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Di Fino A, Petrone L, Aldred N, Ederth T, Liedberg B, Clare AS. Correlation between surface chemistry and settlement behaviour in barnacle cyprids (Balanus improvisus). BIOFOULING 2014; 30:143-152. [PMID: 24313326 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2013.852541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In laboratory-based biofouling assays, the influence of physico-chemical surface characteristics on barnacle settlement has been tested most frequently using the model organism Balanus amphitrite (= Amphibalanus amphitrite). Very few studies have addressed the settlement preferences of other barnacle species, such as Balanus improvisus (= Amphibalanus improvisus). This study aimed to unravel the effects of surface physico-chemical cues, in particular surface-free energy (SFE) and surface charge, on the settlement of cyprids of B. improvisus. The use of well-defined surfaces under controlled conditions further facilitates comparison of the results with recent similar data for B. amphitrite. Zero-day-old cyprids of B. improvisus were exposed to a series of model surfaces, namely self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of alkanethiols with varying end-groups, homogenously applied to gold-coated polystyrene (PS) Petri dishes. As with B. amphitrite, settlement of cyprids of B. improvisus was influenced by both SFE and charge, with higher settlement on low-energy (hydrophobic) surfaces and negatively charged SAMs. Positively charged SAMs resulted in low settlement, with intermediate settlement on neutral SAMs of similar SFE. In conclusion, it is demonstrated that despite previous suggestions to the contrary, these two species of barnacle show similar preferences in response to SFE; they also respond similarly to charge. These findings have positive implications for the development of novel antifouling (AF) coatings and support the importance of consistency in substratum choice for assays designed to compare surface preferences of fouling organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Di Fino
- a School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
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52
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Stolzer L, Ahmed I, Rodriguez-Emmenegger C, Trouillet V, Bockstaller P, Barner-Kowollik C, Fruk L. Light-induced modification of silver nanoparticles with functional polymers. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:4430-3. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc00960f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Light coating: Ag–polymer core–shell nanoparticles were prepared using photoenol-based light-induced ligation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Stolzer
- Center for Functional Nanostructures
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
- Preparative Macromolecular Chemistry
- Institut für Technische Chemie und Polymerchemie
| | - Ishtiaq Ahmed
- Center for Functional Nanostructures
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Cesar Rodriguez-Emmenegger
- Preparative Macromolecular Chemistry
- Institut für Technische Chemie und Polymerchemie
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany
- Institut für Biologische Grenzflächen
| | - Vanessa Trouillet
- Institute for Applied Materials (IAM-ESS) and Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF)
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Pascal Bockstaller
- Center for Functional Nanostructures
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christopher Barner-Kowollik
- Center for Functional Nanostructures
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
- Preparative Macromolecular Chemistry
- Institut für Technische Chemie und Polymerchemie
| | - Ljiljana Fruk
- Center for Functional Nanostructures
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)
- 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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53
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Gittens JE, Smith TJ, Suleiman R, Akid R. Current and emerging environmentally-friendly systems for fouling control in the marine environment. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 31:1738-53. [PMID: 24051087 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Revised: 09/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Following the ban in 2003 on the use of tributyl-tin compounds in antifouling coatings, the search for an environmentally-friendly alternative has accelerated. Biocidal TBT alternatives, such as diuron and Irgarol 1051®, have proved to be environmentally damaging to marine organisms. The issue regarding the use of biocides is that concerning the half-life of the compounds which allow a perpetuation of the toxic effects into the marine food chain, and initiate changes in the early stages of the organisms' life-cycle. In addition, the break-down of biocides can result in metabolites with greater toxicity and longevity than the parent compound. Functionalized coatings have been designed to repel the settlement and permanent attachment of fouling organisms via modification of either or both surface topography and surface chemistry, or by interfering with the natural mechanisms via which fouling organisms settle upon and adhere to surfaces. A large number of technologies are being developed towards producing