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Wodecka B, Rymaszewska A, Skotarczak B. Host and pathogen DNA identification in blood meals of nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks from forest parks and rural forests of Poland. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2014; 62:543-55. [PMID: 24352572 PMCID: PMC3933768 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-013-9763-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
DNA analysis of blood meals from unfed nymphal Ixodes ricinus allows for the identification of tick host and tick-borne pathogens in the host species. The recognition of host species for tick larvae and the reservoirs of Borrelia, Rickettsia and Anaplasma species were simultaneously carried out by analysis of the blood meals of 880 questing nymphal I. ricinus ticks collected in forest parks of Szczecin city and rural forests in northwestern Poland that are endemic areas for Lyme borreliosis. The results obtained from the study indicate that I. ricinus larvae feed not only on small or medium animals but also on large animals and they (i.e. roe deer, red deer and wild boars) were the most prevalent in all study areas as the essential hosts for larvae of I. ricinus. The composition of medium and small vertebrates (carnivores, rodents, birds and lizards) provided a more diverse picture depending on study site. The reservoir species that contain the most pathogens are the European roe deer Capreolus capreolus, in which two species of Rickettsia and two species of Borrelia were identified, and Sus scrofa, in which one Rickettsia and three Borrelia species were identified. Rickettsia helvetica was the most common pathogen detected, and other included species were the B. burgdorferi s.l. group and B. miyamotoi related to relapsing fever group. Our results confirmed a general association of B. garinii with birds but also suggested that such associations may be less common in the transmission cycle in natural habitats than what was thought previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beata Wodecka
- Department of Genetics, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Anna Rymaszewska
- Department of Genetics, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Bogumila Skotarczak
- Department of Genetics, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland
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Chan K, Marras SAE, Parveen N. Sensitive multiplex PCR assay to differentiate Lyme spirochetes and emerging pathogens Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti. BMC Microbiol 2013; 13:295. [PMID: 24359556 PMCID: PMC3890647 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The infection with Borrelia burgdorferi can result in acute to chronic Lyme disease. In addition, coinfection with tick-borne pathogens, Babesia species and Anaplasma phagocytophilum has been increasing in endemic regions of the USA and Europe. The currently used serological diagnostic tests are often difficult to interpret and, moreover, antibodies against the pathogens persist for a long time making it difficult to confirm the cure of the disease. In addition, these tests cannot be used for diagnosis of early disease state before the adaptive immune response is established. Since nucleic acids of the pathogens do not persist after the cure, DNA-based diagnostic tests are becoming highly useful for detecting infectious diseases. Results In this study, we describe a real-time multiplex PCR assay to detect the presence of B. burgdorferi, B. microti and A. phagocytophilum simultaneously even when they are present in very low copy numbers. Interestingly, this quantitative PCR technique is also able to differentiate all three major Lyme spirochete species, B. burgdorferi, B. afzelii, and B. garinii by utilizing a post-PCR denaturation profile analysis and a single molecular beacon probe. This could be very useful for diagnosis and discrimination of various Lyme spirochetes in European countries where all three Lyme spirochete species are prevalent. As proof of the principle for patient samples, we detected the presence of low number of Lyme spirochetes spiked in the human blood using our assay. Finally, our multiplex assay can detect all three tick-borne pathogens in a sensitive and specific manner irrespective of the level of each pathogen present in the sample. We anticipate that this novel diagnostic method will be able to simultaneously diagnose early to chronic stages of Lyme disease, babesiosis and anaplasmosis using the patients’ blood samples. Conclusion Real-time quantitative PCR using specific primers and molecular beacon probes for the selected amplicon described in this study can detect three tick-borne pathogens simultaneously in an accurate manner.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nikhat Parveen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 07103-3535, USA.
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Stuen S, Granquist EG, Silaghi C. Anaplasma phagocytophilum--a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:31. [PMID: 23885337 PMCID: PMC3717505 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 378] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum has for decades been known to cause the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants in Ixodes ricinus-infested areas in northern Europe. In recent years, the bacterium has been found associated with Ixodes-tick species more or less worldwide on the northern hemisphere. A. phagocytophilum has a broad host range and may cause severe disease in several mammalian species, including humans. However, the clinical symptoms vary from subclinical to fatal conditions, and considerable underreporting of clinical incidents is suspected in both human and veterinary medicine. Several variants of A. phagocytophilum have been genetically characterized. Identification and stratification into phylogenetic subfamilies has been based on cell culturing, experimental infections, PCR, and sequencing techniques. However, few genome sequences have been completed so far, thus observations on biological, ecological, and pathological differences between genotypes of the bacterium, have yet to be elucidated by molecular and experimental infection studies. The natural transmission cycles of various A. phagocytophilum variants, the involvement of their respective hosts and vectors involved, in particular the zoonotic potential, have to be unraveled. A. phagocytophilum is able to persist between seasons of tick activity in several mammalian species and movement of hosts and infected ticks on migrating animals or birds may spread the bacterium. In the present review, we focus on the ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum, especially the role of wildlife in contribution to the spread and sustainability of the infection in domestic livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snorre Stuen
- Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science Sandnes, Norway.
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Serum antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Babesia microti in recaptured white-footed mice. J Wildl Dis 2013; 49:294-302. [PMID: 23568904 DOI: 10.7589/2012-06-172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A mark-release-recapture study was conducted during 2007 through 2010 in six, tick-infested sites in Connecticut, United States to measure changes in antibody titers for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Babesia microti in Peromyscus leucopus (white-footed mice). There was an overall recapture rate of 40%, but only four tagged mice were caught in ≥2 yr. Sera from 561 mice were analyzed for total antibodies to B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum by using whole-cell or recombinant (VlsE or protein 44) antigens in a solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or to whole-cell B. microti by indirect fluorescent antibody staining. Antibody prevalences were highly variable for B. burgdorferi (from 56% to 98%), A. phagocytophilum (from 11% to 85%), and B. microti (from 11% to 84%) depending on the site and time of sampling. Of 463 mice with antibodies, 206 (45%) had antibodies to all three pathogens. Changes in antibody status for some mice from negative to positive (117 seroconversions) or from positive to negative (55 reversions) were observed. Seroconversions were observed in 10.1% of 417 mice for B. burgdorferi, 18.0% of 306 mice for A. phagocytophilum, and 6.6% of 304 mice for B. microti; reversion rates were 5.3, 5.9, and 4.9%, respectively. Antibodies to all pathogens persisted in some mice over several weeks while, in others, there were marked declines in titration end points to negative status. The latter may indicate elimination of a certain pathogen, such as A. phagocytophilum, or that mouse immune systems ceased to produce antibodies despite an existing patent infection.
