51
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Lappin AK, Wilcox SC, Moriarty DJ, Stoeppler SAR, Evans SE, Jones MEH. Bite force in the horned frog (Ceratophrys cranwelli) with implications for extinct giant frogs. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11963. [PMID: 28931936 PMCID: PMC5607344 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11968-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Of the nearly 6,800 extant frog species, most have weak jaws that play only a minor role in prey capture. South American horned frogs (Ceratophrys) are a notable exception. Aggressive and able to consume vertebrates their own size, these “hopping heads” use a vice-like grip of their jaws to restrain and immobilize prey. Using a longitudinal experimental design, we quantified the ontogenetic profile of bite-force performance in post-metamorphic Ceratophrys cranwelli. Regression slopes indicate positive allometric scaling of bite force with reference to head and body size, results that concur with scaling patterns across a diversity of taxa, including fish and amniotes (lizards, tuatara, turtles, crocodylians, rodents). Our recovered scaling relationship suggests that exceptionally large individuals of a congener (C. aurita) and extinct giant frogs (Beelzebufo ampinga, Late Cretaceous of Madagascar) probably could bite with forces of 500 to 2200 N, comparable to medium to large-sized mammalian carnivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kristopher Lappin
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, 91768, USA.
| | - Sean C Wilcox
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, 91768, USA.,Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA
| | - David J Moriarty
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, 91768, USA
| | - Stephanie A R Stoeppler
- Biological Sciences Department, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, 91768, USA
| | - Susan E Evans
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marc E H Jones
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Australia
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52
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Schilder RJ. (How) do animals know how much they weigh? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 219:1275-82. [PMID: 27208031 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.120410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Animal species varying in size and musculoskeletal design all support and move their body weight. This implies the existence of evolutionarily conserved feedback between sensors that produce quantitative signals encoding body weight and proximate determinants of musculoskeletal designs. Although studies at the level of whole organisms and tissue morphology and function clearly indicate that musculoskeletal designs are constrained by body weight variation, the corollary to this - i.e. that the molecular-level composition of musculoskeletal designs is sensitive to body weight variation - has been the subject of only minimal investigation. The main objective of this Commentary is to briefly summarize the former area of study but, in particular, to highlight the latter hypothesis and the relevance of understanding the mechanisms that control musculoskeletal function at the molecular level. Thus, I present a non-exhaustive overview of the evidence - drawn from different fields of study and different levels of biological organization - for the existence of body weight sensing mechanism(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf J Schilder
- Department of Entomology and Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 501 Ag Sci Ind Bldg, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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53
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Binning SA, Shaw AK, Roche DG. Parasites and Host Performance: Incorporating Infection into Our Understanding of Animal Movement. Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:267-280. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
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54
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Tobalske BW, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Ontogeny of Flight Capacity and Pectoralis Function in a Precocial Ground Bird (Alectoris chukar). Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:217-230. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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55
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Habegger ML, Huber DH, Lajeunesse MJ, Motta PJ. Theoretical calculations of bite force in billfishes. J Zool (1987) 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. L. Habegger
- Department of Biology Florida Southern College Lakeland FL USA
- Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission St. Petersburg FL USA
| | - D. H. Huber
- Department of Biology The University of Tampa Tampa FL USA
| | - M. J. Lajeunesse
- Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
| | - P. J. Motta
- Department of Integrative Biology University of South Florida Tampa FL USA
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56
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Clifton IT, Chamberlain JD, Gifford ME. Patterns of morphological variation following colonization of a novel prey environment. J Zool (1987) 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. T. Clifton
- Department of Biology; University of Central Arkansas; Conway AR USA
| | - J. D. Chamberlain
- Department of Biology; University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Little Rock AR USA
| | - M. E. Gifford
- Department of Biology; University of Central Arkansas; Conway AR USA
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57
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Law CJ, Baliga VB, Tinker MT, Mehta RS. Asynchrony in craniomandibular development and growth in Enhydra lutris nereis (Carnivora: Mustelidae): are southern sea otters born to bite? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blw050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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58
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Penning DA. The gluttonous king: the effects of prey size and repeated feeding on predatory performance in kingsnakes. J Zool (1987) 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D. A. Penning
- Department of Biology and Environmental Health; Missouri Southern State University; Joplin MO USA
- Department of Biology; University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Lafayette LA USA
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59
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Penning DA, Sawvel B, Moon BR. Debunking the viper's strike: harmless snakes kill a common assumption. Biol Lett 2016; 12:20160011. [PMID: 26979562 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To survive, organisms must avoid predation and acquire nutrients and energy. Sensory systems must correctly differentiate between potential predators and prey, and elicit behaviours that adjust distances accordingly. For snakes, strikes can serve both purposes. Vipers are thought to have the fastest strikes among snakes. However, strike performance has been measured in very few species, especially non-vipers. We measured defensive strike performance in harmless Texas ratsnakes and two species of vipers, western cottonmouths and western diamond-backed rattlesnakes, using high-speed video recordings. We show that ratsnake strike performance matches or exceeds that of vipers. In contrast with the literature over the past century, vipers do not represent the pinnacle of strike performance in snakes. Both harmless and venomous snakes can strike with very high accelerations that have two key consequences: the accelerations exceed values that can cause loss of consciousness in other animals, such as the accelerations experienced by jet pilots during extreme manoeuvres, and they make the strikes faster than the sensory and motor responses of mammalian prey and predators. Both harmless and venomous snakes can strike faster than the blink of an eye and often reach a target before it can move.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Penning
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
| | - Baxter Sawvel
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
| | - Brad R Moon
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504, USA
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60
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Goulet CL, Smith HJ, Maie T. Comparative lever analysis and ontogenetic scaling in esocid fishes: Functional demands and constraints in feeding biomechanics. J Morphol 2016; 277:1447-1458. [PMID: 27552975 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
When animals grow, the functional demands that they experience often change as a consequence of their increasing body size. In this study, we examined the feeding biomechanics in esocid species that represent different size classes (small, Esox americanus; intermediate, Esox niger; large, Esox lucius), and how their bite forces and associated functional variables change as they grow. In order to evaluate bite performance through ontogeny, we dissected and measured dimensions of the feeding apparatus and the adductor mandibulae muscle complex with its segmentum facialis subdivisions such as the ricto-malaris, stegalis and endoricto-malaris across a wide range of body sizes. The collected morphological data was used as input variables for a published anatomical model to simulate jaw function in these fish species. Maximum bite forces for both anterior bite and posterior bite increased in isometry in E. americanus and E. niger. The posterior bite of E. lucius also increases in isometry, however, the anterior bite increases in positive allometry. Intraspecific comparison within E. lucius indicated the increase of bite forces in more developed individuals accelerated after the fish grew out of fingerling stage. In addition, our analysis indicated functional differentiation between subdivisions of the adductor mandibulae segmentum facialis, as well as interspecific differences in the pattern of contribution to the bite performance by these subdivisions. Our study provides insights into not only the musculoskeletal basis of the jaw function of esocid species, but also the feeding capacity of this species in relation to the functional demands it faces as one of the top predators in lake and river systems. J. Morphol. 277:1447-1458, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney L Goulet
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. Cloud State University, Wick Science Building, 720 Fourth Avenue South, St. Cloud, Minnesota, 56301
| | - Harrison J Smith
- Department of Biology, Lynchburg College, 225 Hobbs-Sigler Hall, School of Science, 1501 Lakeside Drive, Lynchburg, Virginia, 24501
| | - Takashi Maie
- Department of Biology, Lynchburg College, 225 Hobbs-Sigler Hall, School of Science, 1501 Lakeside Drive, Lynchburg, Virginia, 24501.