new coatings that will be able to resist biofouling over a period of years and thus truly replace biocides as antifouling systems. In addition urgent research is directed towards the exploitation of mechanisms used by living organisms designed to repel the settlement of fouling organisms. These biomimetic strategies include the production of antifouling enzymes and novel surface topography that are incompatible with permanent attachment, for example, by mimicking the microstructure of shark skin. Other research seeks to exploit chemical signals and antimicrobial agents produced by diverse living organisms in the environment to prevent settlement and growth of fouling organisms on vulnerable surfaces. Novel polymer-based technologies may prevent fouling by means of unfavourable surface chemical and physical properties or by concentrating antifouling compounds around surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette E Gittens
- Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Howard Street, Sheffield, S1 1WB, UK
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54
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Quintana R, Gosa M, Jańczewski D, Kutnyanszky E, Vancso GJ. Enhanced stability of low fouling zwitterionic polymer brushes in seawater with diblock architecture. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:10859-67. [PMID: 23876125 DOI: 10.1021/la402287a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The successful implementation of zwitterionic polymeric brushes as antifouling materials for marine applications is conditioned by the stability of the polymer chain and the brush-anchoring segment in seawater. Here we demonstrate that robust, antifouling, hydrophilic polysulfobetaine-based brushes with diblock architecture can be fabricated by atom-transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using initiator-modified surfaces. Sequential living-type polymerization of hydrophobic styrene or methyl methacrylate and commercially available hydrophilic sulfobetaine methacrylamide (SBMAm) monomer is employed. Stability enhancement is accomplished by protecting the siloxane anchoring bond of brushes on the substrate, grafted from silicon oxide surfaces. The degradation of unprotected PSBMAm brushes is clearly evident after a 3 month immersion challenge in sterilized artificial seawater. Ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements are used to follow changes in coating thickness and surface morphology. Comparative stability results indicate that surface-tethered poly(methyl methacrylate) and polystyrene hydrophobic blocks substantially improve the stability of zwitterionic brushes in an artificial marine environment. In addition, differences between the hydration of zwitterionic brushes in fresh and salt water are discussed to provide a better understanding of hydration and degradation processes with the benefit of improved design of polyzwitterionic coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Quintana
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering (IMRE), A*STAR, 3 Research Link, Singapore 117602
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55
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Petrone L. Molecular surface chemistry in marine bioadhesion. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 195-196:1-18. [PMID: 23623000 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2013.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 03/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
This review covers the in situ molecular physicochemical characterisation of bioadhesives at solid/liquid interfaces, with the aim of elucidating the adhesion strategies that lie at the root of marine biofouling. It focuses on three major foulers: mussels, algae and barnacles. The dispersal of these organisms, their colonisation of surfaces, and ultimately their survival rely critically on the ability of the organisms' larvae or spores to locate a favourable settlement site and undergo metamorphosis, thus initiating their sessile existence. Differences in the composition of adhesive secretions and the strategies employed for their temporary or permanent implementation exists between the larval and adult life stages. To date, only a few adhesive secretions from marine fouling organisms have been adequately described in terms of their chemical composition, and a survey revealed the presence of certain recurrent functional groups, specifically catechol, carboxylate, monoester-sulphate and -phosphate. This review will describe the binding modes of such functionalities to wet mineral/metal oxides surfaces. Such functionalities will be ranked based on their ability to bind to hydrophilic surfaces replacing surface-bound water (Langmuir adsorption constant) as well as other adsorbates (competitive adsorption). A plausible explanation for the propensity of the reviewed adhesive functionalities to bind to hydrous metal oxide surfaces will be given on the basis of the Hard and Soft Acids and Bases principle, Hofmeister effects and entropic considerations. From the in situ analysis of marine organism bioadhesives and adsorption studies of functionalities relevant to the bioadhesion process, insights can be gleaned for a knowledge-based innovation of antifouling strategies and the synthesis of strong, durable adhesive materials, which are suitable for implementation in wet environments.