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Keesing F, Hersh MH, Tibbetts M, McHenry DJ, Duerr S, Brunner J, Killilea M, LoGiudice K, Schmidt KA, Ostfeld RS. Reservoir competence of vertebrate hosts for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 18:2013-6. [PMID: 23171835 PMCID: PMC3557888 DOI: 10.3201/eid1812.120919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fourteen vertebrate species (10 mammals and 4 birds) were assessed for their ability to transmit Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the bacterium that causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis, to uninfected feeding ixodid ticks. Small mammals were most likely to infect ticks but all species assessed were capable of transmitting the bacterium, in contrast to previous findings.
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Jin H, Wei F, Liu Q, Qian J. Epidemiology and Control of Human Granulocytic Anaplasmosis: A Systematic Review. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:269-74. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hongtao Jin
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Institute of Military Veterinary, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Changchun, Jilin Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Feng Wei
- College of Life Science, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Quan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Institute of Military Veterinary, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Changchun, Jilin Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Qian
- Key Laboratory of Jilin Province for Zoonosis Prevention and Control, Institute of Military Veterinary, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Changchun, Jilin Province, People's Republic of China
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Beltrán-Beck B, García FJ, Gortázar C. Raccoons in Europe: disease hazards due to the establishment of an invasive species. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-011-0600-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Brunner JL, Cheney L, Keesing F, Killilea M, Logiudice K, Previtali A, Ostfeld RS. Molting success of Ixodes scapularis varies among individual blood meal hosts and species. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2011; 48:860-866. [PMID: 21845946 DOI: 10.1603/me10256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) is an important vector of emerging human pathogens. It has three blood-feeding stages, as follows: larva, nymph, and adult. Owing to inefficient transovarial transmission, at least for the Lyme disease agent (Borrelia burgdorferi), larval ticks rarely hatch infected, but they can acquire infection during their larval blood meal. Nymphal ticks are primarily responsible for transmitting pathogens to hosts, including humans. The transition from uninfected host-seeking larva to infectious host-seeking nymph is therefore a key aspect of human risk of infection. It can be divided into a series of steps, as follows: finding a host, taking a blood meal, becoming infected, molting, and overwintering. The chance of succeeding in each of these steps may depend on the species identity of the blood meal host. We used a Bayesian method to estimate the molting success of larval I. scapularis collected from four commonly parasitized species of birds and eight commonly parasitized small and mid-sized mammals found in the forests of Dutchess County, New York. We show that molting success varies substantially among host species; white-footed mice, veeries, and gray catbirds support particularly high molting success, whereas ticks feeding on short-tailed shrews, robins, and wood thrushes were less successful. We also show that larval molting success varies substantially between individual blood meal hosts, and that this intraspecific variability is much higher in some species than in others. The causes of both inter- and intraspecific variation in molting success remain to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse L Brunner
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, P.O. Box 644236, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA.
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Mechanisms of obligatory intracellular infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24:469-89. [PMID: 21734244 PMCID: PMC3131063 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00064-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum persists in nature by cycling between mammals and ticks. Human infection by the bite of an infected tick leads to a potentially fatal emerging disease called human granulocytic anaplasmosis. A. phagocytophilum is an obligatory intracellular bacterium that replicates inside mammalian granulocytes and the salivary gland and midgut cells of ticks. A. phagocytophilum evolved the remarkable ability to hijack the regulatory system of host cells. A. phagocytophilum alters vesicular traffic to create an intracellular membrane-bound compartment that allows replication in seclusion from lysosomes. The bacterium downregulates or actively inhibits a number of innate immune responses of mammalian host cells, and it upregulates cellular cholesterol uptake to acquire cholesterol for survival. It also upregulates several genes critical for the infection of ticks, and it prolongs tick survival at freezing temperatures. Several host factors that exacerbate infection have been identified, including interleukin-8 (IL-8) and cholesterol. Host factors that overcome infection include IL-12 and gamma interferon (IFN-γ). Two bacterial type IV secretion effectors and several bacterial proteins that associate with inclusion membranes have been identified. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying A. phagocytophilum infection will foster the development of creative ideas to prevent or treat this emerging tick-borne disease.
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Kang JG, Ko S, Kim YJ, Yang HJ, Lee H, Shin NS, Choi KS, Chae JS. New Genetic Variants ofAnaplasma phagocytophilumandAnaplasma bovisfrom Korean Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:929-38. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jun-gu Kang
- Laboratory of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sungjin Ko
- Laboratory of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young-Jun Kim
- Conservation Genome Resource Bank for Korean Wildlife, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyo-Jin Yang
- Conservation Genome Resource Bank for Korean Wildlife, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hang Lee
- Conservation Genome Resource Bank for Korean Wildlife, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Nam-shik Shin
- Laboratory of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kyoung-seong Choi
- Department of Animal Science, College of Ecology and Environmental Science, Kyungpook National University, Sangju, Korea
| | - Joon-seok Chae
- Laboratory of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Research Institute and BK21 Program for Veterinary Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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Rymaszewska A, Adamska M. Molecular evidence of vector-borne pathogens coinfecting dogs from Poland. Acta Vet Hung 2011; 59:215-23. [PMID: 21665575 DOI: 10.1556/avet.2011.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ticks of the genus Ixodes are vectors for many pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Rickettsia spp., and may also serve as vectors for Bartonella spp. However, the role of ticks in Bartonella transmission requires additional studies. The aim of this study was to investigate whether coinfection with two or more vector-borne pathogens can occur in the following three groups of dogs: I - dogs with suspected borreliosis (N = 92), II - dogs considered healthy (N = 100), and III - dogs with diagnosed babesiosis (N = 50). Polymerase chain reactions were performed to detect DNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. in the blood of dogs. In dogs of Group I, the DNA of both A. phagocytophilum and Bartonella sp. was detected (14% and 1%, respectively). In eight dogs, coinfection was indicated: A. phagocytophilum or Bartonella sp. with B. burgdorferi s.l. (the presence of antibodies against and/or DNA B. burgdorferi s.l.). In the case of five dogs positive for A. phagocytophilum DNA, no coinfection with B. burgdorferi s.l. was shown. In Group II, the DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in four dogs. In Group III, no pathogenic agents possibly transmitted by ticks were confirmed. No DNA of R. helvetica was detected in any of the groups studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rymaszewska
- 1 University of Szczecin Department of Genetics al. Piastow 40B 71-065 Szczecin Poland
| | - Małgorzata Adamska
- 1 University of Szczecin Department of Genetics al. Piastow 40B 71-065 Szczecin Poland
