51
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Folkerts H, Hilgendorf S, Vellenga E, Bremer E, Wiersma VR. The multifaceted role of autophagy in cancer and the microenvironment. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:517-560. [PMID: 30302772 PMCID: PMC6585651 DOI: 10.1002/med.21531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a crucial recycling process that is increasingly being recognized as an important factor in cancer initiation, cancer (stem) cell maintenance as well as the development of resistance to cancer therapy in both solid and hematological malignancies. Furthermore, it is being recognized that autophagy also plays a crucial and sometimes opposing role in the complex cancer microenvironment. For instance, autophagy in stromal cells such as fibroblasts contributes to tumorigenesis by generating and supplying nutrients to cancerous cells. Reversely, autophagy in immune cells appears to contribute to tumor‐localized immune responses and among others regulates antigen presentation to and by immune cells. Autophagy also directly regulates T and natural killer cell activity and is required for mounting T‐cell memory responses. Thus, within the tumor microenvironment autophagy has a multifaceted role that, depending on the context, may help drive tumorigenesis or may help to support anticancer immune responses. This multifaceted role should be taken into account when designing autophagy‐based cancer therapeutics. In this review, we provide an overview of the diverse facets of autophagy in cancer cells and nonmalignant cells in the cancer microenvironment. Second, we will attempt to integrate and provide a unified view of how these various aspects can be therapeutically exploited for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Folkerts
- Department of Hematology, Cancer Research Center Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Susan Hilgendorf
- Department of Hematology, Cancer Research Center Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Edo Vellenga
- Department of Hematology, Cancer Research Center Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin Bremer
- Department of Hematology, Cancer Research Center Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Valerie R Wiersma
- Department of Hematology, Cancer Research Center Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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52
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Tang CT, Gao YJ, Ge ZZ. NOX4, a new genetic target for anti-cancer therapy in digestive system cancer. J Dig Dis 2018; 19:578-585. [PMID: 30058122 DOI: 10.1111/1751-2980.12651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress has been implicated as an important factor in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase subunit 4 (NOX4), a substrate of NADPH that can generate H2 O2 reactive oxygen species, has been reported to be highly expressed in gastrointestinal tumors. In this review we summarize the available evidence on the biological function of NOX4 in digestive system tumors by focusing on its correlation with classical cell signaling pathways, including VEGF, MAPK and PI3K/AKT, and with biochemical mediators, such as nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), activator protein (AP)-1 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. According to the clinical and database studies on tumors of the digestive system, such as colorectal, gastric and pancreatic cancer, there are significant associations between NOX4 expression and tumor prognosis as well as patient's survival. Animal studies using NOX4 inhibitors such as diphenylene iodonium and GKT137831, which selectively block NOX4, indicate their potential as therapeutic agents for targeting cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Tao Tang
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Yun Jie Gao
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi Zheng Ge
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
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53
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Prieto-Bermejo R, Romo-González M, Pérez-Fernández A, Ijurko C, Hernández-Hernández Á. Reactive oxygen species in haematopoiesis: leukaemic cells take a walk on the wild side. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2018; 37:125. [PMID: 29940987 PMCID: PMC6019308 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-018-0797-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is related to ageing and degenerative diseases, including cancer. However, a moderate amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is required for the regulation of cellular signalling and gene expression. A low level of ROS is important for maintaining quiescence and the differentiation potential of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), whereas the level of ROS increases during haematopoietic differentiation; thus, suggesting the importance of redox signalling in haematopoiesis. Here, we will analyse the importance of ROS for haematopoiesis and include evidence showing that cells from leukaemia patients live under oxidative stress. The potential sources of ROS will be described. Finally, the level of oxidative stress in leukaemic cells can also be harnessed for therapeutic purposes. In this regard, the reliance of front-line anti-leukaemia chemotherapeutics on increased levels of ROS for their mechanism of action, as well as the active search for novel compounds that modulate the redox state of leukaemic cells, will be analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Prieto-Bermejo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Lab. 122, Edificio Departamental, Plaza Doctores de la Reina s/n, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,IBSAL (Instituto de investigación Biomédica de Salamanca), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Marta Romo-González
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Lab. 122, Edificio Departamental, Plaza Doctores de la Reina s/n, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,IBSAL (Instituto de investigación Biomédica de Salamanca), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Alejandro Pérez-Fernández
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Lab. 122, Edificio Departamental, Plaza Doctores de la Reina s/n, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,IBSAL (Instituto de investigación Biomédica de Salamanca), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Carla Ijurko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Lab. 122, Edificio Departamental, Plaza Doctores de la Reina s/n, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.,IBSAL (Instituto de investigación Biomédica de Salamanca), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Ángel Hernández-Hernández
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Salamanca, Lab. 122, Edificio Departamental, Plaza Doctores de la Reina s/n, 37007, Salamanca, Spain. .,IBSAL (Instituto de investigación Biomédica de Salamanca), Salamanca, Spain.