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61
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Gignac PM, Santana SE. A Bigger Picture: Organismal Function at the Nexus of Development, Ecology, and Evolution: An Introduction to the Symposium. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:369-72. [PMID: 27413091 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past 40 years of research, two perspectives have dominated the study of ecomorphology at ontogenetic and evolutionary timescales. For key anatomical complexes (e.g., feeding apparatus, locomotor systems, sensory structures), morphological changes during ontogeny are often interpreted in functional terms and linked to their putative importance for fitness. Across larger timescales, morphological transformations in these complexes are examined through character stability or mutability during cladogenesis. Because the fittest organisms must pass through ontogenetic changes in size and shape, addressing transformations in morphology at different time scales, from life histories to macroevolution, has the potential to illuminate major factors contributing to phenotypic diversity. To date, most studies have relied on the assumption that organismal form is tightly constrained by the adult niche. Although this could be accurate for organisms that rapidly reach and spend a substantial portion of their life history at the adult phenotype (e.g., birds, mammals), it may not always hold true for species that experience substantial growth after one or more major fitness filters during their ontogeny (e.g., some fishes, reptiles). In such circumstances, examining the adult phenotype as the primary result of selective processes may be erroneous as it likely obscures the developmental configuration of morphology that was most critical to early survival. Given this discrepancy-and its potential to mislead interpretations of how selection may shape a taxon's phenotype-this symposium addresses the question: how do we identify such ontogenetic "inertia," and how do we integrate developmental information into our phylogenetic, ecological, and functional interpretations of complex phenotypes?
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Gignac
- *Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74107-1898, USA
| | - S E Santana
- Department of Biology and Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1800, USA
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62
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Herrel A, Lopez-Darias M, Vanhooydonck B, Cornette R, Kohlsdorf T, Brandt R. Do Adult Phenotypes Reflect Selection on Juvenile Performance? A Comparative Study on Performance and Morphology in Lizards. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:469-78. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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63
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Heers AM. New Perspectives on the Ontogeny and Evolution of Avian Locomotion. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:428-41. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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64
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Santana SE, Miller KE. Extreme Postnatal Scaling in Bat Feeding Performance: A View of Ecomorphology from Ontogenetic and Macroevolutionary Perspectives. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:459-68. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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65
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Gignac P, O'Brien H. Suchian Feeding Success at the Interface of Ontogeny and Macroevolution. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:449-58. [PMID: 27252224 PMCID: PMC4990708 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There have been a number of attempts to explain how crocodylian bite-force performance covaries with cranial form and diet. However, the mechanics and morphologies of crocodylian jaws have thus far remained incongruent with data on their performance and evolution. For example, it is largely assumed that the functional anatomy and performance of adults tightly fits the adult niche. At odds with this precept are groups with resource-dependent growth, whose juvenile stages undergo shifts in mass, morphology, and resource usage to overcome strong selection related to issues of small body size, as compared to adults. Crocodylians are an example of such a group. As living suchians, they also have a long and fossil-rich evolutionary history, characterized by analogous increases in body size, diversifications in rostrodental form, and shifts in diet. Here we use biomechanical and evolutionary modeling techniques to study the development and evolution of the suchian feeding apparatus and to formally assess the impact of potential ontogenetic-evolutionary parallels on clade dynamics. We show that patterns of ontogenetic and evolutionary bite-force changes exhibit inverted patterns of heterochrony, indicating that early ontogenetic trends are established as macroevolutionary patterns within Neosuchia, prior to the origin of Eusuchia. Although selection can act on any life-history stage, our findings suggest that selection on neonates and juveniles, in particular, can contribute to functionally important morphologies that aid individual and clade success without being strongly tied to their adult niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Gignac
- *Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74107-1898, USA
| | - Haley O'Brien
- *Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74107-1898, USA Department of Biological Sciences (Graduate Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology), Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, USA
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66
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Gignac PM, Erickson GM. Ontogenetic bite‐force modeling of
Alligator mississippiensis
: implications for dietary transitions in a large‐bodied vertebrate and the evolution of crocodylian feeding. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P. M. Gignac
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences Tulsa OK USA
| | - G. M. Erickson
- Department of Biological Science Florida State University Tallahassee FL USA
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67
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Heers AM, Baier DB, Jackson BE, Dial KP. Flapping before Flight: High Resolution, Three-Dimensional Skeletal Kinematics of Wings and Legs during Avian Development. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153446. [PMID: 27100994 PMCID: PMC4872793 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Some of the greatest transformations in vertebrate history involve developmental
and evolutionary origins of avian flight. Flight is the most power-demanding
mode of locomotion, and volant adult birds have many anatomical features that
presumably help meet these demands. However, juvenile birds, like the first
winged dinosaurs, lack many hallmarks of advanced flight capacity. Instead of
large wings they have small “protowings”, and instead of robust, interlocking
forelimb skeletons their limbs are more gracile and their joints less
constrained. Such traits are often thought to preclude extinct theropods from
powered flight, yet young birds with similarly rudimentary anatomies flap-run up
slopes and even briefly fly, thereby challenging longstanding ideas on skeletal
and feather function in the theropod-avian lineage. Though skeletons and
feathers are the common link between extinct and extant theropods and figure
prominently in discussions on flight performance (extant birds) and flight
origins (extinct theropods), skeletal inter-workings are hidden from view and
their functional relationship with aerodynamically active wings is not known.
