Agrobacterium VirE2 protein mediates nuclear uptake of single-stranded DNA in plant cells

Nucleic acid transport in plant-microbe interactions: the molecules that walk through the walls

Many microbes "genetically invade" plants by introducing DNA or RNA molecules into the host cells. For example, plant viruses transport their genomes between host cells, whereas Agrobacterium spp. transfer T-DNA to the cell nucleus and integrate it into the plant DNA. During these events, the transported nucleic acids must negotiate several barriers, such as plant cell walls, plasma membranes, and nuclear envelopes. This review describes the microbial and host proteins that participate in cell-to-cell transport and nuclear import of nucleic acids during infection by plant viruses and Agrobacterium spp. Possible molecular mechanisms by which these transport processes occur are discussed.

Import of Agrobacterium T-DNA into plant nuclei: two distinct functions of VirD2 and VirE2 proteins

To study the mechanism of nuclear import of T-DNA, complexes consisting of the virulence proteins VirD2 and VirE2 as well as single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) were tested for import into plant nuclei in vitro. Import of these complexes was fast and efficient and could be inhibited by a competitor, a nuclear localization signal (NLS) coupled to BSA. For import of short ssDNA, VirD2 was sufficient, whereas import of long ssDNA additionally required VirE2. A VirD2 mutant lacking its C-terminal NLS was unable to mediate import of the T-DNA complexes into nuclei. Although free VirE2 molecules were imported into nuclei, once bound to ssDNA they were not imported, implying that when complexed to DNA, the NLSs of VirE2 are not exposed and thus do not function. RecA, another ssDNA binding protein, could substitute for VirE2 in the nuclear import of T-DNA but not in earlier events of T-DNA transfer to plant cells. We propose that VirD2 directs the T-DNA complex to the nuclear pore, whereas both proteins mediate its passage through the pore. Therefore, by binding to ssDNA, VirE2 may shape the T-DNA complex such that it is accepted for translocation into the nucleus.

The T-pilus of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

T-pilus biogenesis uses a conserved transmembrane nucleoprotein- and protein-transport apparatus for the transport of cyclic T-pilin subunits to the Agrobacterium cell surface. T-pilin subunits are processed from full-length VirB2 pro-pilin into a cyclized peptide, a rapid reaction that is Agrobacterium specific and can occur in the absence of Ti-plasmid genes.

From host recognition to T-DNA integration: the function of bacterial and plant genes in the Agrobacterium-plant cell interaction

Abstract Agrobacterium tumefaciens and its related species, A. rhizogenes and A. vitis, are the only known bacterial pathogens which 'genetically invade' host plants and stably integrate part of their genetic material into the host cell genome. Thus, A. tumefaciens has evolved as a major tool for plant genetic engineering. Furthermore, this unique process of interkingdom DNA transfer has been utilized as a model system for studies of its underlying biological events, such as intercellular signalling, cell-to-cell DNA transport, protein and DNA nuclear import and integration. To date, numerous bacterial proteins and several plant proteins have been implicated in the A. tumefaciens-plant cell interaction. Here, we discuss the molecular interactions among these bacterial and plant factors and their role in the A. tumefaciens-plant cell DNA transfer. Taxonomic relationship: Bacteria; Proteobacteria; alpha subdivision; Rhizobiaceae group; Rhizobiaceae family; Agrobacterium genus. Microbiological properties: Gram-negative, nonsporing, motile, rod-shaped, soil-borne. Related species:A. rhizogenes (causes root formation in infected plants), A. vitis (causes gall formation on grapevines). Disease symptoms: Formation of neoplastic swellings (galls) on plant roots, crowns, trunks and canes. Galls interfere with water and nutrient flow in the plants, and seriously infected plants suffer from weak, stunted growth and low productivity.