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Sashika M, Abe G, Matsumoto K, Inokuma H. Molecular survey of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia infections of feral raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Hokkaido, Japan. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:349-54. [PMID: 21395415 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection by Anaplasma and Ehrlichia in feral raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Hokkaido, Japan, was examined by molecular methods. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screen for Anaplasmataceae, based on 16S rRNA, showed that 38 (5.4%) of 699 raccoons examined were positive. These 38 positive samples were examined for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma bovis, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, and Ehrlichia canis infection by species-specific nested PCR. Nested PCR results indicated that 36 of the 38 samples were positive for A. bovis. All 38 samples were PCR negative for A. phagocytophilum, E. chaffeensis, and E. canis. This is the first report of the detection of A. bovis in the peripheral blood of raccoons. A total of 124 raccoons were infested with ticks, including Ixodes ovatus, Ixodes persulcatus, and Haemaphysalis spp. The rate of A. bovis infection in raccoons infested with Haemaphysalis spp. (46.7%, 7/15) was significantly higher than that in raccoons without Haemaphysalis spp. infestation (3.7%, 4/109, p < 0.001). No significant differences were observed in A. bovis infection rates between raccoons infested with I. ovatus or I. persulcatus and those not so infested. A total of four ticks (two males and two nymphs) and one larval pools from four raccoons showed positive for A. bovis-specific nested PCR. This results support the correlation between the A. bovis infection of raccoons and Haemaphysalis infestation. In conclusion, raccoons could be possible reservoir animals for A. bovis, and A. bovis infection in raccoons may be related to infestation with Haemaphysalis spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Sashika
- United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
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Cohen SB, Freye JD, Dunlap BG, Dunn JR, Jones TF, Moncayo AC. Host associations of Dermacentor, Amblyomma, and Ixodes (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks in Tennessee. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2010; 47:415-420. [PMID: 20496589 DOI: 10.1603/me09065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
From April 2007 to September 2008, 1,793 adult and nymphal ixodid ticks were collected from 49 counties in Tennessee. Six species were identified, including Dermacentor variabilis (Say), Amblyomma americanum (L.), Ixodes texanus (Banks), Ixodes cookei Packard, Ixodes scapularis (Say), and Amblyomma maculatum Koch, from 13 medium- to large-sized mammalian hosts and dragging through vegetation. Raccoons were the most common vertebrate source (198 captures), accounting for 60% of ticks collected. Dermacentor variabilis was the predominant species from raccoons with a prevalence of 92% and mean intensity of 5.3. A. americanum was predominated in white-tailed deer and drags with respective mean intensities of 3.1 and 14.1 and prevalence values of 94%. All tick species were identified between April and August, coinciding with the majority of animal captures. Only A. americanum, I. texanus, and I. cookei were identified from 22 animal captures from November to March. I. texanus and I. cookei were more common in the eastern portions of the state, but this may be a result of higher raccoon captures in those areas. Only four specimens of I. scapularis were collected in this study, which may reflect the absence of small mammal or reptile captures. Two A. maculatum were collected, and we report new distribution records in Tennessee for this species. Despite unequal sampling among ecoregions, the large numbers of D. variabilis and A. americanum from multiple host species suggest their widespread distribution throughout the state. These species of ticks can transmit multiple pathogens, including spotted fever group rickettsiae and ehrlichiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Cohen
- Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, TN 37243, USA
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Santos AS, Amaro F, Santos-Silva MM, De Sousa R, Mathias ML, Ramalhinho MG, Nuncio MS, Alves MJ, Bacellar F, Dumler JS. Detection of antibodies against Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Algerian mice (Mus spretus), Portugal. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2010; 9:663-9. [PMID: 18973448 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Portugal stimulated further research on the agent's enzootic cycle, which usually involves rodents. Thus a total 322 rodents belonging to five species, including 30 Apodemus sylvaticus (wood mouse), 65 Mus musculus (house mouse), 194 M. spretus (algerian mouse), 5 Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) and 28 R. rattus (black rat), were studied by indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA) and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for A. phagocytophilum exposure in four sampling areas of mainland and two areas of Madeira Island, Portugal. Overall, 3.6% (7/194) of M. spretus presented with IFA-positive results. Seropositive mice were detected in all three mainland sampling areas where this species was captured, with prevalence of 5.2% (5/96) and 5.0% (1/20) for the Ixodes-areas of Arrábida and Mafra, and 1.3% (1/78) for Mértola, a difference that was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The majority of IFA-positive mice were detected in spring when considering either Arrábida alone (p = 0.026) or all M. spretus sampling areas together (p = 0.021), although the significance of this association was not evident after Bonferroni correction. Nevertheless, neither the seropositive M. spretus, nor additional samples of 10% seronegative rodents from mainland, and 16% of rodents collected in Madeira Island showed evidence of A. phagocytophilum active infections when spleen and/or lung samples were tested by PCR. Either the M. spretus results represents residual antibodies from past A. phagocytophilum infections, present infections with limited bacteremia, or cross-reactions with closely related agents deserves more investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Santos
- Centro de Estudos de Vectores e Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal.
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Reichard MV, Roman RM, Kocan KM, Blouin EF, de la Fuente J, Snider TA, Heinz RE, West MD, Little SE, Massung RF. Inoculation of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Ap-V1 Or NY-18 strains of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and microscopic demonstration of Ap-V1 In Ixodes scapularis adults that acquired infection from deer as nymphs. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2010; 9:565-8. [PMID: 18973438 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Four white-tailed deer were inoculated with either the Ap-V1 or NY-18 strain of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Ixodes scapularis nymphs were then allowed to acquistion feed on the inoculated deer and molt to adults. Only an Ap-V1 infected deer was infected persistently and able to infect nymphal Ixodes scapularis. Molted adult ticks maintained Ap-V1 infection as demonstrated by PCR and microscopy. We report, for the first time, a morphologic description of A. phagocytophilum in I. scapularis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mason V Reichard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA.
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Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the recently designated name replacing three species of granulocytic bacteria, Ehrlichia phagocytophila, Ehrlichia equi and the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, after the recent reorganization of the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales. Tick-borne fever (TBF), which is caused by the prototype of A. phagocytophilum, was first described in 1932 in Scotland. A similar disease caused by a related granulocytic agent was first described in horses in the USA in 1969; this was followed by the description of two distinct granulocytic agents causing similar diseases in dogs in the USA in 1971 and 1982. Until the discovery of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) in the USA in 1994, these organisms were thought to be distinct species of bacteria infecting specific domestic animals and free-living reservoirs. It is now widely accepted that the agents affecting different animal hosts are variants of the same Gram-negative obligatory intracellular bacterium, which is transmitted by hard ticks belonging to the Ixodes persulcatus complex. One of its fascinating features is that it infects and actively grows in neutrophils by employing an array of mechanisms to subvert their bactericidal activity. It is also able to survive within an apparently immune host by employing a complex mechanism of antigenic variation. Ruminants with TBF and humans with HGA develop severe febrile reaction, bacteraemia and leukopenia due to neutropenia, lymphocytopenia and thrombocytopenia within a week of exposure to a tick bite. Because of the severe haematological disorders lasting for several days and other adverse effects on the host's immune functions, infected animals and humans are more susceptible to other infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zerai Woldehiwet
- University of Liverpool, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Leahurst, Neston, South Wirral CH64 7TE, UK.