For the first time, we use X-ray Reconstruction of Moving Morphology to
visualize skeletal movement in developing birds, and explore how development of
the avian flight apparatus corresponds with ontogenetic trajectories in skeletal
kinematics, aerodynamic performance, and the locomotor transition from
pre-flight flapping behaviors to full flight capacity. Our findings reveal that
developing chukars (Alectoris chukar) with rudimentary flight
apparatuses acquire an “avian” flight stroke early in ontogeny, initially by
using their wings and legs cooperatively and, as they acquire flight capacity,
counteracting ontogenetic increases in aerodynamic output with greater skeletal
channelization. In conjunction with previous work, juvenile birds thereby
demonstrate that the initial function of developing wings is to enhance leg
performance, and that aerodynamically active, flapping wings might better be
viewed as adaptations or exaptations for enhancing leg performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M. Heers
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, Central
Park West and 79 St., New York, New York 10024, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
| | - David B. Baier
- Department of Biology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square,
Providence, Rhode Island 02918, United States of America
| | - Brandon E. Jackson
- Biology and Environmental Sciences, Longwood University, 201 High St.,
Farmville, Virginia 23909, United States of America
| | - Kenneth P. Dial
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive,
Missoula, Montana 59812, United States of America
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68
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Penning DA, Dartez SF. Size, but not experience, affects the ontogeny of constriction performance in ball pythons (Python regius). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 325:194-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 01/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David A. Penning
- Department of Biology; University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Lafayette Louisiana
| | - Schuyler F. Dartez
- Department of Biology; University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Lafayette Louisiana
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69
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Ryerson WG, Hessel AL, Whitenack LB. Comparative jumping mechanics in plethodontid salamanders. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W. G. Ryerson
- Biology Department Saint Anselm College Manchester NH USA
| | - A. L. Hessel
- Biology Department Allegheny College Meadville PA USA
- Department of Biological Sciences Northern Arizona University Flagstaff AZ USA
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70
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Off like a shot: scaling of ballistic tongue projection reveals extremely high performance in small chameleons. Sci Rep 2016; 6:18625. [PMID: 26725508 PMCID: PMC4698635 DOI: 10.1038/srep18625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Stretching elastic tissues and using their recoil to power movement allows organisms to release energy more rapidly than by muscle contraction directly, thus amplifying power output. Chameleons employ such a mechanism to ballistically project their tongue up to two body lengths, achieving power outputs nearly three times greater than those possible via muscle contraction. Additionally, small organisms tend to be capable of greater performance than larger species performing similar movements. To test the hypothesis that small chameleon species outperform larger species during ballistic tongue projection, performance was examined during feeding among 20 chameleon species in nine genera. This revealed that small species project their tongues proportionately further than large species, achieving projection distances of 2.5 body lengths. Furthermore, feedings with peak accelerations of 2,590 m s(-2), or 264 g, and peak power output values of 14,040 W kg(-1) are reported. These values represent the highest accelerations and power outputs reported for any amniote movement, highlighting the previously underestimated performance capability of the family. These findings show that examining movements in smaller animals may expose movements harbouring cryptic power amplification mechanisms and illustrate how varying metabolic demands may help drive morphological evolution.