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54
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Shen R, Liu P, Zhang Y, Yu Z, Chen X, Zhou L, Nie B, Żaczek A, Chen J, Liu J. Sensitive Detection of Single-Cell Secreted H2O2 by Integrating a Microfluidic Droplet Sensor and Au Nanoclusters. Anal Chem 2018; 90:4478-4484. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Shen
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Peipei Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Yiqiu Zhang
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Zhao Yu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Xuyue Chen
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Lu Zhou
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Baoqing Nie
- School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Anna Żaczek
- Medical Biotechnology Department, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdańsk and Medical University of Gdańsk, Dębinki 1, Gdańsk, 80-211, Poland
| | - Jian Chen
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Jian Liu
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Ren Ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
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55
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Moloney JN, Jayavelu AK, Stanicka J, Roche SL, O'Brien RL, Scholl S, Böhmer FD, Cotter TG. Nuclear membrane-localised NOX4D generates pro-survival ROS in FLT3-ITD-expressing AML. Oncotarget 2017; 8:105440-105457. [PMID: 29285262 PMCID: PMC5739649 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Internal tandem duplication of the juxtamembrane domain of FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3-ITD) is the most prevalent genetic aberration present in 20-30% of acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cases and is associated with a poor prognosis. FLT3-ITD expressing cells express elevated levels of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4)-generated pro-survival hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contributing to increased levels of DNA oxidation and double strand breaks. NOX4 is constitutively active and has been found to have various isoforms expressed at multiple locations within a cell. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression, localisation and regulation of NOX4 28 kDa splice variant, NOX4D. NOX4D has previously been shown to localise to the nucleus and nucleolus in various cell types and is implicated in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage. Here, we demonstrate that FLT3-ITD expressing-AML patient samples as well as -cell lines express the NOX4D isoform resulting in elevated H2O2 levels compared to FLT3-WT expressing cells, as quantified by flow cytometry. Cell fractionation indicated that NOX4D is nuclear membrane-localised in FLT3-ITD expressing cells. Treatment of MV4-11 cells with receptor trafficking inhibitors, tunicamycin and brefeldin A, resulted in deglycosylation of NOX4 and NOX4D. Inhibition of the FLT3 receptor revealed that the FLT3-ITD oncogene is responsible for the production of NOX4D-generated H2O2 in AML. We found that inhibition of the PI3K/AKT and STAT5 pathways resulted in down-regulation of NOX4D-generated pro-survival ROS. Taken together these findings indicate that nuclear membrane-localised NOX4D-generated pro-survival H2O2 may be contributing to genetic instability in FLT3-ITD expressing AML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N Moloney
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Ashok Kumar Jayavelu
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, CMB, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Current address: Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Joanna Stanicka
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Sarah L Roche
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Rebecca L O'Brien
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Sebastian Scholl
- Department of Haematology/Oncology, Clinic for Internal Medicine II, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Frank-D Böhmer
- Institute of Molecular Cell Biology, CMB, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas G Cotter
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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56
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Di Marcantonio D, Martinez E, Sidoli S, Vadaketh J, Nieborowska-Skorska M, Gupta A, Meadows JM, Ferraro F, Masselli E, Challen GA, Milsom MD, Scholl C, Fröhling S, Balachandran S, Skorski T, Garcia BA, Mirandola P, Gobbi G, Garzon R, Vitale M, Sykes SM. Protein Kinase C Epsilon Is a Key Regulator of Mitochondrial Redox Homeostasis in Acute Myeloid Leukemia. Clin Cancer Res 2017; 24:608-618. [PMID: 29127121 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-17-2684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: The intracellular redox environment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells is often highly oxidized compared to healthy hematopoietic progenitors and this is purported to contribute to disease pathogenesis. However, the redox regulators that allow AML cell