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68
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Ogden N, Tsao J. Biodiversity and Lyme disease: Dilution or amplification? Epidemics 2009; 1:196-206. [DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2009] [Revised: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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69
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Thomas RJ, Stephen Dumler J, Carlyon JA. Current management of human granulocytic anaplasmosis, human monocytic ehrlichiosis and Ehrlichia ewingii ehrlichiosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7:709-22. [PMID: 19681699 PMCID: PMC2739015 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii are emerging tick-borne pathogens and are the causative agents of human granulocytic anaplasmosis, human monocytic ehrlichiosis and E. ewingii ehrlichiosis, respectively. Collectively, these are referred to as human ehrlichioses. These obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens of the family Anaplasmataceae are transmitted by Ixodes spp. or Amblyomma americanum ticks and infect peripherally circulating leukocytes to cause infections that range in clinical spectra from asymptomatic seroconversion to mild, severe or, in rare instances, fatal disease. This review describes: the ecology of each pathogen; the epidemiology, clinical signs and symptoms of the human diseases that each causes; the choice methods for diagnosing and treating human ehrlichioses; recommendations for patient management; and is concluded with suggestions for potential future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael J Thomas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - J Stephen Dumler
- Division of Medical Microbiology, Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MA, USA
| | - Jason A Carlyon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Molecular Medicine Research Building, 1220 East Broad Street, Room 4052, PO Box 980678, Richmond, VA 23298-0678, USA Tel.: +1 804 628 3382 Fax: +1 804 828 9946
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70
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Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Kijlstra A. Rodent-borne diseases and their risks for public health. Crit Rev Microbiol 2009; 35:221-70. [DOI: 10.1080/10408410902989837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 455] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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71
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Munderloh UG, Yabsley MJ, Murphy SM, Luttrell MP, Howerth EW. Isolation and establishment of the raccoon Ehrlichia-like agent in tick cell culture. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 7:418-25. [PMID: 17867909 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Feral animals are reservoirs of emerging human pathogens, as well as carriers of closely related wildlife diseases. The latter may interfere with epidemiologic studies by inducing cross-reactive antibodies, or by providing false positive signals in PCR based tests. We cultured a novel intracellular bacterium from the blood of two raccoons (Procyon lotor): RAC413 and RAC414. RAC413 had been experimentally inoculated with blood from a wild-caught raccoon, and provided the material for a blood passage into RAC414. The microbes grew in Ixodes scapularis (black-legged tick) cells, line ISE6, inoculated either with the leukocyte or erythrocyte fraction of anticoagulated blood. Giemsa-stained cells sampled two and three months after initial inoculation of the cultures revealed inclusions similar to those of Ehrlichia sp., except that individual bacteria commonly were elongated and clustered within endosomes. Electronmicroscopy confirmed the presence of irregularly shaped bacteria with evenly granular bacterioplasm bounded by a unit membrane. 16S rDNA sequencing identified the microbes as the raccoon Ehrlichia-like agent previously detected in feral raccoons from Georgia, United States. In conclusion, the availability of a culture isolate of this agent will facilitate future studies to determine its biology, epidemiologic significance, vector association, and host range. The Ehrlichia-like agent infecting raccoons joins a growing list of tick-borne agents cultivable in tick cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike G Munderloh
- Department of Entomology, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108, USA.
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72
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Prevalence and genotypes of Anaplasma species and habitat suitability for ticks in a Mediterranean ecosystem. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 74:7578-84. [PMID: 18978093 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01625-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma species are tick-transmitted pathogens that impact veterinary and human health. Sicily is one of the locations where these pathogens are endemic. Sicily represents a typical Mediterranean ecosystem to study Anaplasma infection and tick habitat suitability. The aims of this study were (i) to characterize by 16S rRNA and species-specific msp4 gene PCR the prevalence and genotypes of A. marginale, A. phagocytophilum, and A. ovis in the most abundant host species in Sicilian provinces and (ii) to correlate differences between hosts and between western and eastern Sicily with the habitat suitability for ticks in these regions. Differences were found in the prevalence of Anaplasma spp. between different hosts and between western and eastern provinces. The differences in Anaplasma prevalence between different hosts may be explained by pathogen host tropism. The differences between western and eastern provinces correlated with the tick habitat suitability in these regions. The analysis of Anaplasma genotypes suggested a higher host and regional specificity for A. phagocytophilum than for A. marginale and A. ovis strains, a finding probably associated with the broader host range of A. phagocytophilum. The presence of identical A. marginale genotypes in the two regions may reflect cattle movement. The results for A. ovis suggested the possibility of some genotypes being host specific. These results provide information potentially useful for the management of tick-borne diseases caused by Anaplasma spp. in Sicily and other Mediterranean regions and may contribute to the development of models to predict the risks for these tick-borne pathogens.
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73
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Yabsley MJ, Murphy SM, Luttrell MP, Wilcox BR, Ruckdeschel C. Raccoons (Procyon lotor), but not rodents, are natural and experimental hosts for an ehrlichial organism related to “Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis”. Vet Microbiol 2008; 131:301-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2007] [Revised: 03/20/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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74
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Foley JE, Nieto NC, Adjemian J, Dabritz H, Brown RN. Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in small mammal hosts of Ixodes ticks, western United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1147-50. [PMID: 18598645 PMCID: PMC2600359 DOI: 10.3201/eid1407.071599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of 2,121 small mammals in California were assessed for Anaplasma phagocytophilum from 2006 through 2008. Odds ratios were >1 for 4 sciurids species and dusky-footed woodrats. High seroprevalence was observed in northern sites. Ten tick species were identified. Heavily infested rodent species included meadow voles, woodrats, deer mice, and redwood chipmunks.
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75
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Santos AS, Santos-Silva MM, Sousa RD, Bacellar F, Dumler JS. PCR-based survey of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Portuguese ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 9:33-40. [PMID: 18781886 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2008.0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A total of two-thousand and six ticks, collected from 2002 to 2006 in areas belonging to seven districts of Mainland Portugal and also in Madeira Island, were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Active infections were detected exclusively in Ixodes species, including six questing I. ricinus nymphs from Madeira Island, one questing I. ventalloi nymph from Setúbal District, and two I. ventalloi adults found parasitizing domestic cats in both Setúbal and Santarém District. These findings confirm prior observations and suggest the persistence of A. phagocytophilum on Madeira Island. Moreover, it adds I. ventalloi and domestic cats to the list of potential elements of the agent's enzootic cycles in Portugal. Molecular analysis of PCR amplicons suggests the existence of two A. phagocytophilum genotypes in Portugal, one of which is identical or very similar to North American strains implicated in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana S Santos
- Centro de Estudos de Vectores e Doenças Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal.