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56
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57
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Schön P, Kutnyanszky E, ten Donkelaar B, Santonicola MG, Tecim T, Aldred N, Clare AS, Vancso GJ. Probing biofouling resistant polymer brush surfaces by atomic force microscopy based force spectroscopy. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2013; 102:923-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 09/07/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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58
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Finlay JA, Schultz MP, Cone G, Callow ME, Callow JA. A novel biofilm channel for evaluating the adhesion of diatoms to non-biocidal coatings. BIOFOULING 2013; 29:401-411. [PMID: 23574353 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2013.777046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Laboratory assessment of the adhesion of diatoms to non-toxic fouling-release coatings has tended to focus on single cells rather than the more complex state of a biofilm. A novel culture system based on open channel flow with adjustable bed shear stress values (0-2.4 Pa) has been used to produce biofilms of Navicula incerta. Biofilm development on glass and polydimethylsiloxane elastomer (PDMSe) showed a biphasic relationship with bed shear stress, which was characterised by regions of biofilm stability and instability reflecting cohesion between cells relative to the adhesion to the substratum. On glass, a critical shear stress of 1.3-1.4 Pa prevented biofilm development, whereas on PDMS, biofilms continued to grow at 2.4 Pa. Studies of diatom biofilms cultured on zwitterionic coatings using a bed shear stress of 0.54 Pa showed lower biomass production and adhesion strength on poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) compared to poly(carboxybetaine methacrylate). The dynamic biofilm approach provides additional information to supplement short duration laboratory evaluations.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Finlay
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
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59
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Maleschlijski S, Sendra GH, Di Fino A, Leal-Taixé L, Thome I, Terfort A, Aldred N, Grunze M, Clare AS, Rosenhahn B, Rosenhahn A. Three dimensional tracking of exploratory behavior of barnacle cyprids using stereoscopy. Biointerphases 2012; 7:50. [PMID: 22907265 PMCID: PMC4875145 DOI: 10.1007/s13758-012-0050-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Surface exploration is a key step in the colonization of surfaces by sessile marine biofoulers. As many biofouling organisms can delay settlement until a suitable surface is encountered, colonization can comprise surface exploration and intermittent swimming. As such, the process is best followed in three dimensions. Here we present a low-cost transportable stereoscopic system consisting of two consumer camcorders. We apply this novel apparatus to behavioral analysis of barnacle larvae (≈800 μm length) during surface exploration and extract and analyze the three-dimensional patterns of movement. The resolution of the system and the accuracy of position determination are characterized. As a first practical result, three-dimensional swimming trajectories of the cypris larva of the barnacle Semibalanus balanoides are recorded in the vicinity of a glass surface and close to PEG2000-OH and C(11)NMe(3)(+)Cl(-) terminated self-assembled monolayers. Although less frequently used in biofouling experiments due to its short reproductive season, the selected model species [Marechal and Hellio (2011), Int Biodeterior Biodegrad, 65(1):92-101] has been used following a number of recent investigations on the settlement behavior on chemically different surfaces [Aldred et al. (2011), ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 3(6):2085-2091]. Experiments were scheduled to match the availability of cyprids off the north east coast of England so that natural material could be used. In order to demonstrate the biological applicability of the system, analysis of parameters such as swimming direction, swimming velocity and swimming angle are performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Maleschlijski
- Institute of Functional Interfaces, KIT, Karlsruhe, Germany.