survival in this oxidized environment remain largely unknown.Experimental Design: Utilizing several chemical and genetically-encoded redox sensing probes across multiple human and mouse models of AML, we evaluated the role of the serine/threonine kinase PKC-epsilon (PKCε) in intracellular redox biology, cell survival and disease progression.Results: We show that RNA interference-mediated inhibition of PKCε significantly reduces patient-derived AML cell survival as well as disease onset in a genetically engineered mouse model (GEMM) of AML driven by MLL-AF9. We also show that PKCε inhibition induces multiple reactive oxygen species (ROS) and that neutralization of mitochondrial ROS with chemical antioxidants or co-expression of the mitochondrial ROS-buffering enzymes SOD2 and CAT, mitigates the anti-leukemia effects of PKCε inhibition. Moreover, direct inhibition of SOD2 increases mitochondrial ROS and significantly impedes AML progression in vivo Furthermore, we report that PKCε over-expression protects AML cells from otherwise-lethal doses of mitochondrial ROS-inducing agents. Proteomic analysis reveals that PKCε may control mitochondrial ROS by controlling the expression of regulatory proteins of redox homeostasis, electron transport chain flux, as well as outer mitochondrial membrane potential and transport.Conclusions: This study uncovers a previously unrecognized role for PKCε in supporting AML cell survival and disease progression by regulating mitochondrial ROS biology and positions mitochondrial redox regulators as potential therapeutic targets in AML. Clin Cancer Res; 24(3); 608-18. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Simone Sidoli
- Penn Epigenetics Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jessica Vadaketh
- Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Immersion Science Program, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Margaret Nieborowska-Skorska
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Fels Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Anushk Gupta
- Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Immersion Science Program, Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | | | - Elena Masselli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Grant A Challen
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, Missouri
| | - Michael D Milsom
- Division of Experimental Hematology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Germany.,Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Scholl
- Department of Translational Oncology, NCT Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Fröhling
- Department of Translational Oncology, NCT Heidelberg, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Tomasz Skorski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Fels Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Benjamin A Garcia
- Penn Epigenetics Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Prisco Mirandola
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Giuliana Gobbi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Ramiro Garzon
- Division of Hematology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Marco Vitale
- Department of Medicine and Surgery (DiMeC), University of Parma, Parma, Italy.,CoreLab, Parma University Hospital, Parma, Italy
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57
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Imipramine blue sensitively and selectively targets FLT3-ITD positive acute myeloid leukemia cells. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4447. [PMID: 28667329 PMCID: PMC5493614 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04796-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant cytokine signaling initiated from mutant receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) provides critical growth and survival signals in high risk acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Inhibitors to FLT3 have already been tested in clinical trials, however, drug resistance limits clinical efficacy. Mutant receptor tyrosine kinases are mislocalized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of AML and play an important role in the non-canonical activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5). Here, we have tested a potent new drug called imipramine blue (IB), which is a chimeric molecule with a dual mechanism of action. At 200–300 nM concentrations, IB is a potent inhibitor of STAT5 through liberation of endogenous phosphatase activity following NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibition. However, at 75–150 nM concentrations, IB was highly effective at killing mutant FLT3-driven AML cells through a similar mechanism as thapsigargin (TG), involving increased cytosolic calcium. IB also potently inhibited survival of primary human FLT3/ITD+ AML cells compared to FLT3/ITDneg cells and spared normal umbilical cord blood cells. Therefore, IB functions through a mechanism involving vulnerability to dysregulated calcium metabolism and the combination of fusing a lipophilic amine to a NOX inhibiting dye shows promise for further pre-clinical development for targeting high risk AML.