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76
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Zhan L, CAO WC, de Vlas S, Xie SY, Zhang PH, WU XM, Dumler JS, Yang H, Richardus JH, Habbema JDF. A newly discovered Anaplasma phagocytophilum variant in rodents from southeastern China. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8:369-80. [PMID: 18471056 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected by polymerase chain reaction in 13 (14.1%) of 92 rodents captured from a mountainous area of Zhejiang Province in southeastern China. The nucleotide sequences of 1442-bp, nearly entire 16S rRNA gene amplified from these rodents, had 100% identity, but varied from all known corresponding sequences of A. phagocytophilum deposited in GenBank. To further identify and classify the variant, fragments of 357-bp partial citrate synthase gene (gltA), 849-bp major surface protein 4 gene (msp4), and 443-bp groESL heat-shock operon gene, were amplified and analyzed. The nucleotide sequences of the partial gltA gene amplified from the rodents were identical to each other, but distinct from previously reported A. phagocytophilum sequences,as were msp4 and groESL. These findings indicate that the newly discovered agent represents a novel A. phagocytophilum variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhan
- Beijing Institute of Microbiology, and Epidemiology, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, 20 Dong-Da Street, Fengtai District, Beijing 100071, PR China
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77
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Yabsley MJ, Murphy SM, Luttrell MP, Little SE, Massung RF, Stallknecht DE, Conti LA, Blackmore CG, Durden LA. Experimental and Field Studies on the Suitability of Raccoons (Procyon lotor) as Hosts for Tick-Borne Pathogens. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8:491-503. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Yabsley
- Daniel B. Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Staci M. Murphy
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - M. Page Luttrell
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Susan E. Little
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
| | - Robert F. Massung
- Viral and Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - David E. Stallknecht
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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78
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Foley JE, Clueit SB, Brown RN. Differential Exposure toAnaplasma phagocytophilumin Rodent Species in Northern California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8:49-55. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Janet E. Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | | | - Richard N. Brown
- Department of Wildlife, Humboldt State University, Arcata, California
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79
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Inokuma H. Vectors and Reservoir Hosts of Anaplasmataceae. INFECTIOUS DISEASE AND THERAPY 2007. [DOI: 10.3109/9781420019971.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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80
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Inokuma H, Makino T, Kabeya H, Nogami S, Fujita H, Asano M, Inoue S, Maruyama S. Serological survey of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma infection of feral raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Vet Parasitol 2007; 145:186-9. [PMID: 17157441 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2006] [Revised: 10/30/2006] [Accepted: 11/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Numbers of feral raccoon; the possible reservoir animal of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma, are increasing in Japan. Thus serological methods were utilized to examine Ehrlichia and Anaplasma infection in raccoons from Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. By using an indirect immunofluorescence assay, among 187 feral raccoons examined, 1 (0.5%) serologically reacted with Ehrlichia canis, 3 (1.6%) with Ehrlichia chaffeensis and 1 (0.5%) with Anaplasma phagocytophilum with the titers of 1:40 or more. Although screening PCR for Ehrlichia and Anaplasma species failed to detect the presence of ehrlichial DNA in serum samples, results of the serological tests suggested that the feral raccoons might be infected with some species of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisashi Inokuma
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Inada, Obihiro, Japan.
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81
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Blas-Machado U, de la Fuente J, Blouin EF, Almazán C, Kocan KM, Mysore JV. Experimental infection of C3H/HeJ mice with the NY18 isolate of Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vet Pathol 2007; 44:64-73. [PMID: 17197625 DOI: 10.1354/vp.44-1-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), an emerging disease of public health concern in many areas of the world, is caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Small animal models of A phagocytophilum in laboratory mice have been developed and used to study the pathogenesis of HGA. In this study, we characterized the pathologic changes in acute infection of C3H/HeJ mice experimentally infected with the NY18 isolate of A phagocytophilum. Although no clinical signs were noted, acute infection was associated with gross splenomegaly, microscopic inflammatory lesions in the lung and liver, hyperplastic lesions on the spleen, and clinical pathology abnormalities including neutropenia and monocytosis. This study emphasizes the use of well-defined animal models as a valuable tool for the study of A phagocytophilum infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Blas-Machado
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
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82
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Dugan VG, Yabsley MJ, Tate CM, Mead DG, Munderloh UG, Herron MJ, Stallknecht DE, Little SE, Davidson WR. Evaluation of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as natural sentinels for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006; 6:192-207. [PMID: 16796517 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2006.6.192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of human granulocytotropic anaplasmosis, can infect white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus), and this species is a crucial host for adult Ixodes scapularis, the primary vector of A. phagocytophilum. The goal of this study was to determine the geographic distribution of A. phagocytophilum among WTD across a 19 state region and to evaluate the utility of WTD as natural sentinels. Serologic testing using the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) assay was conducted on WTD serum samples and molecular and xenodiagnostic tests were performed to confirm serologic results. The surveillance system was assessed through examination of vital attributes including WTD age and gender associations with serologic status, sample size adequacy for accurate infection status classification, and presence of the vector, I. scapularis. Six hundred thirty-three of 2,666 (24%) WTD in 17 states tested positive for antibodies (>or=128) when tested by IFA assay. Testing for p44 and/or 16S rRNA gene targets identified 73 (16%) PCR positive WTD among 458 animals tested, all of which originated from seropositive populations. Attempts to culture A. phagocytophilum from WTD were unsuccessful; however, xenodiagnostic mice inoculated with blood from 3 WTD became infected. Seroprevalence did not differ by deer age or gender; however, WTD<or=0.75 years old had a higher prevalence of PCR positivity. Using seroprevalence data, a sample size of 6-9 animals per population was projected to be adequate for identifying seropositive populations. The presence of I. scapularis was significantly associated with A. phagocytophilum antibodies in WTD. Collectively, the results of this study demonstrate that WTD would be suitable natural sentinels for this emerging zoonotic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien G Dugan
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA
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83
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Massung RF, Courtney JW, Hiratzka SL, Pitzer VE, Smith G, Dryden RL. Anaplasma phagocytophilum in white-tailed deer. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 11:1604-6. [PMID: 16318705 PMCID: PMC3366735 DOI: 10.3201/eid1110.041329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the reservoir potential of white-tailed deer for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Results suggest that white-tailed deer harbor a variant strain not associated with human infection, but contrary to published reports, white-tailed deer are not a reservoir for strains that cause human disease. These results will affect surveillance studies of vector and reservoir populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Massung
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA.