HOST RANGE

One of the widest host ranges known among plant pathogens; can potentially attack all dicotyledonous plant species. Also, under controlled conditions (usually in tissue culture), can infect, albeit with lower efficiency, several monocotyledonous species. Agronomic importance: The disease currently affects plants belonging to the rose family, e.g. apple, pear, peach, cherry, almond, roses, as well as poplar trees (aspen). Useful web site:http://www.bio.purdue.edu/courses/gelvinweb/gelvin.html.

AGROBACTERIUM AND PLANT GENES INVOLVED IN T-DNA TRANSFER AND INTEGRATION

The phytopathogenic bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens genetically transforms plants by transferring a portion of the resident Ti-plasmid, the T-DNA, to the plant. Accompanying the T-DNA into the plant cell is a number of virulence (Vir) proteins. These proteins may aid in T-DNA transfer, nuclear targeting, and integration into the plant genome. Other virulence proteins on the bacterial surface form a pilus through which the T-DNA and the transferred proteins may translocate. Although the roles of these virulence proteins within the bacterium are relatively well understood, less is known about their roles in the plant cell. In addition, the role of plant-encoded proteins in the transformation process is virtually unknown. In this article, I review what is currently known about the functions of virulence and plant proteins in several aspects of the Agrobacterium transformation process.

Evidence for Agrobacterium-induced apoptosis in maize cells

Agrobacterium spp. can genetically transform most dicotyledonous plant cells whereas many monocot species are recalcitrant to Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. One major obstacle is that co-cultivation of Agrobacterium spp. with plant tissues often results in cell death. Report here is that, in maize tissues, this process resembles apoptosis, with characteristic DNA cleavage into oligonucleosomal fragments and morphological changes. Two anti-apoptotic genes from baculovirus, p35 and iap, had the ability to prevent the onset of apoptosis triggered by Agrobacterium spp. in maize tissues. p35 is reported to act as a direct inhibitor of a certain class of proteases (caspase) whereas i.a.p. may act upstream to prevent their activation. This evidence raises the possibility that caspase-like proteases may also be involved in the apoptotic pathway in plant cells.

The N- and C-terminal portions of the Agrobacterium VirB1 protein independently enhance tumorigenesis

Genetic transformation of plants by Agrobacterium tumefaciens is mediated by a virulence (vir)-specific type IV secretion apparatus assembled from 11 VirB proteins and VirD4. VirB1, targeted to the periplasm by an N-terminal signal peptide, is processed to yield VirB1*, comprising the C-terminal 73 amino acids. The N-terminal segment, which shares homology with chicken egg white lysozyme as well as lytic transglycosylases, may provide local lysis of the peptidoglycan cell wall to create channels for transporter assembly. Synthesis of VirB1* followed by its secretion to the exterior of the cell suggests that VirB1* may also have a role in virulence. In the present study, we provide evidence for the dual roles of VirB1 in tumorigenesis as well as the requirements for processing and secretion of VirB1*. Complementation of a virB1 deletion strain with constructs expressing either the N-terminal lysozyme-homologous region or VirB1* results in tumors intermediate in size between those induced by a wild-type strain and a virB1 deletion strain, suggesting that each domain has a unique role in tumorigenesis. The secretion of VirB1* translationally fused to the signal peptide indicates that processing and secretion are not coupled. When expressed independently of all other vir genes, VirB1 was processed and VirB1* was secreted. When restricted to the cytoplasm by deletion of the signal peptide, VirB1 was neither processed nor secreted and did not restore virulence to the virB1 deletion strain. Thus, factors that mediate processing of VirB1 and secretion of VirB1* are localized in the periplasm or outer membrane and are not subject to vir regulation.

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens chaperone-like protein, VirE1, interacts with VirE2 at domains required for single-stranded DNA binding and cooperative interaction

Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) into plants. Efficient tumorigenesis requires VirE1-dependent export of ssDNA-binding (SSB) protein VirE2. VirE1 binds VirE2 domains involved in SSB and self-association, and VirE1 may facilitate VirE2 export by preventing VirE2 aggregation and the premature binding of VirE2 to ssDNA.