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58
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Moloney JN, Cotter TG. ROS signalling in the biology of cancer. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 80:50-64. [PMID: 28587975 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1144] [Impact Index Per Article: 163.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production has been detected in various cancers and has been shown to have several roles, for example, they can activate pro-tumourigenic signalling, enhance cell survival and proliferation, and drive DNA damage and genetic instability. Counterintuitively ROS can also promote anti-tumourigenic signalling, initiating oxidative stress-induced tumour cell death. Tumour cells express elevated levels of antioxidant proteins to detoxify elevated ROS levels, establish a redox balance, while maintaining pro-tumourigenic signalling and resistance to apoptosis. Tumour cells have an altered redox balance to that of their normal counterparts and this identifies ROS manipulation as a potential target for cancer therapies. This review discusses the generation and sources of ROS within tumour cells, the regulation of ROS by antioxidant defence systems, as well as the effect of elevated ROS production on their signalling targets in cancer. It also provides an insight into how pro- and anti-tumourigenic ROS signalling pathways could be manipulated in the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N Moloney
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Thomas G Cotter
- Tumour Biology Laboratory, School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Bioscience Research Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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59
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Teixeira G, Szyndralewiez C, Molango S, Carnesecchi S, Heitz F, Wiesel P, Wood JM. Therapeutic potential of NADPH oxidase 1/4 inhibitors. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:1647-1669. [PMID: 27273790 PMCID: PMC5446584 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The NADPH oxidase (NOX) family of enzymes produces ROS as their sole function and is becoming recognized as key modulators of signal transduction pathways with a physiological role under acute stress and a pathological role after excessive activation under chronic stress. The seven isoforms differ in their regulation, tissue and subcellular localization and ROS products. The most studied are NOX1, 2 and 4. Genetic deletion of NOX1 and 4, in contrast to NOX2, has revealed no significant spontaneous pathologies and a pathogenic relevance of both NOX1 and 4 across multiple organs in a wide range of diseases and in particular inflammatory and fibrotic diseases. This has stimulated interest in NOX inhibitors for therapeutic application. GKT136901 and GKT137831 are two structurally related compounds demonstrating a preferential inhibition of NOX1 and 4 that have suitable properties for in vivo studies and have consequently been evaluated across a range of disease models and compared with gene deletion. In contrast to gene deletion, these inhibitors do not completely suppress ROS production, maintaining some basal level of ROS. Despite this and consistent with most gene deletion studies, these inhibitors are well tolerated and slow or prevent disease progression in a range of models of chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases by modulating common signal transduction pathways. Clinical trials in patients with GKT137831 have demonstrated excellent tolerability and reduction of various markers of chronic inflammation. NOX1/4 inhibition may provide a safe and effective therapeutic strategy for a range of inflammatory and fibrotic diseases. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Redox Biology and Oxidative Stress in Health and Disease. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.12/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Teixeira
- Evotec International GmbHGoettingenGermany
| | | | - S Molango
- Genkyotex SAPlan les OuatesSwitzerland
| | | | - F Heitz
- Genkyotex SAPlan les OuatesSwitzerland
| | - P Wiesel
- Genkyotex SAPlan les OuatesSwitzerland
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60
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Lagunas-Rangel FA, Chávez-Valencia V. FLT3–ITD and its current role in acute myeloid leukaemia. Med Oncol 2017; 34:114. [DOI: 10.1007/s12032-017-0970-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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61
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Rebechi MT, Pratz KW. Genomic instability is a principle pathologic feature of FLT3 ITD kinase activity in acute myeloid leukemia leading to clonal evolution and disease progression. Leuk Lymphoma 2017; 58:1-11. [PMID: 28278729 DOI: 10.1080/10428194.2017.1283031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Acute Myeloid Leukemia with FLT3 ITD mutations are associated with a poor prognosis characterized by a higher relapse rate, shorter relapse free survival, and decreased likelihood of response to therapy at relapse. FLT3 ITD signaling drives cell proliferation and survival. FLT3 ITD AML disease progression is associated with cytogenetic evolution and acquired tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) resistance suggesting a potential role of genomic instability. There is growing evidence demonstrating a relationship between FLT3 signaling and increased DNA damage, specifically through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in double-strand breaks (DSB), as well as impaired DNA repair, involving deficiencies in the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), alternative non-homologous end joining (ALT NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) pathways. The role of genomic instability in the pathogenesis of FLT3 ITD AML warrants further examination as it offers potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie T Rebechi