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60
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Ma C, Yang H, Zhou X, Wu B, Zhang G. Polymeric material for anti-biofouling. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2012; 100:31-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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61
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Surface Sensing and Settlement Strategies of Marine Biofouling Organisms. Biointerphases 2012; 7:63. [DOI: 10.1007/s13758-012-0063-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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62
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Fyrner T, Lee HH, Mangone A, Ekblad T, Pettitt ME, Callow ME, Callow JA, Conlan SL, Mutton R, Clare AS, Konradsson P, Liedberg B, Ederth T. Saccharide-functionalized alkanethiols for fouling-resistant self-assembled monolayers: synthesis, monolayer properties, and antifouling behavior. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:15034-15047. [PMID: 22053781 DOI: 10.1021/la202774e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
We describe the synthesis of a series of mono-, di-, and trisaccharide-functionalized alkanethiols as well as the formation of fouling-resistant self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) from these. The SAMs were characterized using ellipsometry, wetting measurements, and infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRAS). We show that the structure of the carbohydrate moiety affects the packing density and that this also alters the alkane chain organization. Upon increasing the size of the sugar moieties (from mono- to di- and trisaccharides), the structural qualities of the monolayers deteriorated with increasing disorder, and for the trisaccharide, slow reorganization dynamics in response to changes in the environmental polarity were observed. The antifouling properties of these SAMs were investigated through protein adsorption experiments from buffer solutions as well as settlement (attachment) tests using two common marine fouling species, zoospores of the green macroalga Ulva linza and cypris larvae of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite. The SAMs showed overall good resistance to fouling by both the proteins and the tested marine organisms. To improve the packing density of the SAMs with bulky headgroups, we employed mixed SAMs where the saccharide-thiols are diluted with a filler molecule having a small 2-hydroxyethyl headgroup. This method also provides a means by which the steric availability of sugar moieties can be varied, which is of interest for specific interaction studies with surface-bound sugars. The results of the surface dilution study and the low nonspecific adsorption onto the SAMs both indicate the feasibility of this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timmy Fyrner
- Division of Chemistry, IFM, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
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63
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Dimitriou MD, Zhou Z, Yoo HS, Killops KL, Finlay JA, Cone G, Sundaram HS, Lynd NA, Barteau KP, Campos LM, Fischer DA, Callow ME, Callow JA, Ober CK, Hawker CJ, Kramer EJ. A general approach to controlling the surface composition of poly(ethylene oxide)-based block copolymers for antifouling coatings. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:13762-13772. [PMID: 21888355 DOI: 10.1021/la202509m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
To control the surface properties of a polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene oxide) diblock copolymer, perfluorinated chemical moieties were specifically incorporated into the block copolymer backbone. A polystyrene-block-poly[(ethylene oxide)-stat-(allyl glycidyl ether)] [PS-b-P(EO-stat-AGE)] statistical diblock terpolymer was synthesized with varying incorporations of allyl glycidyl ether (AGE) in the poly(ethylene oxide) block from 0 to 17 mol %. The pendant alkenes of the AGE repeat units were subsequently functionalized by thiol-ene chemistry with 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctanethiol, yielding fluorocarbon-functionalized AGE (fAGE) repeat units. (1)H NMR spectroscopy and size-exclusion chromatography indicated well-defined structures with complete functionalization of the pendant alkenes. The surfaces of the polymer films were characterized after spray coating by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS), showing that the P(EO-stat-fAGE) block starts to compete with polystyrene to populate the surface after only 1 mol % incorporation of fAGE. Increasing the incorporation of fAGE led to an increased amount of perfluorocarbons on the surface and a decrease in the concentration of PS. At a fAGE incorporation of 8 mol %, PS was not detected at the surface, as measured by NEXAFS spectroscopy. Water contact angles measured by the captive-air-bubble technique showed the underwater surfaces to be dynamic, with advancing and receding contact angles varying by >20°. Protein adsorption studies demonstrated that the fluorinated surfaces effectively prevent nonspecific binding of proteins relative to an unmodified PS-b-PEO diblock copolymer. In biological systems, settlement of spores of the green macroalga Ulva was significantly lower for the fAGE-incorporated polymers compared to the unmodified diblock and a polydimethylsiloxane elastomer standard. Furthermore, the attachment strength of sporelings (young plants) of Ulva was also reduced for the fAGE-containing polymers, affirming their potential as fouling-release coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Dimitriou