Nuclear import of plasmid DNA in digitonin-permeabilized cells requires both cytoplasmic factors and specific DNA sequences

Although much is known about the mechanisms of signal-mediated protein and RNA nuclear import and export, little is understood concerning the nuclear import of plasmid DNA. Plasmids between 4.2 and 14.4 kilobases were specifically labeled using a fluorescein-conjugated peptide nucleic acid clamp. The resulting substrates were capable of gene expression and nuclear localization in microinjected cells in the absence of cell division. To elucidate the requirements for plasmid nuclear import, a digitonin-permeabilized cell system was adapted to follow the nuclear localization of plasmids. Nuclear import of labeled plasmid was time- and energy-dependent, was inhibited by the lectin wheat germ agglutinin, and showed an absolute requirement for cytoplasmic extract. Addition of nuclear extract alone did not support plasmid nuclear import but in combination with cytoplasm stimulated plasmid nuclear localization. Whereas addition of purified importin alpha, importin beta, and RAN was sufficient to support protein nuclear import, plasmid nuclear import also required the addition of nuclear extract. Finally, nuclear import of plasmid DNA was sequence-specific, requiring a region of the SV40 early promoter and enhancer. Taken together, these results confirm and extend our findings in microinjected cells and support a protein-mediated mechanism for plasmid nuclear import.

Import of DNA into mammalian nuclei by proteins originating from a plant pathogenic bacterium

Import of DNA into mammalian nuclei is generally inefficient. Therefore, one of the current challenges in human gene therapy is the development of efficient DNA delivery systems. Here we tested whether bacterial proteins could be used to target DNA to mammalian cells. Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a plant pathogen, efficiently transfers DNA as a nucleoprotein complex to plant cells. Agrobacterium-mediated T-DNA transfer to plant cells is the only known example for interkingdom DNA transfer and is widely used for plant transformation. Agrobacterium virulence proteins VirD2 and VirE2 perform important functions in this process. We reconstituted complexes consisting of the bacterial virulence proteins VirD2, VirE2, and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in vitro. These complexes were tested for import into HeLa cell nuclei. Import of ssDNA required both VirD2 and VirE2 proteins. A VirD2 mutant lacking its C-terminal nuclear localization signal was deficient in import of the ssDNA-protein complexes into nuclei. Import of VirD2-ssDNA-VirE2 complexes was fast and efficient, and was shown to depended on importin alpha, Ran, and an energy source. We report here that the bacterium-derived and plant-adapted protein-DNA complex, made in vitro, can be efficiently imported into mammalian nuclei following the classical importin-dependent nuclear import pathway. This demonstrates the potential of our approach to enhance gene transfer to animal cells.

Tobacco mosaic virus: a pioneer of cell-to-cell movement

Cell-to-cell movement of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is used to illustrate macromolecular traffic through plant intercellular connections, the plasmodesmata. This transport process is mediated by a specialized viral movement protein, P30. In the initially infected cell, P30 is produced by transcription of a subgenomic RNA derived from the invading virus. Presumably, P30 then associates with a certain proportion of the viral RNA molecules, sequestering them from replication and mediating their transport into neighbouring uninfected host cells. This nucleoprotem complex is targeted to plasmodesmata, possibly via interaction with the host cell's cytoskeleton. Prior to passage through a plasmodesma, the plasmodesmatal channel is dilated by the movement protein. It is proposed that targeting of P30-TMV RNA complexes to plasmodesmatal involves binding to a specific cell-wall-associated receptor molecule. This protein, designated p38, also functions as a protein kinase, phosphorylating P30 at its carboxy-terminus and minimizing P30-induced interference with plasmodesmatal permeability during viral infection.