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84
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Reeves WK, Dowling APG, Dasch GA. Rickettsial agents from parasitic dermanyssoidea (Acari: Mesostigmata). EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2006; 38:181-8. [PMID: 16596351 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-006-0007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2005] [Accepted: 02/01/2006] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Mites are often overlooked as vectors of pathogens, but have been shown to harbor and transmit rickettsial agents such as Rickettsia akari and Orientia tsutsugamushi. We screened DNA extracts from 27 mites representing 25 species of dermanyssoids for rickettsial agents such as Anaplasma, Bartonella, Rickettsia, and Wolbachia by PCR amplification and sequencing. DNA from Anaplasma spp., a novel Bartonella sp., Spiroplasma sp., Wolbachia sp., and an unclassified Rickettsiales were detected in mites. These could represent mite-borne bacterial agents, bacterial DNA from blood meals, or novel endosymbionts of mites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will K Reeves
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd. NE, MS G-13, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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85
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De La Fuente J, Naranjo V, Ruiz-Fons F, Höfle U, Fernández De Mera IG, Villanúa D, Almazán C, Torina A, Caracappa S, Kocan KM, Gortázar C. Potential Vertebrate Reservoir Hosts and Invertebrate Vectors ofAnaplasma marginaleandA. phagocytophilumin Central Spain. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005; 5:390-401. [PMID: 16417435 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2005.5.390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Organisms in the genus Anaplasma are obligate intracellular pathogens that multiply in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. The type species, A. marginale, causes bovine anaplasmosis and only infects ticks and ruminants. A. phagocytophilum causes human and animal granulocytic anaplasmosis, and genetically closely related strains show a wide host range, including ticks, ruminants, rodents, equids, canids, birds, and humans. Recent reports demonstrated that A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum co-exist in geographic areas and that concurrent infections occur in ruminants and ticks. In this study, we characterized A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum infections in wild and domestic animals, and ticks collected in central Spain by serology, PCR, and sequence of 16S rRNA genotypes. Species tested included humans, cattle, dogs, rodents, Iberian red deer, European wild boar, birds, and ticks. Species of hematophagous Diptera were analyzed as potential mechanical vectors of Anaplasma spp. A. marginale was detected in tabanids, ticks, cattle, and deer, while A. phagocytophilum was detected in ticks, deer, cattle, and birds. Concurrent infections of the two Anaplasma were found in cattle and deer. These results illustrate the complexity of the epizootiology of A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum in regions where both pathogens co-exist and share common reservoir hosts and vectors. The increasing contact between wildlife, domestic animals, and human populations increases the risk of outbreaks of human and bovine anaplasmosis, and the difficulty of implementing surveillance and control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- José De La Fuente
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain.
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86
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Moriarity JR, Loftis AD, Dasch GA. High-throughput molecular testing of ticks using a liquid-handling robot. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2005; 42:1063-7. [PMID: 16465749 DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/42.6.1063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
To meet the need for high-throughput sample testing, DNA extraction kits based on the 96-well plate format have been developed for use with blood and tissue samples. These methods have not been applied to DNA extractions from ticks. To meet this need, we developed a high-throughput method for DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of tick samples. A liquid-handling robot was used to extract DNA in a 96-well binding column plate with vacuum manifold. The quantity, purity, and quality of DNA recovered from Ixodes scapularis Say, 1821 nymphs with this method were reproducible and comparable with existing manual DNA extraction techniques. The DNA yield from pools of five nymphal ticks averaged 0.432 +/- 0.04 microg (95% CI). The robot also prepared real-time PCR reactions in 96-well plates, directly from the extracted DNA. A modification of the existing P20 tool resulted in accurate pipetting of 1- to 2-microl volumes with a reproducibility of +/- 0.038 microl when dispensing 1.0 microl. By using this process, 96 samples can be extracted and tested while reducing human labor to approximately 30 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Moriarity
- Viral and Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
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87
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de la Fuente J, Lew A, Lutz H, Meli ML, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Shkap V, Molad T, Mangold AJ, Almazán C, Naranjo V, Gortázar C, Torina A, Caracappa S, García-Pérez AL, Barral M, Oporto B, Ceci L, Carelli G, Blouin EF, Kocan KM. Genetic diversity of anaplasma species major surface proteins and implications for anaplasmosis serodiagnosis and vaccine development. Anim Health Res Rev 2005; 6:75-89. [PMID: 16164010 DOI: 10.1079/ahr2005104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The genus Anaplasma (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) includes several pathogens of veterinary and human medical importance. An understanding of the diversity of Anaplasma major surface proteins (MSPs), including those MSPs that modulate infection, development of persistent infections, and transmission of pathogens by ticks, is derived in part, by characterization and phylogenetic analyses of geographic strains. Information concerning the genetic diversity of Anaplasma spp. MSPs will likely influence the development of serodiagnostic assays and vaccine strategies for the control of anaplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-2007, USA.
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88
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Skoracki M, Michalik J, Skotarczak B, Rymaszewska A, Sikora B, Hofman T, Wodecka B, Sawczuk M. First detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in quill mites (Acari: Syringophilidae) parasitizing passerine birds. Microbes Infect 2005; 8:303-7. [PMID: 16293433 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2005.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2005] [Accepted: 06/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Forest passerine birds and their ectoparasites: Ixodes ricinus ticks and Syringophilidae quill mites were surveyed for infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum in west-central Poland. Of 126 birds captured from May to June of 2002, 71 (56.3%) comprising eight species, hosted immature I. ricinus ticks. A total of 383 ticks and 71 blood samples collected from tick-infested birds were investigated by PCR. The pathogen was not detected in either bird-derived ticks or in blood samples. Among the captured birds, a total of 14 individuals representing four species hosted quill mites from the family Syringophilidae. Three of the 14 mite pools recovered from the 14 mite-infested birds harbored A. phagocytophilum DNA by amplifying both the epank1 and p44 gene. The PCR-positive pools originated from one blackbird and two starlings. The specific biology of syringophilid mites, which parasitize exclusively inside the quill of feathers, feeding on host subcutaneous fluids, implies that they must have acquired the pathogen from a bacteremic bird. These results provide the first indirect evidence that at least some passerine hosts are prone to develop systemic infection with A. phagocytophilum under natural conditions. Consequently, the infected quill mites may serve as a "biological marker" of past or current infection with the agent within birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Skoracki
- Department of Animal Morphology, Adam Mickiewicz University, ul. Umultowska 89, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
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89
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Tate CM, Mead DG, Luttrell MP, Howerth EW, Dugan VG, Munderloh UG, Davidson WR. Experimental infection of white-tailed deer with Anaplasma phagocytophilum, etiologic agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43:3595-601. [PMID: 16081884 PMCID: PMC1233969 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.43.8.3595-3601.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Serologic and molecular evidence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum has been demonstrated in white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus), and deer are an important host for the tick vector Ixodes scapularis. In this study, we describe experimental infection of WTD with A. phagocytophilum. We inoculated four WTD with a human isolate of A. phagocytophilum propagated in tick cells. Two additional deer served as negative controls. All inoculated deer developed antibodies (titers, > or =64) to A. phagocytophilum, as determined by an indirect fluorescent antibody test, between 14 and 24 days postinfection [p.i.]), and two deer maintained reciprocal titers of > or =64 through the end of the 66-day study. Although morulae were not observed in granulocytes and A. phagocytophilum was not reisolated via tick cell culture of blood, 16S reverse transcriptase nested PCR (RT-nPCR) results indicated that A. phagocytophilum circulated in peripheral blood of three deer through at least 17 days p.i. and was present in two deer at 38 days p.i. Femoral bone marrow from one deer was RT-nPCR positive for A. phagocytophilum at 66 days p.i. There was no indication of clinical disease. These data confirm that WTD are susceptible to infection with a human isolate of A. phagocytophilum and verify that WTD produce detectable antibodies upon exposure to the organism. Because adults are the predominant life stage of I. scapularis found on deer and because adult I. scapularis ticks do not transmit A. phagocytophilum transovarially, it is unlikely that WTD are a significant source of A. phagocytophilum for immature ticks even though deer have a high probability of natural infection. However, the susceptibility and immunologic response of WTD to A. phagocytophilum render them suitable candidates as natural sentinels for this zoonotic tick-borne organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Tate
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7393.