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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64
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Petrone L, Di Fino A, Aldred N, Sukkaew P, Ederth T, Clare AS, Liedberg B. Effects of surface charge and Gibbs surface energy on the settlement behaviour of barnacle cyprids (Balanus amphitrite). BIOFOULING 2011; 27:1043-1055. [PMID: 22043823 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2011.625474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Gibbs surface energy has long been considered to be an important parameter in the design of fouling-resistant surfaces for marine applications. Rigorous testing of the hypothesis that settlement is related to Gibbs surface energy however has never been accomplished, due mainly to practical limitations imposed by the necessary combination of surface engineering and biological evaluation methods. In this article, the effects of surface charge and Gibbs surface energy on the settlement of cyprids of an important fouling barnacle, Balanus amphitrite, were evaluated. Settlement assays were conducted on a range of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) (CH(3)-, OH-, COOH-, N(CH(3))(3) (+)-, NH(2)-terminated), presented in gold-coated polystyrene well plates, varying in terms of their surface charge and Gibbs surface energy. Contrary to contemporary theory, settlement was not increased by high-energy surfaces, rather the opposite was found to be the case with cyprids settling in greater numbers on a low-energy CH(3)- SAM compared to a high-energy OH- SAM. Settlement was also greater on negatively-charged SAMs, compared to neutral and positively-charged SAMs. These findings are discussed in the context of data drawn from surfaces that varied in multiple characteristics simultaneously, as have been used previously for such experiments. The finding that surface charge, rather than total surface energy, may be responsible for surface selection by cyprids, will have significant implications for the design of future fouling-resistant materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Petrone
- Division of Molecular Physics, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University Linköping , SE-581 83, Sweden
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65
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Ederth T, Ekblad T, Pettitt ME, Conlan SL, Du CX, Callow ME, Callow JA, Mutton R, Clare AS, D'Souza F, Donnelly G, Bruin A, Willemsen PR, Su XJ, Wang S, Zhao Q, Hederos M, Konradsson P, Liedberg B. Resistance of galactoside-terminated alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers to marine fouling organisms. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2011; 3:3890-3901. [PMID: 21916438 DOI: 10.1021/am200726a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of galactoside-terminated alkanethiols have protein-resistance properties which can be tuned via the degree of methylation [Langmuir 2005, 21, 2971-2980]. Specifically, a partially methylated compound was more resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption than the hydroxylated or fully methylated counterparts. We investigate whether this also holds true for resistance to the attachment and adhesion of a range of marine species, in order to clarify to what extent resistance to protein adsorption correlates with the more complex adhesion of fouling organisms. The partially methylated galactoside-terminated SAM was further compared to a mixed monolayer of ω-substituted methyl- and hydroxyl-terminated alkanethiols with wetting properties and surface ratio of hydroxyl to methyl groups matching that of the galactoside. The settlement (initial attachment) and adhesion strength of four model marine fouling organisms were investigated, representing both micro- and macrofoulers; two bacteria (Cobetia marina and Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus), barnacle cypris larvae (Balanus amphitrite), and algal zoospores (Ulva linza). The minimum in protein adsorption onto the partially methylated galactoside surface was partly reproduced in the marine fouling assays, providing some support for a relationship between protein resistance and adhesion of marine fouling organisms. The mixed alkanethiol SAM, which was matched in wettability to the partially methylated galactoside SAM, consistently showed higher settlement (initial attachment) of test organisms than the galactoside, implying that both wettability and surface chemistry are insufficient to explain differences in fouling resistance. We suggest that differences in the structure of interfacial water may explain the variation in adhesion to these SAMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Ederth
- Division of Molecular Physics, IFM, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden.