The nuclear pore complex

The nuclear pore complex is the largest supramolecular complex that assembles in the eukaryotic cell. This structure is highly dynamic and must disassemble prior to mitosis and reassemble after the event. The directed movement of macromolecules into and out of the nucleus occurs through the nuclear pore complex, a potentially regulatory point for translocation. Using biochemical and genetic approaches, several nuclear pore complex proteins from yeast and vertebrates have been well characterized. Although very little is known about plant nuclear pore proteins, research is providing new information that indicates that plant nuclear pore complexes may have some unique features.

Agrobacterium VirE2 proteins can form a complex with T strands in the plant cytoplasm

Wild-type VirE2 and VirD2 proteins from Agrobacterium tumefaciens contain nuclear targeting sequences (NLS) that are likely involved in directing transferred T strands to the plant nucleus. An A. tumefaciens virE2 virD2DeltaNLS double mutant was able to form tumors on VirE2-producing transgenic tobacco but not on wild-type tobacco. Because this mutant bacterial strain contains no known T-strand nuclear targeting signal, the data indicate that wild-type VirE2 proteins produced by the plant can interact with the T strands in the plant cytoplasm and direct them to the nucleus.

Nuclear import and export of viruses and virus genomes

Many viruses replicate in the nucleus of their animal and plant host cells. Nuclear import, export, and nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling play a central role in their replication cycle. Although the trafficking of individual virus proteins into and out of the nucleus has been well studied for some virus systems, the nuclear transport of larger entities such as viral genomes and capsids has only recently become a subject of molecular analysis. In this review, the general concepts emerging are discussed and a survey is provided of current information on both plant and animal viruses. Summarizing the main findings in this emerging field, it is evident that most viruses that enter or exit the nucleus take advantage of the cell's nuclear import and export machinery. With a few exceptions, viruses seem to cross the nuclear envelope through the nuclear pore complexes, making use of cellular nuclear import and export signals, receptors, and transport factors. In many cases, they capitalize on subtle control systems such as phosphorylation that regulate traffic of cellular components into and out of the nucleus. The large size of viral capsids and their composition (they contain large RNA and DNA molecules for which there are few precedents in normal nuclear transport) make the processes unique and complicated. Prior capsid disassembly (or deformation) is required before entry of viral genomes and accessory proteins can occur through nuclear pores. Capsids of different virus families display diverse uncoating programs which culminate in genome transfer through the nuclear pores.

Transgene organization in rice engineered through direct DNA transfer supports a two-phase integration mechanism mediated by the establishment of integration hot spots

Organization of transgenes in rice transformed through direct DNA transfer strongly suggests a two-phase integration mechanism. In the "preintegration" phase, transforming plasmid molecules (either intact or partial) are spliced together. This gives rise to rearranged transgenic sequences, which upon integration do not contain any interspersed plant genomic sequences. Subsequently, integration of transgenic DNA into the host genome is initiated. Our experiments suggest that the original site of integration acts as a hot spot, facilitating subsequent integration of successive transgenic molecules at the same locus. The resulting transgenic locus may have plant DNA separating the transgenic sequences. Our data indicate that transformation through direct DNA transfer, specifically particle bombardment, generally results in a single transgenic locus as a result of this two-phase integration mechanism. Transgenic plants generated through such processes may, therefore, be more amenable to breeding programs as the single transgenic locus will be easier to characterize genetically. Results from direct DNA transfer experiments suggest that in the absence of protein factors involved in exogenous DNA transfer through Agrobacterium, the qualitative and/or quantitative efficiency of transformation events is not compromised. Our results cast doubt on the role of Agrobacterium vir genes in the integration process.

