proline-rich region of Bphi008a interacts directly with this kinase. Furthermore, bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays showed that this interaction occurs in the nucleus. Subsequently, we found that Bphi008a up-regulation and down-regulation were accompanied by different changes in transcription levels of OsMPK5, OsMPK12, OsMPK13, and OsMPK17 in transgenic plants. Immunoblot analysis also showed that the OsMPK5 protein level increased in overexpressing plants and decreased in RNA interference plants after BPH feeding. In transgenic lines, changes in the expression levels of several enzymes that are important components of the defenses against the BPH were also observed. Finally, yeast two-hybrid screening results showed that Bphi008a is able to interact with a b-ZIP transcription factor (OsbZIP60) and a RNA polymerase polypeptide (SDRP).

Calmodulin-dependent activation of MAP kinase for ROS homeostasis in Arabidopsis

Rapid recognition and signal transduction of mechanical wounding through various signaling molecules, including calcium (Ca²+), protein phosphorylation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), are necessary early events leading to stress resistance in plants. Here we report that an Arabidopsis mitogen-activated protein kinase 8 (MPK8) connects protein phosphorylation, Ca²+, and ROS in the wound-signaling pathway. MPK8 is activated through mechanical wounding, and this activation requires direct binding of calmodulins (CaMs) in a Ca²+-dependent manner. MPK8 is also phosphorylated and activated by a MAPKK MKK3 in the prototypic kinase cascade, and full activation of MPK8 needs both CaMs and MKK3 in planta. The MPK8 pathway negatively regulates ROS accumulation through controlling expression of the Rboh D gene. These findings suggest that two major activation modes in eukaryotes, Ca²+/CaMs and the MAP kinase phosphorylation cascade, converge at MPK8 to monitor or maintain an essential part of ROS homeostasis.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling in plants under abiotic stress

Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade is evolutionarily conserved signal transduction module involved in transducing extracellular signals to the nucleus for appropriate cellular adjustment. This cascade consists essentially of three components, a MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK), a MAPK kinase (MAPKK) and a MAPK connected to each other by the event of phosphorylation. These kinases play various roles in intra- and extra-cellular signaling in plants by transferring the information from sensors to responses. Signaling through MAP kinase cascade can lead to cellular responses including cell division, differentiation as well as responses to various stresses. MAPK signaling has also been associated with hormonal responses. In plants, MAP kinases are represented by multigene families and are involved in efficient transmission of specific stimuli and also involved in the regulation of the antioxidant defense system in response to stress signaling. In the current review we summarize and investigate the participation of MAPKs as possible mediators of various abiotic stresses in plants.

TaABC1, a member of the activity of bc1 complex protein kinase family from common wheat, confers enhanced tolerance to abiotic stresses in Arabidopsis

Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and low temperature have drastic effects on plant growth and development. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating biochemical and physiological changes in response to stresses are not well understood. Protein kinases are major signal transduction factors among the reported molecular mechanisms mediating acclimation to environmental changes. Protein kinase ABC1 (activity of bc(1) complex) is involved in regulating coenzyme Q biosynthesis in mitochondria in yeast (Saccharomyces cersvisiae), and in balancing oxidative stress in chloroplasts in Arabidopsis thaliana. In the current study, TaABC1 (Triticum aestivum L. activity of bc(1) complex) protein kinase was localized to the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. The effects of overexpressing TaABC1 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants on responses to drought, salt, and cold stress were further investigated. Transgenic Arabidopsis overexpressing the TaABC1 protein showed lower water loss and higher osmotic potential, photochemistry efficiency, and chlorophyll content, while cell membrane stability and controlled reactive oxygen species homeostasis were maintained. In addition, overexpression of TaABC1 increased the expression of stress-responsive genes, such as DREB1A, DREB2A, RD29A, ABF3, KIN1, CBF1, LEA, and P5CS, detected by real-time PCR analysis. The results suggest that TaABC1 overexpression enhances drought, salt, and cold stress tolerance in Arabidopsis, and imply that TaABC1 may act as a regulatory factor involved in a multiple stress response pathways.

Expression pattern and core region analysis of AtMPK3 promoter in response to environmental stresses

The protein kinase AtMPK3, a component of the MAP kinase cascade, plays an important role in stress signal transduction in plant cells. To clarify how AtMPK3 is regulated at the transcriptional level in response to various environmental factors, the 1016-bp promoter sequence upstream of the transcription start site of the AtMPK3 gene was isolated. Analyses of the promoter sequence using plant promoter databases revealed that the AtMPK3 promoter contains many potential cis-acting elements involved in environmental stress responses. We constructed four deletion mutants of the AtMPK3 promoter, and introduced the intact and truncated promoter sequences fused to the β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene into Arabidopsis. GUS histochemical staining and quantitative fluorometric GUS assays were performed to visualize and compare the expression patterns in response to different environmental stimuli. The region between -188 and -62 upstream of the transcription start site was identified as the essential DNA sequence of the AtMPK3 promoter for responses to drought, high salinity, low temperature, and wounding. These results advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling AtMPK3 expression in response to different environmental stimuli.

MAPK machinery in plants: recognition and response to different stresses through multiple signal transduction pathways

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades play diverse roles in intra- and extra-cellular signaling in plants. MAP kinases are the component of kinase modules which transfer information from sensors to responses in eukaryotes including plants. They play a pivotal role in transduction of diverse extracellular stimuli such as biotic and abiotic stresses as well as a range of developmental responses including differentiation, proliferation and death. Several cascades are induced by different biotic and abiotic stress stimuli such as pathogen infections, heavy metal, wounding, high and low temperatures, high salinity, UV radiation, ozone, reactive oxygen species, drought and high or low osmolarity. MAPK signaling has been implicated in biotic stresses and has also been associated with hormonal responses. The cascade is regulated by various mechanisms, including not only transcriptional and translational regulation but through post-transcriptional regulation such as protein-protein interactions. Recent detailed analysis of certain specific MAP kinase pathways have revealed the specificity of the kinases in the cascade, signal transduction patterns, identity of pathway targets and the complexity of the cascade. The latest insights and finding are discussed in this paper in relation to the role of MAPK pathway modules in plant stress signaling.

Overexpression of CsNMAPK in tobacco enhanced seed germination under salt and osmotic stresses

In this research, biological function of CsNMAPK, encoding a mitogen-activated protein kinase of cucumber, was investigated under salt and osmotic stresses. Northern blot analysis showed that the expression of CsNMAPK was induced by salt and osmotic stresses in the cucumber root. In order to determine whether CsNMAPK was involved in plant tolerance to salt and osmotic stresses, transgenic tobacco plants constitutively overexpressing CsNMAPK were generated. Northern and Western blot analysis showed that strong signals were detected in the RNA and protein samples extracted from transgenic lines, whereas no signal was detected in the wild type tobacco, indicating that CsNMAPK was successfully transferred into tobacco genome and overexpressed. The results of seed germination showed that germination rates of transgenic lines were significantly higher than wild type under high salt and osmotic stresses. In addition, seed growth of transgenic lines was much better than wild type under salt and osmotic stresses. These results indicated that overexpression of CsNMAPK positively regulated plant tolerance to salt and osmotic stresses.