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71
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Conradsen C, Walker JA, Perna C, McGuigan K. Repeatability of locomotor performance and of morphology – locomotor performance relationships. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:2888-2897. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.141259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
There is good evidence that natural selection drives the evolution of locomotor performance, but the processes that generate among individual variation in locomotion, the substrate upon which selection acts, are relatively poorly understood. We measured prolonged swimming performance, Ucrit, and morphology in a large cohort (n=461) of wildtype zebrafish, Danio rerio, at ∼6 months and again at ∼9 months. Using mixed model analyses to estimate repeatability as the intraclass correlation coefficient, we determined that Ucrit was significantly repeatable (r = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.45 -0.64). Performance differences between the sexes (males 12% faster than females) and changes with age (decreasing 0.07% per day) both contributed to variation in Ucrit and, therefore, the repeatability estimate. Accounting for mean differences between sexes within the model decreased the estimate of Ucrit repeatability to 21% below the naïve estimate, while fitting age in the models increased the estimate to 14% above the naïve estimate. Greater consideration of factors such as age and sex is therefore necessary for the interpretation of performance repeatability in wild populations. Body shape significantly predicted Ucrit in both sexes in both assays, with the morphology – performance relationship significantly repeatable at the population level. However, morphology was more strongly predicative of performance in older fish, suggesting a change in the contribution of morphology relative to other factors such as physiology and behaviour. The morphology – performance relationship changed with age to a greater extent in males than females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara Conradsen
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jeffrey A. Walker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern Maine, Portland, Maine 04103, USA
| | - Catherine Perna
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Katrina McGuigan
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
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72
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Weihmann T, Reinhardt L, Weißing K, Siebert T, Wipfler B. Fast and Powerful: Biomechanics and Bite Forces of the Mandibles in the American Cockroach Periplaneta americana. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141226. [PMID: 26559671 PMCID: PMC4641686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowing the functionality and capabilities of masticatory apparatuses is essential for the ecological classification of jawed organisms. Nevertheless insects, especially with their outstanding high species number providing an overwhelming morphological diversity, are notoriously underexplored with respect to maximum bite forces and their dependency on the mandible opening angles. Aiming for a general understanding of insect biting, we examined the generalist feeding cockroach Periplaneta americana, characterized by its primitive chewing mouth parts. We measured active isometric bite forces and passive forces caused by joint resistance over the entire mandibular range with a custom-built 2D force transducer. The opening angle of the mandibles was quantified by using a video system. With respect to the effective mechanical advantage of the mandibles and the cross-section areas, we calculated the forces exerted by the mandible closer muscles and the corresponding muscle stress values. Comparisons with the scarce data available revealed close similarities of the cockroaches' mandible closer stress values (58 N/cm2) to that of smaller specialist carnivorous ground beetles, but strikingly higher values than in larger stag beetles. In contrast to available datasets our results imply the activity of faster and slower muscle fibres, with the latter becoming active only when the animals chew on tough material which requires repetitive, hard biting. Under such circumstances the coactivity of fast and slow fibres provides a force boost which is not available during short-term activities, since long latencies prevent a specific effective employment of the slow fibres in this case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Weihmann
- Dept. of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lars Reinhardt
- Science of Motion, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Kevin Weißing
- Entomology Group, Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias Siebert
- Institute of Sport and Motion Science, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Benjamin Wipfler
- Entomology Group, Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Jena, Germany
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73
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Dial TR, Reznick DN, Brainerd EL. Effects of neonatal size on maturity and escape performance in the Trinidadian guppy. Funct Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Terry R. Dial
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Brown University Providence RI USA
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74
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Hindlimb muscle anatomical mechanical advantage differs among joints and stride phases in basilisk lizards. ZOOLOGY 2015; 118:291-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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75
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Kolmann MA, Huber DR, Motta PJ, Grubbs RD. Feeding biomechanics of the cownose ray, Rhinoptera bonasus, over ontogeny. J Anat 2015; 227:341-51. [PMID: 26183820 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth affects the performance of structure, so the pattern of growth must influence the role of a structure and an organism. Because animal performance is linked to morphological specialization, ontogenetic change in size may influence an organism's biological role. High bite force generation is presumably selected for in durophagous taxa. Therefore, these animals provide an excellent study system for investigating biomechanical consequences of growth on performance. An ontogenetic series of 27 cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) were dissected in order to develop a biomechanical model of the feeding mechanism, which was then compared with bite forces measured from live rays. Mechanical advantage of the feeding apparatus was generally conserved throughout ontogeny, while an increase in the mass and cross-sectional area of the jaw adductors resulted in allometric gains in bite force generation. Of primary importance to forceful biting in this taxon is the use of a fibrocartilaginous tendon associated with the insertion of the primary jaw adductor division. This tendon may serve to redirect muscle forces anteriorly, transmitting them within the plane of biting. Measured bite forces obtained through electrostimulation of the jaw adductors in live rays were higher than predicted, possibly due to differences in specific tension of actual batoid muscle and that used in the model. Mass-specific bite forces in these rays are the highest recorded for elasmobranchs. Cownose rays exemplify a species that, through allometric growth of bite performance and morphological novelties, have expanded their ecological performance over ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Kolmann
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Daniel R Huber
- Department of Biology, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Philip J Motta
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - R Dean Grubbs
- Florida State University Coastal and Marine Laboratory, St Teresa, FL, USA
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76
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Heers AM, Dial KP. Wings versus legs in the avian bauplan: development and evolution of alternative locomotor strategies. Evolution 2015; 69:305-20. [PMID: 25494705 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Wings have long been regarded as a hallmark of evolutionary innovation, allowing insects, birds, and bats to radiate into aerial environments. For many groups, our intuitive and colloquial perspective is that wings function for aerial activities, and legs for terrestrial, in a relatively independent manner. However, insects and birds often engage their wings and legs cooperatively. In addition, the degree of autonomy between wings and legs may be constrained by tradeoffs, between allocating resources to wings versus legs during development, or between wing versus leg investment and performance (because legs must be carried as baggage by wings during flight and vice versa). Such tradeoffs would profoundly affect the development and evolution of locomotor strategies, and many related aspects of animal ecology. Here, we provide the first evaluation of wing versus leg investment, performance and relative use, in birds-both across species, and during ontogeny in three precocial species with different ecologies. Our results suggest that tradeoffs between wing and leg modules help shape ontogenetic and evolutionary trajectories, but can be offset by recruiting modules cooperatively. These findings offer a new paradigm for exploring locomotor strategies of flying organisms and their extinct precursors, and thereby elucidating some of the most spectacular diversity in animal history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Heers
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL97TA, United Kingdom.