Nuclear import of the capsid protein of tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) in plant and insect cells

The tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) found in Israel is a whitefly-transmitted monopartite geminivirus. Although geminiviruses have been found in the nuclei of phloem-associated cells, the mechanism of viral invasion is poorly understood. The possible role of the TYLCV capsid protein (CP), the only known component of the viral coat, in virus transport into the host cell nucleus was investigated by monitoring its specific nuclear accumulation in plant and insect cells. CP was fused to the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter enzyme to assay nuclear import in petunia protoplasts, and micro-injection of purified fluorescently labeled CP was used to examine its nuclear uptake in Drosophila embryos. Both assays demonstrated that TYLCV CP is transported into plant- and insect-cell nuclei by an active process of nuclear import via a nuclear localization signal (NLS)-specific pathway. Using the GUS assay and deletion analysis, the TYLCV CP NLS sequence was identified in the amino-terminus of the protein.

Role of Agrobacterium virB genes in transfer of T complexes and RSF1010

Nonpolar virB mutants of Agrobacterium tumefaciens were tested for RSF1010 mobilization and extracellular complementation. virB2 to virB11 were essential for transfer in both assays. virB1 was essential only for high frequency transfer of RSF1010 and VirE2. Coordinated transfer of a preassembled T complex is supported by these data and competition studies.

A binary-BAC system for plant transformation with high-molecular-weight DNA

A binary-BAC (BIBAC) vector suitable for Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation with high-molecular-weight DNA was constructed. A BIBAC vector is based on the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library vector and is also a binary vector for Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. The BIBAC vector has the minimal origin region of the Escherichia coli F plasmid and the minimal origin of replication of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes Ri plasmid, and thus replicates as a single-copy plasmid in both E. coli and in A. tumefaciens. The T-DNA of the BIBAC vector can be transferred into the plant nuclear genome. As examples, a 30-kb yeast genomic DNA fragment and a 150-kb human genomic DNA fragment were inserted into the BIBAC vector; these constructs were maintained in both E. coli and A. tumefaciens. In order to increase the efficiency of transfer of unusually large BIBAC T-DNAs, helper plasmids that carry additional copies of A. tumefaciens virulence genes virG and virE were constructed. These helper plasmids are compatible with, and can be present in addition to, the BIBAC vector in the A. tumefaciens host. This report details the components of the BIBAC system, providing information essential to the general understanding and the application of this new technology.

Nuclear localization signal binding protein from Arabidopsis mediates nuclear import of Agrobacterium VirD2 protein

T-DNA nuclear import is a central event in genetic transformation of plant cells by Agrobacterium. Presumably, the T-DNA transport intermediate is a single-stranded DNA molecule associated with two bacterial proteins, VirD2 and VirE2, which most likely mediate the transport process. While VirE2 cooperatively coats the transported single-stranded DNA, VirD2 is covalently attached to its 5' end. To better understand the mechanism of VirD2 action, a cellular receptor for VirD2 was identified and its encoding gene cloned from Arabidopsis. The identified protein, designated AtKAPalpha, specifically bound VirD2 in vivo and in vitro. VirD2-AtKAPalpha interaction was absolutely dependent on the carboxyl-terminal bipartite nuclear localization signal sequence of VirD2. The deduced amino acid sequence of AtKAPalpha was homologous to yeast and animal nuclear localization signal-binding proteins belonging to the karyopherin alpha family. Indeed, AtKAPalpha efficiently rescued a yeast mutant defective for nuclear import. Furthermore, AtKAPalpha specifically mediated transport of VirD2 into the nuclei of permeabilized yeast cells.

The molecular structure of agrobacterium VirE2-single stranded DNA complexes involved in nuclear import

Nuclear import of DNA is a central event in genetic transformation of plant cells by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Agrobacterium elicits tumors on plant hosts by transporting a single-stranded (ss) copy of the bacterial transferred DNA (T-DNA) from its Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid into the plant cell nucleus. Presumably, the process of T-DNA nuclear import is mediated by two agrobacterium proteins, VirD2 and VirE2, which are thought to directly associate with the transported T-DNA. Both proteins have been shown to contain functional nuclear localizations signals (NLS). Recently, VirE2 alone has been shown to actively transport ssDNA into the plant cell nucleus. To understand the process of DNA nuclear import, it is important to know the structure of the transport intermediate. To this end, complexes of VirE2 and ssDNA were analyzed by scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). This analysis suggests that VirE2 packages ssDNA into semi-rigid, hollow cylindrical filaments with a telephone cord-like coiled structure. The outer diameter of these complexes is too large to enter the nucleus by diffusion but is within the size exclusion limits of the active nuclear import. Detailed mass analysis of VirE2-ssDNA filaments is presented and a structural model is proposed.