- a Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Keith W Pratz
- a Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
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62
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Hospital MA, Green AS, Maciel TT, Moura IC, Leung AY, Bouscary D, Tamburini J. FLT3 inhibitors: clinical potential in acute myeloid leukemia. Onco Targets Ther 2017; 10:607-615. [PMID: 28223820 PMCID: PMC5304990 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s103790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an aggressive hematopoietic malignancy that is cured in as few as 15%–40% of cases. Tremendous improvements in AML prognostication arose from a comprehensive analysis of leukemia cell genomes. Among normal karyotype AML cases, mutations in the FLT3 gene are the ones most commonly detected as having a deleterious prognostic impact. FLT3 is a transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptor, and alterations of the FLT3 gene such as internal tandem duplications (FLT3-ITD) deregulate FLT3 downstream signaling pathways in favor of increased cell proliferation and survival. FLT3 tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) emerged as a new therapeutic option in FLT3-ITD AML, and clinical trials are ongoing with a variety of TKI either alone, combined with chemotherapy, or even as maintenance after allogenic stem cell transplantation. However, a wide range of molecular resistance mechanisms are activated upon TKI therapy, thus limiting their clinical impact. Massive research efforts are now ongoing to develop more efficient FLT3 TKI and/or new therapies targeting these resistance mechanisms to improve the prognosis of FLT3-ITD AML patients in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Anne Hospital
- Département Développement, Reproduction, Cancer, Institut Cochin, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1016; Faculté de Médecine Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Descartes; Equipe Labellisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (LNCC)
| | - Alexa S Green
- Département Développement, Reproduction, Cancer, Institut Cochin, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1016; Faculté de Médecine Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Descartes; Equipe Labellisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (LNCC)
| | - Thiago T Maciel
- INSERM UMR 1163, Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Hematological Disorders and Therapeutic Implications; Paris Descartes - Sorbonne Paris Cité University; CNRS ERL 8254, Imagine Institute; Laboratory of Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
| | - Ivan C Moura
- INSERM UMR 1163, Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Hematological Disorders and Therapeutic Implications; Paris Descartes - Sorbonne Paris Cité University; CNRS ERL 8254, Imagine Institute; Laboratory of Excellence GR-Ex, Paris, France
| | - Anskar Y Leung
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Didier Bouscary
- Département Développement, Reproduction, Cancer, Institut Cochin, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1016; Faculté de Médecine Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Descartes; Equipe Labellisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (LNCC)
| | - Jerome Tamburini
- Département Développement, Reproduction, Cancer, Institut Cochin, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1016; Faculté de Médecine Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Descartes; Equipe Labellisée Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (LNCC)
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63
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Subcellular localization of the FLT3-ITD oncogene plays a significant role in the production of NOX- and p22phox-derived reactive oxygen species in acute myeloid leukemia. Leuk Res 2017; 52:34-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Revised: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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64
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Tong Q, Zhu Y, Galaske JW, Kosmacek EA, Chatterjee A, Dickinson BC, Oberley-Deegan RE. MnTE-2-PyP modulates thiol oxidation in a hydrogen peroxide-mediated manner in a human prostate cancer cell. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 101:32-43. [PMID: 27671770 PMCID: PMC5486925 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
To improve the treatment of advanced prostate cancer, the development of effective and innovative antitumor agents is needed. Our previous work demonstrated that the ROS (reactive oxygen species) scavenger, MnTE-2-PyP, inhibited human prostate cancer growth and also inhibited prostate cancer migration and invasion. We showed that MnTE-2-PyP treatment altered the affinity of the histone acetyltransferase enzyme, p300, to bind to DNA. We speculate that this may be one mechanism by which MnTE-2-PyP inhibits prostate cancer progression. Specifically, MnTE-2-PyP decreased p300/HIF-1/CREB complex (p300/hypoxia-inducible factor-1/cAMP response element-binding protein) binding to a specific hypoxia-response element (HRE) motif within the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) gene promoter region, and consequently, repressed PAI-1 expression. However, it remains unclear how MnTE-2-PyP reduces p300 complex binding affinity to the promoter region of specific genes. In this study, we found that overexpression of Cu/ZnSOD (superoxide dismutase 1, SOD1) significantly suppressed PAI-1 gene expression and p300 complex binding to the promoter region of PAI-1 gene, just as was observed in cells treated with