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77
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Herrel A, Redding CL, Meyers JJ, Nishikawa KC. The scaling of tongue projection in the veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus. ZOOLOGY 2014; 117:227-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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78
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McElroy EJ, de Buron I. Host Performance as a Target of Manipulation by Parasites: A Meta-Analysis. J Parasitol 2014; 100:399-410. [DOI: 10.1645/13-488.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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79
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Echeverría AI, Becerra F, Vassallo AI. Postnatal ontogeny of limb proportions and functional indices in the subterranean rodentCtenomys talarum(Rodentia: Ctenomyidae). J Morphol 2014; 275:902-13. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Isabel Echeverría
- Grupo Morfología Funcional y Comportamiento; Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); 7600 Mar del Plata Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Federico Becerra
- Grupo Morfología Funcional y Comportamiento; Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); 7600 Mar del Plata Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Aldo Iván Vassallo
- Grupo Morfología Funcional y Comportamiento; Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMdP), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET); 7600 Mar del Plata Buenos Aires Argentina
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80
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Russo T, Scardi M, Cataudella S. Applications of self-organizing maps for ecomorphological investigations through early ontogeny of fish. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86646. [PMID: 24466185 PMCID: PMC3900585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a new graphical approach to the analysis of multi-temporal morphological and ecological data concerning the life history of fish, which can typically serves models in ecomorphological investigations because they often undergo significant ontogenetic changes. These changes can be very complex and difficult to describe, so that visualization, abstraction and interpretation of the underlying relationships are often impeded. Therefore, classic ecomorphological analyses of covariation between morphology and ecology, performed by means of multivariate techniques, may result in non-exhaustive models. The Self Organizing map (SOM) is a new, effective approach for pursuing this aim. In this paper, lateral outlines of larval stages of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) were recorded and broken down using by means of Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA). Gut contents of the same specimens were also collected and analyzed. Then, shape and trophic habits data were examined by SOM, which allows both a powerful visualization of shape changes and an easy comparison with trophic habit data, via their superimposition onto the trained SOM. Thus, the SOM provides a direct visual approach for matching morphological and ecological changes during fish ontogenesis. This method could be used as a tool to extract and investigate relationships between shape and other sinecological or environmental variables, which cannot be taken into account simultaneously using conventional statistical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Russo
- Laboratory of Experimental Ecology and Aquaculture, Department of Biology, “Tor Vergata” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | - Michele Scardi
- Laboratory of Experimental Ecology and Aquaculture, Department of Biology, “Tor Vergata” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Cataudella
- Laboratory of Experimental Ecology and Aquaculture, Department of Biology, “Tor Vergata” University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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81
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Farke AA, Chok DJ, Herrero A, Scolieri B, Werning S. Ontogeny in the tube-crested dinosaur Parasaurolophus (Hadrosauridae) and heterochrony in hadrosaurids. PeerJ 2013; 1:e182. [PMID: 24167777 PMCID: PMC3807589 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The tube-crested hadrosaurid dinosaur Parasaurolophus is remarkable for its unusual cranial ornamentation, but little is known about its growth and development, particularly relative to well-documented ontogenetic series for lambeosaurin hadrosaurids (such as Corythosaurus, Lambeosaurus, and Hypacrosaurus). The skull and skeleton of a juvenile Parasaurolophus from the late Campanian-aged (∼75.5 Ma) Kaiparowits Formation of southern Utah, USA, represents the smallest and most complete specimen yet described for this taxon. The individual was approximately 2.5 m in body length (∼25% maximum adult body length) at death, with a skull measuring 246 mm long and a femur 329 mm long. A histological section of the tibia shows well-vascularized, woven and parallel-fibered primary cortical bone typical of juvenile ornithopods. The histological section revealed no lines of arrested growth or annuli, suggesting the animal may have still been in its first year at the time of death. Impressions of the upper rhamphotheca are preserved in association with the skull, showing that the soft tissue component for the beak extended for some distance beyond the limits of the oral margin of the premaxilla. In marked contrast with the lengthy tube-like crest in adult Parasaurolophus, the crest of the juvenile specimen is low and hemicircular in profile, with an open premaxilla-nasal fontanelle. Unlike juvenile lambeosaurins, the nasal passages occupy nearly the entirety of the crest in juvenile Parasaurolophus. Furthermore, Parasaurolophus initiated development of the crest at less than 25% maximum skull size, contrasting with 50% of maximum skull size in hadrosaurs such as Corythosaurus. This early development may correspond with the larger and more derived form of the crest in Parasaurolophus, as well as the close relationship between the crest and the respiratory system. In general, ornithischian dinosaurs formed bony cranial ornamentation at a relatively younger age and smaller size than seen in extant birds. This may reflect, at least in part, that ornithischians probably reached sexual maturity prior to somatic maturity, whereas birds become reproductively mature after reaching adult size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Farke
- Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology , Claremont, CA , USA
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82
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Ontogenetic Variation in Head Morphology and Diet in Two Snakes (Viperidae) from Northeastern Argentina. J HERPETOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1670/12-007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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83
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Stiller RB, McBrayer LD. The ontogeny of escape behavior, locomotor performance, and the hind limb in Sceloporus woodi. ZOOLOGY 2013; 116:175-81. [PMID: 23684506 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Flight initiation distance describes the distance at which an animal flees during the approach of a predator. This distance presumably reflects the tradeoff between the benefits of fleeing versus the benefits of remaining stationary. Throughout ontogeny, the costs and benefits of flight may change substantially due to growth-related changes in sprint speed; thus ontogenetic variation in flight initiation distance may be substantial. If escape velocity is essential for surviving predator encounters, then juveniles should either tolerate short flight initiation distances and rely on crypsis, or should have high flight initiation distances to remain far away from their predators. We examined this hypothesis in a small, short-lived lizard (Sceloporus woodi). Flight initiation distance and escape velocity were recorded on an ontogenetic series of lizards in the field. Maximal running velocity was also quantified in a laboratory raceway to establish if escape velocities in the field compared with maximal velocities as measured in the lab. Finally a subset of individuals was used to quantify how muscle and limb size scale with body size throughout ontogeny. Flight initiation distance increased with body size; larger animals had higher flight initiation distances. Small lizards had short flight initiation distances and remained immobile longer, thus relying on crypsis for concealment. Escape velocity in the field did not vary with body size, yet maximum velocity in the lab did increase with size. Hind limb morphology scaled isometrically with body size. Isometric scaling of the hind limb elements and its musculature, coupled with similarities in sprint and escape velocity across ontogeny, demonstrate that smaller S. woodi must rely on crypsis to avoid predator encounters, whereas adults alter their behavior via larger flight initiation distance and lower (presumably less expensive) escape velocities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reed B Stiller
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, P.O. Box 8042, Statesboro, GA 30460, USA
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84
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Hsia CCW, Schmitz A, Lambertz M, Perry SF, Maina JN. Evolution of air breathing: oxygen homeostasis and the transitions from water to land and sky. Compr Physiol 2013; 3:849-915. [PMID: 23720333 PMCID: PMC3926130 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c120003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Life originated in anoxia, but many organisms came to depend upon oxygen for survival, independently evolving diverse respiratory systems for acquiring oxygen from the environment. Ambient oxygen tension (PO2) fluctuated through the ages in correlation with biodiversity and body size, enabling organisms to migrate from water to land and air and sometimes in the opposite direction. Habitat expansion compels the use of different gas exchangers, for example, skin, gills, tracheae, lungs, and their intermediate stages, that may coexist within the same species; coexistence may be temporally disjunct (e.g., larval gills vs. adult lungs) or simultaneous (e.g., skin, gills, and lungs in some salamanders). Disparate systems exhibit similar directions of adaptation: toward larger diffusion interfaces, thinner barriers, finer dynamic regulation, and reduced cost of breathing. Efficient respiratory gas exchange, coupled to downstream convective and diffusive resistances, comprise the "oxygen cascade"-step-down of PO2 that balances supply against toxicity. Here, we review the origin of oxygen homeostasis, a primal selection factor for all respiratory systems, which in turn function as gatekeepers of the cascade. Within an organism's lifespan, the respiratory apparatus adapts in various ways to upregulate oxygen uptake in hypoxia and restrict uptake in hyperoxia. In an evolutionary context, certain species also become adapted to environmental conditions or habitual organismic demands. We, therefore, survey the comparative anatomy and physiology of respiratory systems from invertebrates to vertebrates, water to air breathers, and terrestrial to aerial inhabitants. Through the evolutionary directions and variety of gas exchangers, their shared features and individual compromises may be appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie C W Hsia
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA.