TRANSPORT OF PROTEINS AND NUCLEIC ACIDS THROUGH PLASMODESMATA

Despite a potentially key role in cell-to-cell communication, plant intercellular connections-the plasmodesmata-have long been a biological "black box." Little is known about their protein composition, regulatory mechanisms, or transport pathways. However, recent studies have shed some light on plasmodesmal function. These connections have been shown to actively traffic proteins and protein-nucleic acid complexes between plant cells. This review describes these transport processes-specifically, cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses as well as endogenous cellular proteins-and discusses their possible mechanism(s). For comparison and to provide a broader perspective on the plasmodesmal transport process, the current model for nuclear import, the only other known example of transport of large proteins and protein-nucleic acid complexes through a membrane pore, is summarized. Finally, the function of plasmodesmata as communication boundaries within plant tissue is discussed.

Functional domains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens single-stranded DNA-binding protein VirE2

The transferred DNA (T-DNA) portion of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid enters infected plant cells and integrates into plant nuclear DNA. Direct repeats define the T-DNA ends; transfer begins when the VirD2 endonuclease produces a site-specific nick in the right-hand border repeat and attaches to the 5' end of the nicked strand. Subsequent events liberate the lower strand of the T-DNA from the Ti plasmid, producing single-stranded DNA molecules (T strands) that are covalently linked to VirD2 at their 5' ends. A. tumefaciens appears to transfer T-DNA into plant cells as a T-strand-VirD2 complex. The bacterium also transports VirE2, a cooperative single-stranded DNA-binding protein, into plant cells during infection. Both VirD2 and VirE2 contain nuclear localization signals that may direct these proteins, and bound T strands, into plant nuclei. Here we report the locations of functional regions of VirE2 identified by eight insertions of XhoI linker oligonucleotides, and one deletion mutation, throughout virE2. We examined the effects of these mutations on virulence, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding, and accumulation of VirE2 in A. tumefaciens. Two of the mutations in the C-terminal half of VirE2 eliminated ssDNA binding, whereas two insertions in the N-terminal half altered cooperativity. Four of the mutations, distributed throughout virE2, decreased the stability of VirE2 in A. tumefaciens. In addition, we isolated a mutation in the central region of VirE2 that decreased tumorigenicity but did not affect ssDNA binding or VirE2 accumulation. This mutation may affect export of VirE2 into plant cells or nuclear localization of VirE2, or it may affect an uncharacterized activity of VirE2.

VirB1, a component of the T-complex transfer machinery of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, is processed to a C-terminal secreted product, VirB1

During genetic transformation of plant cells by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 11 VirB proteins and VirD4 are proposed to form a transmembrane bridge to transfer a DNA-protein complex (T-complex) into the plant cytoplasm. In this study, the localization of the first product of the virB operon, VirB1, was studied in detail. While full-length VirB1 localized mostly to the inner membrane, an immunoreactive VirB1 product was found as soluble processed form, designated VirB1*. Equal amounts of VirB1* could be detected in concentrated culture supernatants versus associated with the cell. VirB1* was purified from the supernatant of vir-induced cells by ammonium sulfate precipitation and Q-Sepharose chromatography. Sequence analysis of the N terminus of VirB1* localized the processing site after amino acid 172 of VirB1. Cell-associated VirB1* was partly removed by vortexing, suggesting a loose association with the cell or active secretion. However, cross-linking and coimmunoprecipitation showed a close association of cell-bound VirB1* with the VirB9-VirB7 heterodimer, a membrane-associated component of the T-complex transfer machinery. Homologies of the N-terminal part of VirB1 to bacterial transglycosylases suggest that it may assist T-complex transfer by local lysis of the bacterial cell wall, whereas the exposed localization of the C-terminal processing product VirB1* predicts direct interaction with the plant. Thus, VirB1 may be a bifunctional protein where both parts have different functions in T-complex transfer from Agrobacterium to plant cells.