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90
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de la Fuente J, Ayoubi P, Blouin EF, Almazán C, Naranjo V, Kocan KM. Gene expression profiling of human promyelocytic cells in response to infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Cell Microbiol 2005; 7:549-59. [PMID: 15760455 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2004.00485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) causes human, equine and canine granulocytic anaplasmosis and tick-borne fever of ruminants. The rickettsia parasitizes granulocytes and bone marrow progenitor cells, and can be propagated in human promyelocytic and tick cell lines. In this study, microarrays of synthetic polynucleotides of 21,329 human genes were used to identify genes that are differentially expressed in HL-60 human promyelocytic cells in response to infection with A. phagocytophilum. Semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of selected genes confirmed the results of the microarray analysis. Six genes in the A. phagocytophilum-infected cells were found to be upregulated greater than 30-fold, while expression of downregulated genes most often did not change more than sixfold. Genes that were found to be differentially regulated in infected cells were those essential for cellular mechanisms including growth and differentiation, cell transport, signalling and communication and protective response against infection, some of which are most likely necessary for infection and multiplication of A. phagocytophilum in host cells. The differentially regulated genes described herein provide new information on the gene expression profiles in A. phagocytophilum-infected HL-60 cells, thus expanding in a global manner the existing information on the response of mammalian cells to A. phagocytophilum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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91
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Yabsley MJ, Norton TM, Powell MR, Davidson WR. Molecular and serologic evidence of tick-borne Ehrlichiae in three species of lemurs from St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA. J Zoo Wildl Med 2005; 35:503-9. [PMID: 15732591 DOI: 10.1638/03-116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several species of ehrlichiae have been recognized as tick-borne disease agents of veterinary and medical importance. Clinically normal free-ranging or previously free-ranging lemurs, including 46 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), six blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), and four black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) from St. Catherines Island, Georgia, were tested for evidence of exposure to tick-borne ehrlichiae. All 52 adult lemurs were serologically tested for exposure to Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for E. chaffeensis, A. phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Ehrlichia canis were conducted on blood samples from all 56 lemurs. Blood from all lemurs was inoculated into DH82 cell cultures for E. chaffeensis isolation. Of the adult lemurs, 20 (38.5%) and 16 (30.8%) had antibodies reactive (> or =1:128) for E. chaffeensis and A. phagocytophilum, respectively. Two ring-tailed lemurs were PCR and culture positive for E. chaffeensis. Molecular characterization of the two E. chaffeensis isolates showed that both contained 5-repeat variants of the variable-length PCR target (VLPT) antigen gene and 3-repeat variants of the 120-kDa antigen gene. Sequencing of the VLPT genes revealed a novel amino acid repeat unit (type-9). One lemur infected with E. chaffeensis was slightly hypoproteinemic and had moderately elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels. These lemurs from St. Catherines Island have been exposed to or infected with tick-borne ehrlichiae, or both, but showed no clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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92
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Dugan VG, Gaydos JK, Stallknecht DE, Little SE, Beall AD, Mead DG, Hurd CC, Davidson WR. Detection ofEhrlichiaspp. in Raccoons (Procyon lotor) from Georgia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005; 5:162-71. [PMID: 16011433 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2005.5.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Raccoons (Procyonis lotor) and opossums (Didelphis virginianus) acquired from six contiguous counties in the Piedmont physiographic region of Georgia were investigated for their potential role in the epidemiology of ehrlichial and anaplasmal species. Serum was tested by indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) assay for the presence of antibodies reactive to Ehrlichia chaffeensis, E. canis, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (HGA agent). Nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was used to test whole blood or white blood cell preparations for the presence of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma spp. 16S rRNA (rDNA) gene fragments. In addition, ticks were collected from these animals and identified. Twenty-three of 60 raccoons (38.3%) had E. chaffeensis-reactive antibodies (>1:64), 13 of 60 raccoons (21.7%) had E. canis-reactive antibodies, and one of 60 raccoons (1.7%) had A. phagocytophilum- reactive antibodies. A sequence confirmed E. canis product was obtained from one of 60 raccoons and a novel Ehrlichia-like 16S rDNA sequence was detected in 32 of 60 raccoons. This novel sequence was most closely related to an Ehrlichia-like organism identified from Ixodes ticks and rodents in Asia and Europe. Raccoons were PCR negative for E. chaffeensis and E. ewingii DNA. Five tick species, including Dermacentor variabilis, Amblyomma americanum, Ixodes texanus, I. cookei, and I. scapularis, were identified from raccoons and represent potential vectors for the ehrlichiae detected. Opossums (n = 17) were free of ticks and negative on all IFA and PCR assays. This study suggests that raccoons are potentially involved in the epidemiology of multiple ehrlichial organisms with known or potential public health and veterinary implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien G Dugan
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study and Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-4393, USA.