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85
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Hampton P. Allometry of cranial morphology, gape size and ingestion performance in the banded watersnake (Nerodia fasciata) feeding on two types of prey. J Exp Biol 2013; 217:472-8. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.092924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Summary
Small body size imposes limitations on the feeding capabilities of juveniles, particularly species that consume their prey whole. It has been hypothesized that juveniles exhibit exceptional performance measures to compensate for their small size. However, few studies have examined if juveniles have better feeding performance relative to adults. Investigations of snake feeding ontogeny have not found support for the compensation hypothesis. I tested this hypothesis by comparing maximum gape circumference and ingestion performance (time and number of pterygoid protractions) in a series of banded watersnakes (Nerodia fasciata) of different sizes fed fish and frogs. I also measured several external and osteological dimensions of the head and used Akaike's Information Criterion to determine which morphological measurements were the strongest predictors of relative gape. All skull measures and maximum gape circumference showed negative allometry compared to snout-vent length (SVL). Given the available models, AIC analysis indicated that both skull length and mandible length were the strongest predictors of gape circumference for both external and osteological measurements. Multiple regression analysis of ingestion performance indicated SVL was negatively correlated with the time and number of pterygoid protractions required to consume fish or frogs, indicating juveniles do not have a higher ingestion performance than adults. While exaggerated morphology in juvenile snakes does not appear to improve ingestion performance, a larger gape should increase the ability of juvenile snakes to consume a wide range of encountered prey shapes and sizes.
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86
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Chazeau C, Marchal J, Hackert R, Perret M, Herrel A. Proximate determinants of bite force capacity in the mouse lemur. J Zool (1987) 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Chazeau
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N.; Paris Cedex 5 France
| | - J. Marchal
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N.; Paris Cedex 5 France
| | - R. Hackert
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N.; Paris Cedex 5 France
| | - M. Perret
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N.; Paris Cedex 5 France
| | - A. Herrel
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 C.N.R.S/M.N.H.N.; Paris Cedex 5 France
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87
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Habegger ML, Motta PJ, Huber DR, Dean MN. Feeding biomechanics and theoretical calculations of bite force in bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) during ontogeny. ZOOLOGY 2012; 115:354-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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88
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Hampton PM, Moon BR. Gape size, its morphological basis, and the validity of gape indices in western diamond-backed rattlesnakes (crotalus atrox). J Morphol 2012; 274:194-202. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2011] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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89
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Marshall CD, Guzman A, Narazaki T, Sato K, Kane EA, Sterba-Boatwright BD. The ontogenetic scaling of bite force and head size in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta): implications for durophagy in neritic, benthic habitats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 215:4166-74. [PMID: 22899532 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.074385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ontogenetic studies of vertebrate feeding performance can help address questions relevant to foraging ecology. Feeding morphology and performance can either limit access to food resources or open up new trophic niches in both aquatic and terrestrial systems. Loggerhead sea turtles are long-lived vertebrates with complex life histories that are marked by an ontogenetic shift from an oceanic habitat to a coastal neritic habitat, and a transition from soft oceanic prey to hard, benthic prey. Although considered durophagous and strong biters, bite performance has not been measured in loggerheads, nor has the ontogeny of bite performance been characterized. In the present study, we collected measurements of bite force in loggerhead turtles from hatchlings to adults. When subadults reach the body size at which the ontogenetic shift occurs, their crushing capability is great enough for them to consume numerous species of hard benthic prey of small sizes. As loggerheads mature and bite performance increases, larger and harder benthic prey become accessible. Loggerhead bite performance eventually surpasses the crushing capability of other durophagous carnivores, thereby potentially reducing competition for hard benthic prey. The increasing bite performance and accompanying changes in morphology of the head and jaws are likely an effective mechanism for resource partitioning and decreasing trophic competition. Simultaneous measurements of body and head size and the use of non-linear reduced major axis regression show that bite force increases with significant positive allometry relative to body size (straight carapace length, straight carapace width and mass) and head size (head width, height and length). Simple correlation showed that all recorded morphometrics were good predictors of measured bite performance, but an AICc-based weighted regression showed that body size (straight carapace width followed by straight carapace length and mass, respectively) were more likely predictors of bite force than head size morphometrics (head width and head length).