MnTE-2-PyP. Furthermore, catalase (CAT) overexpression rescued the inhibition of PAI-1 expression and p300 binding by MnTE-2-PyP. Taken together, the above findings suggest that hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is likely the mediator through which MnTE-2-PyP inhibits the PAI-1 expression and p300 complex binding in PC3 cells. To confirm this, we measured the production of H2O2 following overexpression of SOD1 or catalase with MnTE-2-PyP treatment in the presence or absence of radiation. We found that MnTE-2-PyP increased the intracellular steady-state levels of H2O2 and increased nuclear H2O2 levels. As expected, catalase overexpression significantly decreased the levels of intracellular H2O2 induced by MnTE-2-PyP. We then determined if this increased H2O2 production could result in oxidized protein thiol groups. In the presence of MnTE-2-PyP, there was a significant increase in oxidized thiols in PC3 cell lysates and this was reversed with catalase overexpression. Specifically, we showed that p300 was oxidized after MnTE-2-PyP treatment, indicating that MnTE-2-PyP is creating a more oxidizing environment and this is altering the oxidation state of p300 thiol residues. Our data provide an in depth mechanism by which MnTE-2-PyP regulates gene transcription through induced H2O2 mediated oxidation of particular proteins, supporting an important role for MnTE-2-PyP as an effective and innovative antitumor agent to enhance treatment outcomes in prostate cancer radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Tong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA; Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
| | - Yuxiang Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Joseph W Galaske
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kosmacek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Arpita Chatterjee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
| | - Bryan C Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Rebecca E Oberley-Deegan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA.
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65
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NOX-driven ROS formation in cell transformation of FLT3-ITD-positive AML. Exp Hematol 2016; 44:1113-1122. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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66
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Khan N, Hills RK, Knapper S, Steadman L, Qureshi U, Rector JL, Bradbury C, Russell NH, Vyas P, Burnett AK, Grimwade D, Hole PS, Freeman SD. Normal Hematopoietic Progenitor Subsets Have Distinct Reactive Oxygen Species, BCL2 and Cell-Cycle Profiles That Are Decoupled from Maturation in Acute Myeloid Leukemia. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0163291. [PMID: 27669008 PMCID: PMC5036879 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0163291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In acute myeloid leukemia (AML) quiescence and low oxidative state, linked to BCL2 mitochondrial regulation, endow leukemic stem cells (LSC) with treatment-resistance. LSC in CD34+ and more mature CD34- AML have heterogeneous immunophenotypes overlapping with normal stem/progenitor cells (SPC) but may be differentiated by functional markers. We therefore investigated the oxidative/reactive oxygen species (ROS) profile, its relationship with cell-cycle/BCL2 for normal SPC, and whether altered in AML and myelodysplasia (MDS). In control BM (n = 24), ROS levels were highest in granulocyte-macrophage progenitors (GMP) and CD34- myeloid precursors but megakaryocyte-erythroid progenitors had equivalent levels to CD34+CD38low immature-SPC although they were ki67high. BCL2 upregulation was specific to GMPs. This profile was also observed for CD34+SPC in MDS-without-excess-blasts (MDS-noEB, n = 12). Erythroid CD34- precursors were, however, abnormally ROS-high in MDS-noEB, potentially linking oxidative stress to cell loss. In pre-treatment AML (n = 93) and MDS-with-excess-blasts (MDS-RAEB) (n = 14), immunophenotypic mature-SPC had similar ROS levels to co-existing immature-SPC. However ROS levels varied between AMLs; Flt3ITD+/NPM1wild-type CD34+SPC had higher ROS than NPM1mutated CD34+ or CD34- SPC. An aberrant ki67lowBCL2high immunophenotype was observed in CD34+AML (most prominent in Flt3ITD AMLs) but also in CD34- AMLs and MDS-RAEB, suggesting a shared redox/pro-survival adaptation. Some patients had BCL2 overexpression in CD34+ ROS-high as well as ROS-low fractions which may be indicative of poor early response to standard chemotherapy. Thus normal SPC subsets have distinct ROS, cell-cycle, BCL2 profiles that in AML /MDS-RAEB are decoupled from maturation. The combined profile of these functional properties in AML subpopulations may be relevant to differential treatment resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeem Khan
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Robert K. Hills
- Department of Haematology, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Steve Knapper
- Department of Haematology, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Lora Steadman
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ushna Qureshi
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Jerrald L. Rector
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte Bradbury
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Nigel H. Russell
- Centre for Clinical Haematology, Nottingham University Hospital NHS Trust, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Paresh Vyas
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alan K. Burnett
- Department of Haematology, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - David Grimwade
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King’s College London School of Medicine, Guy’s & St. Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul S. Hole