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66
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Carl C, Poole AJ, Vucko MJ, Williams MR, Whalan S, de Nys R. Optimising settlement assays of pediveligers and plantigrades of Mytilus galloprovincialis. BIOFOULING 2011; 27:859-868. [PMID: 21827335 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2011.605943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis is a common aquaculture species, and also a major fouling organism that has negative economic impacts. There are no standard assay conditions for this important species and therefore, this study quantified the effect of key factors on the settlement of pediveligers and plantigrades. Density dependent settlement did not occur for either pediveligers or plantigrades. Settlement increased in drop assays in a 12 h light:12 h dark cycle, while bottom shade had no effect of any magnitude. In addition, settlement was significantly enhanced by storing pediveligers for between 4 and 24 days at 4 °C. Overall, these data provide the template to optimise and standardise static laboratory settlement assays for mussels in order to develop materials that either enhance settlement for the aquaculture industry, or deter settlement for antifouling applications. Furthermore, simple mechanisms such as storage at 4 °C can enhance settlement beyond current methods used in aquaculture hatcheries.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Carl
- School of Marine & Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.
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67
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Sundaram HS, Cho Y, Dimitriou MD, Finlay JA, Cone G, Williams S, Handlin D, Gatto J, Callow ME, Callow JA, Kramer EJ, Ober CK. Fluorinated amphiphilic polymers and their blends for fouling-release applications: the benefits of a triblock copolymer surface. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2011; 3:3366-3374. [PMID: 21830813 DOI: 10.1021/am200529u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Surface active triblock copolymers (SABC) with mixed polyethylene glycol (PEG) and two different semifluorinated alcohol side chains, one longer than the other, were blended with a soft thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polystyrene (SEBS). The surface composition of these blends was probed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectroscopy. The surface reconstruction of the coatings in water was monitored qualitatively by dynamic water contact angles in air as well as air bubble contact angle measurements in water. By blending the SABC with SEBS, we minimize the amount of the SABC used while achieving a surface that is not greatly different in composition from the pure SABC. The 15 wt % blends of the SABC with long fluoroalkyl side chains showed a composition close to that of the pure SABC while the SABC with shorter perfluoroakyl side chains did not. These differences in surface composition were reflected in the fouling-release performance of the blends for the algae, Ulva and Navicula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harihara S Sundaram
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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68
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Aldred N, Ekblad T, Andersson O, Liedberg B, Clare AS. Real-time quantification of microscale bioadhesion events in situ using imaging surface plasmon resonance (iSPR). ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2011; 3:2085-2091. [PMID: 21595456 DOI: 10.1021/am2003075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
From macro- to nanoscales, adhesion phenomena are all-pervasive in nature yet remain poorly understood. In recent years, studies of biological adhesion mechanisms, terrestrial and marine, have provided inspiration for "biomimetic" adhesion strategies and important insights for the development of fouling-resistant materials. Although the focus of most contemporary bioadhesion research is on large organisms such as marine mussels, insects and geckos, adhesion events on the micro/nanoscale are critical to our understanding of important underlying mechanisms. Observing and quantifying adhesion at this scale is particularly relevant for the development of biomedical implants and in the prevention of marine biofouling. However, such characterization has so far been restricted by insufficient quantities of material for biochemical analysis and the limitations of contemporary imaging techniques. Here, we introduce a recently developed optical method that allows precise determination of adhesive deposition by microscale organisms in situ and in real time; a capability not before demonstrated. In this extended study we used the cypris larvae of barnacles and a combination of conventional and imaging surface plasmon resonance techniques to observe and quantify adhesive deposition onto a range of model surfaces (CH(3)-, COOH-, NH(3)-, and mPEG-terminated SAMs and a PEGMA/HEMA hydrogel). We then correlated this deposition to passive adsorption of a putatively adhesive protein from barnacles. In this way, we were able to rank surfaces in order of effectiveness for preventing barnacle cyprid exploration and demonstrate the importance of observing the natural process of adhesion, rather than predicting surface effects from a model system. As well as contributing fundamentally to the knowledge on the adhesion and adhesives of barnacle larvae, a potential target for future biomimetic glues, this method also provides a versatile technique for laboratory testing of fouling-resistant chemistries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Aldred