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90
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Herrel A, Fabre AC, Hugot JP, Keovichit K, Adriaens D, Brabant L, Van Hoorebeke L, Cornette R. Ontogeny of the cranial system in Laonastes aenigmamus. J Anat 2012; 221:128-37. [PMID: 22607030 PMCID: PMC3406360 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01519.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodents, together with bats, are among the ecologically most diverse and most speciose groups of mammals. Moreover, rodents show elaborate specializations of the feeding apparatus in response to the predominantly fore-aft movements of the lower jaw. The Laotian rock rat Laonastes aenigmamus was recently discovered and originally thought to belong to a new family. The difficulties in classifying L. aenigmamus based on morphological characters stem from the fact that it presents a mixture of sciurognathous and hystricognathous characteristics, including the morphology of the jaw adductors. The origin of the unusual muscular organization in this species remains, however, unclear. Here, we investigate the development of the masticatory system in Laonastes to better understand the origin of its derived morphology relative to other rodents. Our analyses show that skull and mandible development is characterized by an overall elongation of the snout region. Muscle mass increases with positive allometry during development and growth, and so does the force-generating capacity of the jaw adductor muscles (i.e. physiological cross-sectional area). Whereas fetal crania and musculature are more similar to those of typical rodents, adults diverge in the elongation of the rostral part of the skull and the disproportionate development of the zygomaticomandibularis. Our data suggest a functional signal in the development of the unusual cranial morphology, possibly associated with the folivorous trophic ecology of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Herrel
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179, Mécanismes adaptatifs: des organismes aux communautés, Paris, France.
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91
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Dial TR, Carrier DR. Precocial hindlimbs and altricial forelimbs: partitioning ontogenetic strategies in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 215:3703-10. [PMID: 22855613 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.057380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Precocial development, in which juveniles are relatively mature at hatching or birth, is more common among vertebrates than altricial development, and is likely to be the basal condition. Altricial development characterizes many birds and mammals and is generally viewed as an alternate strategy, promoting fast growth rates, short developmental periods and relatively poor locomotor performance prior to attaining adult size. Many aquatic birds such as Anseriformes (ducks, geese and swans), Charadriformes (gulls and terns) and Gruiformes (rails) undergo distinctive developmental trajectories, in that hatchlings are able to run and swim the day they hatch, yet they do not begin to fly until fully grown. We hypothesized that there should be tradeoffs in apportioning bone and muscle mass to the hindlimb and forelimb that could account for these patterns in locomotor behavior within the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Growth of the musculoskeletal system in the forelimbs and hindlimbs was measured and compared with maximal aquatic and terrestrial sprint speeds and aerial descent rates throughout the 2-month-long mallard ontogenetic period. At 30 days post hatching, when body mass is 50% of adult values, hindlimb muscle mass averages 90% and forelimb muscle mass averages 10% of adult values; similarly, bone growth (length and width) in the hindlimbs and forelimbs averages 90 and 60% of adult values, respectively. The attainment of mallard locomotor performance parallels the morphological maturation of forelimb and hindlimb morphometrics - hindlimb performance initiates just after hatching at a relatively high level (~50% adult values) and gradually improves throughout the first month of development, while forelimb performance is relatively non-existent at hatching (~10% adult values), experiencing delayed and dramatic improvement in function, and maturing at the time of fledging. This divergence in ontogenetic strategy between locomotor modules could allow developing Anseriformes to inhabit aquatic, predator-reduced refuges without relying on flight for juvenile escape. Furthermore, by freeing the forelimbs from locomotor demand early in ontogeny, Anseriformes may bypass the potential canalization (i.e. retention) of juvenile form present within their precocial hindlimbs, to dramatically depart in forelimb form and function in the adult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry R Dial
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84102, USA.
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92
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Cornette R, Herrel A, Cosson JF, Poitevin F, Baylac M. Rapid morpho-functional changes among insular populations of the greater white-toothed shrew. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01934.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony Herrel
- UMR CNRS/MNHN 7179; ‘Mécanismes Adaptatifs: des Organismes aux Communautés’; 57 Rue Cuvier; 75231; Paris; France
| | - Jean-Francois Cosson
- Centre de Biologie et de Gestion des Populations; Campus International de Baillarguet; CS 30016; 34988; Montferrier-sur-Lez; France
| | - Françoise Poitevin
- UMR CNRS 5175; Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive; 1919 Route de Mende; F34293; Montpellier; France
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93
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Natusch DJD, Lyons JA. Relationships between ontogenetic changes in prey selection, head shape, sexual maturity, and colour in an Australasian python (Morelia viridis). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01941.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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94
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Aubret F. Body-Size Evolution on Islands: Are Adult Size Variations in Tiger Snakes a Nonadaptive Consequence of Selection on Birth Size? Am Nat 2012; 179:756-67. [DOI: 10.1086/665653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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95
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Freidenfelds NA, Robbins TR, Langkilde T. Evading invaders: the effectiveness of a behavioral response acquired through lifetime exposure. Behav Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ars011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms driving adaptations to survive agonistic interactions, and their function, provides insight into how native species adapt to aggressive invaders, a growing global threat. We staged encounters between native fence lizards (Sceloporus undulatus) and red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) on and off the ant mound (nest) to examine the effectiveness of lizard antipredator behavior through ontogeny while focusing on the impact of lifetime and evolutionary exposure to this invasive threat. We used field-caught and lab-reared lizards from a fire ant–invaded and an uninvaded site. In ∼90% of cases, fire ants found lizards within 12 min in natural lizard habitat. Lizards that performed rapid twitches of their body and/or fled after initial encounter with a fire ant scout reduced their risk of having additional fire ants recruit to the attack. The majority of lizards that had been exposed to fire ants within their lifetime (field-caught lizards from the invaded site) behaviorally responded to attack, whereas relatively few lizards that were naïve to fire ants (all lab-reared lizards and field-caught lizards from the uninvaded site) responded. Because fewer adult lizards responded to fire ants than juveniles, they were recruited to by additional attacking ants significantly more than were juveniles. Our data suggest that the higher percentage of responsive adults within invaded populations is the result of within-lifetime selection acting against unresponsive adults, and/or lifetime exposure to fire ants triggering the retention of this juvenile behavior into adulthood, rather than selection acting on a heritable trait across generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. A. Freidenfelds