- Department of Haematology, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Sylvie D. Freeman
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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67
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Pikman Y, Puissant A, Alexe G, Furman A, Chen LM, Frumm SM, Ross L, Fenouille N, Bassil CF, Lewis CA, Ramos A, Gould J, Stone RM, DeAngelo DJ, Galinsky I, Clish CB, Kung AL, Hemann MT, Vander Heiden MG, Banerji V, Stegmaier K. Targeting MTHFD2 in acute myeloid leukemia. J Exp Med 2016; 213:1285-306. [PMID: 27325891 PMCID: PMC4925018 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20151574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs targeting metabolism have formed the backbone of therapy for some cancers. We sought to identify new such targets in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The one-carbon folate pathway, specifically methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase-cyclohydrolase 2 (MTHFD2), emerged as a top candidate in our analyses. MTHFD2 is the most differentially expressed metabolic enzyme in cancer versus normal cells. Knockdown of MTHFD2 in AML cells decreased growth, induced differentiation, and impaired colony formation in primary AML blasts. In human xenograft and MLL-AF9 mouse leukemia models, MTHFD2 suppression decreased leukemia burden and prolonged survival. Based upon primary patient AML data and functional genomic screening, we determined that FLT3-ITD is a biomarker of response to MTHFD2 suppression. Mechanistically, MYC regulates the expression of MTHFD2, and MTHFD2 knockdown suppresses the TCA cycle. This study supports the therapeutic targeting of MTHFD2 in AML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana Pikman
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Alexandre Puissant
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Medicale U1065, Team 2, C3M, 06204 Nice, France
| | - Gabriela Alexe
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215 Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142 Bioinformatics Graduate Program, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Andrew Furman
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Liying M Chen
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Stacey M Frumm
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Linda Ross
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Nina Fenouille
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Christopher F Bassil
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Caroline A Lewis
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Azucena Ramos
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Joshua Gould
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Richard M Stone
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Daniel J DeAngelo
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Ilene Galinsky
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215
| | - Clary B Clish
- Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Andrew L Kung
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032
| | - Michael T Hemann
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Matthew G Vander Heiden
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142 Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Versha Banerji
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215 Research Institute of Oncology and Hematology at CancerCare Manitoba and the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E OV9, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Kimberly Stegmaier
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215 Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215 Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02142
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Oxidative stress and hypoxia in normal and leukemic stem cells. Exp Hematol 2016; 44:540-60. [PMID: 27179622 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The main hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) functions, self-renewal and differentiation, are finely regulated by both intrinsic mechanisms such as transcriptional and epigenetic regulators and extrinsic signals originating in the bone marrow microenvironment (HSC niche) or in the body (humoral mediators). The interaction between regulatory signals and cellular metabolism is an emerging area. Several metabolic pathways function differently in HSCs compared with progenitors and differentiated cells. Hypoxia, acting through hypoxia-inducing factors, has emerged as a key regulator of stem cell biology and acts by maintaining HSC quiescence and a condition of metabolic dormancy based on anaerobic glycolytic energetic metabolism, with consequent low production reactive oxygen species (ROS) and high antioxidant defense. Hematopoietic cell differentiation is accompanied by changes in oxidative metabolism (decrease of anaerobic glycolysis and increase of oxidative phosphorylation) and increased levels of ROS. Leukemic stem cells, defined as the cells that initiate and maintain the leukemic process, show peculiar metabolic properties in that they are more dependent on oxidative respiration than on glycolysis and are more sensitive to oxidative stress than normal HSCs. Several mitochondrial abnormalities have been described in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells, explaining the shift to aerobic glycolysis observed in these cells and offering the unique opportunity for therapeutic metabolic targeting. Finally, frequent mutations of the mitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase-2 (IDH2) enzyme are observed in AML cells, in which the mutated enzyme acts as an oncogenic driver and can be targeted using specific inhibitors under clinical evaluation with promising results.
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