- School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
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69
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Cho Y, Sundaram HS, Weinman CJ, Paik MY, Dimitriou MD, Finlay JA, Callow ME, Callow JA, Kramer EJ, Ober CK. Triblock Copolymers with Grafted Fluorine-Free, Amphiphilic, Non-Ionic Side Chains for Antifouling and Fouling-Release Applications. Macromolecules 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ma200269s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youngjin Cho
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Harihara S. Sundaram
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | | | - Marvin Y. Paik
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Michael D. Dimitriou
- Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - John A. Finlay
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Maureen E. Callow
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, U.K
| | - James A. Callow
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Edward J. Kramer
- Department of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Christopher K. Ober
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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70
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Trends in the development of environmentally friendly fouling-resistant marine coatings. Nat Commun 2011; 2:244. [DOI: 10.1038/ncomms1251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 830] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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71
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Sonnenschein L, Seubert A. Synthesis of a series of monomeric styrene sulfobetaine precursors. Tetrahedron Lett 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.12.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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72
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Maruzzo D, Conlan S, Aldred N, Clare AS, Høeg JT. Video observation of surface exploration in cyprids of Balanus amphitrite: the movements of antennular sensory setae. BIOFOULING 2011; 27:225-239. [PMID: 21302160 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2011.555534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Video microscopy of cyprids of Balanus amphitrite was used to monitor the action of antennular setae during the exploratory behaviour prior to attachment. In addition, SEM was used to provide a revised description of all antennular setae for that species. The videos describe if a particular seta touches the substratum and the area it can cover during surface exploration. On the fourth segment, the plumose terminal setae A and B are never in contact with the substratum, lack a terminal pore and it is argued that they sense hydrodynamic forces. The aesthetasc-like terminal seta D is likewise held free in the water at all times and it is speculated that it senses dissolved substances, but, since it contains a scolopale rod, it must also have a mechano-receptive function. All remaining antennular setae on the second, third and fourth segments have a terminal pore and it is argued that these are bimodal receptors with both chemo- and mechano-receptive modalities. These setae are also at one time or another in contact with the substratum, except perhaps for the small preaxial seta 2 and terminal seta C. The first seta to contact the surface during a tentative step is radial seta 5, which is longer than all other radial setae. All other setae on the second and third segment are only in contact after a step is completed. When the attachment disc touches the surface (=a step completed) the long and curved postaxial seta 2 (on the second segment) and postaxial seta 3 on the third segment are both flexed to either side of the antennule. This lateral displacement ensures that these two setae can touch large surface areas to either side of the appendage. The four subterminal setae on the fourth segment contact the surface both immediately before and after a step has been completed, and the constant flicking of the segment significantly increases the surface area tested by both these chemoreceptors and by terminal seta E, which can sweep up to 60 μm laterally from the attachment disc. The flicking of the fourth segment may also serve to dilute the boundary layer of chemoreceptors on the fourth segment such as the aesthetasc-like terminal seta D and thus facilitate the detection of new stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Maruzzo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58 B, Padua, Italy
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73