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - T. R. Robbins
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - T. Langkilde
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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96
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW. Kinematics of quadrupedal locomotion in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps): effects of age and substrate size. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:480-96. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.062588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Arboreal mammals face unique challenges to locomotor stability. This is particularly true with respect to juveniles, who must navigate substrates similar to those traversed by adults, despite a reduced body size and neuromuscular immaturity. Kinematic differences exhibited by juveniles and adults on a given arboreal substrate could therefore be due to differences in body size relative to substrate size, to differences in neuromuscular development, or to both. We tested the effects of relative body size and age on quadrupedal kinematics in a small arboreal marsupial (the sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps; body mass range of our sample 33-97 g). Juvenile and adult P. breviceps were filmed moving across a flat board and three poles 2.5, 1.0 and 0.5 cm in diameter. Sugar gliders (regardless of age or relative speed) responded to relative decreases in substrate diameter with kinematic adjustments that promote stability; they increased duty factor, increased the average number of supporting limbs during a stride, increased relative stride length and decreased relative stride frequency. Limb phase increased when moving from the flat board to the poles, but not among poles. Compared with adults, juveniles (regardless of relative body size or speed) used lower limb phases, more pronounced limb flexion, and enhanced stability with higher duty factors and a higher average number of supporting limbs during a stride. We conclude that although substrate variation in an arboreal environment presents similar challenges to all individuals, regardless of age or absolute body size, neuromuscular immaturity confers unique problems to growing animals, requiring kinematic compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-0303, USA
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeastern Ohio Medical University (NEOMED, formerly known as the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
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97
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Clark AJ, Summers AP. Ontogenetic scaling of the morphology and biomechanics of the feeding apparatus in the Pacific hagfish Eptatretus stoutii. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:86-99. [PMID: 22220891 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2011.03145.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The form and function of the support skeleton, musculature and teeth were examined in an ontogenetic series of Pacific hagfish Eptatretus stoutii spanning about a six-fold range in total length (L(T)). Tooth area, feeding apparatus length, basal plate size, theoretical dental plate retractile force, penetration force and applied tooth stress were measured relative to body size. Morphological variables (e.g. tooth area and basal plate size) scaled with positive allometry and functional variables (e.g. retractile force and applied tooth stress) scaled isometrically with L(T). These results suggest that juveniles do not undergo ontogenetic dietary changes and consume functionally equivalent prey to adults, although adults can grasp proportionally larger portions of food. Low tooth stress in juveniles and adults imposes mechanical constraints to puncturing and tearing, which are circumvented by a preference for softer prey tissue or the inclusion of knotting behaviours for reducing tougher prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Clark
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California - Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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98
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99
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Hutchinson JR, Bates KT, Molnar J, Allen V, Makovicky PJ. A computational analysis of limb and body dimensions in Tyrannosaurus rex with implications for locomotion, ontogeny, and growth. PLoS One 2011; 6:e26037. [PMID: 22022500 PMCID: PMC3192160 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The large theropod dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex underwent remarkable changes during its growth from <10 kg hatchlings to >6000 kg adults in <20 years. These changes raise fascinating questions about the morphological transformations involved, peak growth rates, and scaling of limb muscle sizes as well as the body's centre of mass that could have influenced ontogenetic changes of locomotion in T. rex. Here we address these questions using three-dimensionally scanned computer models of four large, well-preserved fossil specimens as well as a putative juvenile individual. Furthermore we quantify the variations of estimated body mass, centre of mass and segment dimensions, to characterize inaccuracies in our reconstructions. These inaccuracies include not only subjectivity but also incomplete preservation and inconsistent articulations of museum skeletons. Although those problems cause ambiguity, we conclude that adult T. rex had body masses around 6000-8000 kg, with the largest known specimen ("Sue") perhaps ∼9500 kg. Our results show that during T. rex ontogeny, the torso became longer and heavier whereas the limbs became proportionately shorter and lighter. Our estimates of peak growth rates are about twice as rapid as previous ones but generally support previous methods, despite biases caused by the usage of scale models and equations that underestimate body masses. We tentatively infer that the hindlimb extensor muscles masses, including the large tail muscle M. caudofemoralis longus, may have decreased in their relative size as the centre of mass shifted craniodorsally during T. rex ontogeny. Such ontogenetic changes would have worsened any relative or absolute decline of maximal locomotor performance. Regardless, T. rex probably had hip and thigh muscles relatively larger than any extant animal's. Overall, the limb "antigravity" muscles may have been as large as or even larger than those of ratite birds, which themselves have the most muscular limbs of any living animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
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100
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Hampton PM. Feeding performance in the Western Ribbon Snake (Thamnophis proximus): ontogeny and the effects of prey type and size. CAN J ZOOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/z11-072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that juveniles have exaggerated morphologies or improved performance to compensate for the disadvantages of being small. As gape-limited predators, juvenile snakes are at a particular disadvantage in terms of prey availability, capture, and ingestion. Prey preference often changes with snake size yet previous studies generally compare only one prey type or relative prey size among age classes. Using Western Ribbon Snakes ( Thamnophis proximus (Say in James, 1823)), I investigated the ontogeny of head dimensions and feeding performance on frogs and fish using a range of relative prey sizes. Comparison among snake sizes indicated that smaller individuals had larger relative head sizes than larger conspecifics; however, larger individuals had larger heads. Initial bite position differed between juveniles and adults fed fish but not frogs. Both frogs and fish were generally consumed headfirst by adults and juveniles. Head length did not influence feeding performance in terms of time or pterygoid protractions for snakes fed either fish or frogs. In general, this study suggests that allometry of trophic morphology does not improve feeding performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M. Hampton
- Department of Biology University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504-2451, USA
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