The lipoprotein VirB7 interacts with VirB9 in the membranes of Agrobacterium tumefaciens

VirB9 and VirB7 are essential components of the putative VirB membrane channel required for transfer of the T-complex from Agrobacterium tumefaciens into plants. In this report, we present a biochemical analysis of their interaction and cellular localization. A comparison of relative electrophoretic mobilities under nonreducing and reducing conditions suggested that they form thiol-sensitive complexes with other proteins. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis identified one complex as a heterodimer of VirB9 and VirB7 covalently linked by a disulfide bond, as well as VirB7 homodimers and monomers. Immunoprecipitation with VirB9-specific antiserum isolated the heterodimeric VirB9-VirB7 complex. Incubation with reducing agent split the complex into its constituent VirB9 and VirB7, which further confirmed linkage via cysteine residues. The interaction between VirB9 and VirB7 also was observed in the yeast two-hybrid system. Membrane attachment of VirB9-VirB7 may be conferred by lipoprotein modification, since labeling with [3H]palmitic acid in A. tumefaciens verified that VirB7 is a lipoprotein associated with VirB9. VirB9 and VirB7 showed equal distribution between inner and outer membranes, in accord with their proposed association with the transmembrane VirB complex.

Nucleic acid transport in plant-pathogen interactions

Inter- and intracellular transport of nucleic acids during plant-pathogen interaction is described on the examples of cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses and nuclear import of Agrobacterium T-DNA. In both cases, the transport process is mediated by specialized proteins produced by the pathogen. Plant virus movement occurs through the intercellular connections, plasmodesmata. In this process, the viral genomic nucleic acid is bound by virus-encoded movement protein. The nucleoprotein complex is then targeted to plasmodesmata, potentially via interaction with the host cell cytoskeleton. Prior to translocation, the plasmodesmal channel is dilated by the movement of protein. Nuclear import of Agrobacterium T-DNA is also mediated by bacterial proteins associated with the transported nucleic acid molecule. Specifically, the VirD2 and VirE2 proteins complex with the transferred DNA, providing it with the nuclear localization signals (NLSs). The VirD2 NLS is an evolutionarily conserved signal, active both in plant and animal cells. In contrast, the VirE2 NLS is plant-specific. Both VirD2 and VirE2 NLSs most likely interact with the plant cell nuclear import machinery to initiate the transport process.

Nuclear import in permeabilized protoplasts from higher plants has unique features

The import of proteins into the nucleus is a poorly understood process that is thought to require soluble cytosolic factors in vertebrates and yeast. To test this model in plants and to identify components of the import apparatus, we developed a direct in vitro nuclear import assay by using tobacco protoplasts that were permeabilized without detergents such as digitonin or Triton X-100. Substrates were imported specifically by a mechanism that required only guanine nucleotides. Moreover, in vitro import did not require exogenous cytosol. To investigate this novel finding, we isolated a full-length cDNA encoding an Arabidopsis homolog of vertebrate and yeast nuclear localization signal receptors and produced an affinity-purified antibody. The plant receptor was tightly associated with cellular components in permeabilized protoplasts, even in the presence of 0.1% Triton X-100, indicating that this factor and probably others were retained to an extent sufficient to support import. The lectin wheat germ agglutinin bound to the nucleus; however, it did not block translocation in our system, indicating that direct interaction with polysaccharide modifications at the nuclear pore complex was probably not essential for import in plants. Other features of in vitro import included reduced but significant import at low temperature.