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Wang Y, Pitet LM, Finlay JA, Brewer LH, Cone G, Betts DE, Callow ME, Callow JA, Wendt DE, Hillmyer MA, DeSimonea JM. Investigation of the role of hydrophilic chain length in amphiphilic perfluoropolyether/poly(ethylene glycol) networks: towards high-performance antifouling coatings. BIOFOULING 2011; 27:1139-1150. [PMID: 22087876 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2011.629344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The facile preparation of amphiphilic network coatings having a hydrophobic dimethacryloxy-functionalized perfluoropolyether (PFPE-DMA; M(w) = 1500 g mol(-1)) crosslinked with hydrophilic monomethacryloxy functionalized poly(ethylene glycol) macromonomers (PEG-MA; M(w) = 300, 475, 1100 g mol(-1)), intended as non-toxic high-performance marine coatings exhibiting antifouling characteristics is demonstrated. The PFPE-DMA was found to be miscible with the PEG-MA. Photo-cured blends of these materials containing 10 wt% of PEG-MA oligomers did not swell significantly in water. PFPE-DMA crosslinked with the highest molecular weight PEG oligomer (ie PEG1100) deterred settlement (attachment) of algal cells and cypris larvae of barnacles compared to a PFPE control coating. Dynamic mechanical analysis of these networks revealed a flexible material. Preferential segregation of the PEG segments at the polymer/air interface resulted in enhanced antifouling performance. The cured amphiphilic PFPE/PEG films showed decreased advancing and receding contact angles with increasing PEG chain length. In particular, the PFPE/PEG1100 network had a much lower advancing contact angle than static contact angle, suggesting that the PEG1100 segments diffuse to the polymer/water interface quickly. The preferential interfacial aggregation of the larger PEG segments enables the coating surface to have a substantially enhanced resistance to settlement of spores of the green seaweed Ulva, cells of the diatom Navicula and cypris larvae of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite as well as low adhesion of sporelings (young plants) of Ulva, adhesion being lower than to a polydimethyl elastomer, Silastic T2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yapei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27514, USA
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74
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Schultz MP, Bendick JA, Holm ER, Hertel WM. Economic impact of biofouling on a naval surface ship. BIOFOULING 2011; 27:87-98. [PMID: 21161774 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2010.542809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 584] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the overall economic impact of hull fouling on a mid-sized naval surface ship (Arleigh Burke-class destroyer DDG-51) has been analyzed. A range of costs associated with hull fouling was examined, including expenditures for fuel, hull coatings, hull coating application and removal, and hull cleaning. The results indicate that the primary cost associated with fouling is due to increased fuel consumption attributable to increased frictional drag. The costs related to hull cleaning and painting are much lower than the fuel costs. The overall cost associated with hull fouling for the Navy's present coating, cleaning, and fouling level is estimated to be $56M per year for the entire DDG-51 class or $1B over 15 years. The results of this study provide guidance as to the amount of money that can be reasonably spent for research, development, acquisition, and implementation of new technologies or management strategies to combat hull fouling.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Schultz
- Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD, USA.
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Zhang H, Hussam A, Weber SG. Properties and transport behavior of perfluorotripentylamine (FC-70)-doped amorphous teflon AF 2400 films. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:17867-79. [PMID: 21105665 DOI: 10.1021/ja1075647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Teflon AF 2400 films are known to imbibe solvents, making films in the presence of solvents less fluorous than they might otherwise be. Herein, we demonstrate that doping films with perfluorotripentylamine (Fluorinert FC-70) maintains the fluorous nature of Teflon AF 2400 and improves transport selectivity for fluorine-containing organic compounds. Density measurements on the FC-70-doped films reveal that free volume decreases dramatically as the dopant concentration increases (0-12 wt %) and then increases to approach that of pure FC-70. Remarkably, films from 0 to 12 wt % FC-70 have the same w/v concentration of Teflon AF 2400, indicating that FC-70 fills the free volume of Teflon AF 2400. This is consistent with the observed increased storage modulus and significant decrease (compared to undoped films) of solute diffusion coefficients in the same range of FC-70 concentrations. In contrast, FC-70 at concentrations greater than 12 wt % dilutes Teflon AF 2400, leading to a decrease of storage modulus and dramatic increase in solute diffusion coefficients. Sorption of chloroform decreases from 11.8 g of chloroform/100 g of film (pure Teflon film) to 3.8 g of chloroform/100 g of film (27 wt % FC-70-doped Teflon film), less than the solubility of chloroform in pure FC-70 (4.06 g of chloroform/100 g of FC-70). Solute partition coefficients from chloroform to FC-70-doped films generally decrease with increased dopant concentration. However, within a series of toluenes and nitrobenzenes, selectivity for F-containing solutes over analogous H-containing solutes increases as dopant concentration increases if the substitution is on the aromatic ring but not if it is on the methyl group (toluene). Transport (partitioning × diffusion) rates, as they involve both thermodynamic and kinetic factors, are not simply related to composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
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