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93
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Lane RS, Mun J, Eisen RJ, Eisen L. Western gray squirrel (Rodentia: Sciuridae): a primary reservoir host of Borrelia burgdorferi in Californian oak woodlands? JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2005; 42:388-96. [PMID: 15962792 DOI: 10.1093/jmedent/42.3.388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In California, dense woodlands have been recognized as important biotopes where humans are exposed to the nymphal stage of the western blacklegged tick, Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls, the primary vector of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.), in the far-western United States. To identify the principal reservoir host(s) of this spirochete, and of closely related spirochetes in the B. burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) complex, in dense woodlands in Mendocino County, California, approximately 50 species of birds and mammals, including wood rats and kangaroo rats, were evaluated as potential hosts for vector ticks and borreliae in 2002 and 2003. Although polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing analyses revealed that many vertebrate species had been exposed to one or more members of the B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetal complex, only the western gray squirrel, Sciurus griseus, fulfilled the major criteria for a reservoir host of B. burgdorferi s.s. Ear-punch biopsies from eight of 10 squirrels collected from five separate woodlands were PCR-positive for B. burgdorferi s.s., 47% of I. pacificus larvae (n = 64) and 31% of nymphs (n = 49) removed from squirrels contained B. burgdorferi s.l., and the engorgement status of I. pacificus larvae was associated positively with acquisition of spirochetes. Overall, 83 and 100% of the amplicons sequenced from PCR-positive I. pacificus larvae and nymphs, respectively, were identified as B. burgdorferi s.s, Among the five remaining positive I. pacificus larvae, three contained B. bissettii and two had uncharacterized B. burgdorferi s.l. Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. was detected in one of five larvae and zero of two nymphs of the Pacific Coast tick, Dermacentor occidentalis Marx, that likewise had been removed from squirrels. The rickettsial agent of human anaplasmosis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, was detected in the blood or ear biopsies of two squirrels and in one (1.6%) of 64 I. pacificus larvae and two (4.1%) of 49 nymphs obtained from squirrels. The one rickettsial-positive larva was coinfected with B. burgdorferi s.s. The apparently high reservoir potential of S. griseus for B. burgdorferi s.s., plus the fact that the geographic distribution of this squirrel coincides well with that of most reported human cases of Lyme disease in this region, indicated that it may be essential for maintaining foci of B. burgdorferi s.s. in certain types of woodlands. The findings with respect to A. phagocytophilum, although of less certain significance, suggest that S. griseus could serve as a secondary host of this rickettsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Lane
- Division of Insect Biology, Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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94
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de la Fuente J, Massung RF, Wong SJ, Chu FK, Lutz H, Meli M, von Loewenich FD, Grzeszczuk A, Torina A, Caracappa S, Mangold AJ, Naranjo V, Stuen S, Kocan KM. Sequence analysis of the msp4 gene of Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43:1309-17. [PMID: 15750101 PMCID: PMC1081214 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.43.3.1309-1317.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The causative agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis was recently reclassified as Anaplasma phagocytophilum, unifying previously described bacteria that cause disease in humans, horses, dogs, and ruminants. For the characterization of genetic heterogeneity in this species, the homologue of Anaplasma marginale major surface protein 4 gene (msp4) was identified, and the coding region was PCR amplified and sequenced from a variety of sources, including 50 samples from the United States, Germany, Poland, Norway, Italy, and Switzerland and 4 samples of A. phagocytophilum-like organisms obtained from white-tailed deer in the United States. Sequence variation between strains of A. phagocytophilum (90 to 100% identity at the nucleotide level and 92 to 100% similarity at the protein level) was higher than in A. marginale. Phylogenetic analyses of msp4 sequences did not provide phylogeographic information but did differentiate strains of A. phagocytophilum obtained from ruminants from those obtained from humans, dogs, and horses. The sequence analysis of the recently discovered A. phagocytophilum msp2 gene corroborated these results. The results reported here suggest that although A. phagocytophilum-like organisms from white-tailed deer may be closely related to A. phagocytophilum, they could be more diverse. These results suggest that A. phagocytophilum strains from ruminants could share some common characteristics, including reservoirs and pathogenicity, which may be different from strains that infect humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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95
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Lin Q, Rikihisa Y, Massung RF, Woldehiwet Z, Falco RC. Polymorphism and transcription at the p44-1/p44-18 genomic locus in Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains from diverse geographic regions. Infect Immun 2004; 72:5574-81. [PMID: 15385454 PMCID: PMC517535 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.10.5574-5581.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A polymorphic multigene family (p44) of Anaplasma phagocytophilum encodes the immunodominant 44-kDa major outer membrane proteins. With p44-specific PCR and gene-specific probes, p44-1 was found in all human isolates from New York State but not in isolates from Minnesota, whereas p44-18 and two other p44 species were found in isolates from both regions. We therefore sequenced the genomic locus corresponding to the p44-1/p44-18 tandem locus of A. phagocytophilum HZ in 14 other geographically divergent strains from various hosts. The locus was found in all 14 strains, and p44-18 was conserved among all 13 United States isolates studied. In all nine northeastern strains, p44-1 was conserved. However, in three of the Minnesota strains and in one California strain, p44-1 was replaced at this genomic locus by the novel gene p44-61 (p44-61/18), whose hypervariable region (hv) was a chimera of p44-20hv and p44-23hv. The conserved base sequence within the hv region linked the two segments. In contrast, in the Old Sourhope strain isolated from sheep in the United Kingdom, only a single and distinct p44, p44-OS, was found in this locus. This suggests different rates of evolution of p44-1 and p44-18 at this locus and conservation of the locus within strains isolated from the same geographic region. Locus-specific reverse transcription-PCR revealed expression of p44-1 by New York and p44-61 by Minnesota strains at this locus. These p44 loci provide insight into the molecular evolution and functional divergence of p44 paralogs and may serve as markers for typing strains from different geographic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Lin
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1093, USA
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96
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Levin ML, Ross DE. Acquisition of different isolates of Anaplasma phagocytophilum by Ixodes scapularis from a model animal. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2004; 4:53-9. [PMID: 15018773 DOI: 10.1089/153036604773082997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of etiologic agents in ticks reflects the intensity of their transmission in natural cycles and is an important measure of their potential to cause human disease. The distribution of Anaplasma phagocytophilum within the range of its primary vectors is patchy. Even nearby sites differ dramatically in the prevalence of Anaplasma in questing ticks. We hypothesized that this irregular distribution may be due in part to variations in acquisition rates of different isolates of A. phagocytophilum by I. scapularis ticks from infected animals. BALB/c mice were infected with seven isolates of A. phagocytophilum from different geographical regions: four isolates from the Northeastern United States (Bridgeport, Dawson, Gaillard, NY-8), two from the Midwest (Webster, Sp-Is), and one from California (MRK). Larval ticks were placed on infected mice for 16 consecutive weeks and allowed to feed to repletion. The prevalence of infection in the freshly molted nymphs was then determined by PCR. The proportion of ticks that became infected with either isolate fluctuated over the duration of infection. Mice harboring the isolate Sp-Is were most infectious for ticks at 3 weeks postinfection. Mice infected with the other six isolates exhibited several peaks of infectivity. Timing and relative heights of these peaks differed between isolates. Geographical proximity of the studied isolates did not predetermine their similarity, and isolates originating from the same region differed more in their ability to infect ticks than isolates from different regions. However, it appears unlikely that described differences in agent acquisition by ticks alone are sufficient to account for the irregular distribution of A. phagocytophilum in vector populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Levin
- Viral and Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
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