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Abstract
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing islet cells of the pancreas. Although islet transplantation has proved to be successful for some patients with type 1 diabetes, its widespread use is limited by islet donor shortage and the requirement for lifelong immunosuppression. An encapsulation strategy that can prevent the rejection of xenogeneic islets or of stem cell-derived allogeneic islets can potentially eliminate both of these barriers. Although encapsulation technology has met several challenges, the convergence of expertise in materials, nanotechnology, stem cell biology and immunology is allowing us to get closer to the goal of encapsulated islet cell therapy for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejal Desai
- University of California, San Francisco, Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, Byers Hall Rm 203C, MC 2520, 1700 4th Street, San Francisco, California 94158-2330, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- University of Michigan, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 1119 Carl A. Gerstacker Building, 2200 Bonisteel Boulevard, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2099, USA
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52
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Mauro N, Scialabba C, Pitarresi G, Giammona G. Enhanced adhesion and in situ photothermal ablation of cancer cells in surface-functionalized electrospun microfiber scaffold with graphene oxide. Int J Pharm 2017; 526:167-177. [PMID: 28442269 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The physicochemical characteristics of a biomaterial surface highly affect the interaction with living cells. Recently, much attention has been focused on the adhesion properties of functional biomaterials toward cancer cells, since is expected to control metastatic spread of a tumor, which is related to good probability containing the progression of disease burden. Here, we designed an implantable poly(caprolactone)-based electrospun microfiber scaffold, henceforth PCLMF-GO, to simultaneously capture and kill cancer cells by tuning physicochemical features of the hybrid surface through nitrogen plasma activation and hetero-phase graphene oxide (GO) covalent functionalization. The surface immobilization of GO implies enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation, promoting the selective adhesion of cancer cells, even if allowing cancer associated fibroblast (CAFs) capture. We also display that the functionalization with GO, thanks to the high near-infrared (NIR) absorbance, enables the discrete photothermal eradication of the captured cancer cells in situ (≈98%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolò Mauro
- Laboratory of Biocompatible Polymers, Department of "Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche" (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Via Archirafi, 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy.
| | - Cinzia Scialabba
- Laboratory of Biocompatible Polymers, Department of "Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche" (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Via Archirafi, 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Giovanna Pitarresi
- Laboratory of Biocompatible Polymers, Department of "Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche" (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Via Archirafi, 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Gaetano Giammona
- Laboratory of Biocompatible Polymers, Department of "Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche" (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Via Archirafi, 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy; Mediterranean Center for Human Advanced Biotechnologies (Med-Chab), Viale delle Scienze Ed. 18, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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53
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Harrington S, Williams J, Rawal S, Ramachandran K, Stehno-Bittel L. Hyaluronic Acid/Collagen Hydrogel as an Alternative to Alginate for Long-Term Immunoprotected Islet Transplantation<sup/>. Tissue Eng Part A 2017; 23:1088-1099. [PMID: 28142500 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2016.0477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alginate has long been the material of choice for immunoprotection of islets due to its low cost and ability to easily form microspheres. Unfortunately, this seaweed-derived material is notoriously prone to fibrotic overgrowth in vivo, resulting in premature graft failure. The purpose of this study was to test an alternative, hyaluronic acid (HA-COL), for in vitro function, viability, and allogeneic islet transplant outcomes in diabetic rats. In vitro studies indicated that the HA-COL gel had diffusion characteristics that would allow small molecules such as glucose and insulin to enter and exit the gel, whereas larger molecules (70 and 500 kDa dextrans) were impeded from diffusing past the gel edge in 24 h. Islets encapsulated in HA-COL hydrogel showed significantly improved in vitro viability over unencapsulated islets and retained their morphology and glucose sensitivity for 28 days. When unencapsulated allogeneic islet transplants were administered to the omentum of outbred rats, they initially were normoglycemic, but by 11 days returned to hyperglycemia. Immunohistological examination of the grafts and surrounding tissue indicated strong graft rejection. By comparison, when using the same outbred strain of rats, allogeneic transplantation of islets within the HA-COL gel reversed long-term diabetes and prevented graft rejection in all animals. Animals were sacrificed at 40, 52, 64, and 80 weeks for evaluation, and all were non-diabetic at sacrifice. Explanted grafts revealed viable islets in the transplant site as well as intact hydrogel, with little or no evidence of fibrotic overgrowth or cellular rejection. The results of these studies demonstrate great potential for HA-COL hydrogel as an alternative to sodium alginate for long-term immunoprotected islet transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Harrington
- 1 School of Engineering, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas.,2 University of Kansas Medical Center , Kansas City, Kansas.,3 Likarda, LLC, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Janette Williams
- 2 University of Kansas Medical Center , Kansas City, Kansas.,3 Likarda, LLC, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Sonia Rawal
- 2 University of Kansas Medical Center , Kansas City, Kansas
| | | | - Lisa Stehno-Bittel
- 1 School of Engineering, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas.,2 University of Kansas Medical Center , Kansas City, Kansas.,3 Likarda, LLC, Kansas City, Kansas
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54
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Dye BR, Dedhia PH, Miller AJ, Nagy MS, White ES, Shea LD, Spence JR. A bioengineered niche promotes in vivo engraftment and maturation of pluripotent stem cell derived human lung organoids. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27677847 PMCID: PMC5089859 DOI: 10.7554/elife.19732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) derived tissues often remain developmentally immature in vitro, and become more adult-like in their structure, cellular diversity and function following transplantation into immunocompromised mice. Previously we have demonstrated that hPSC-derived human lung organoids (HLOs) resembled human fetal lung tissue in vitro (Dye et al., 2015). Here we show that HLOs required a bioartificial microporous poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) scaffold niche for successful engraftment, long-term survival, and maturation of lung epithelium in vivo. Analysis of scaffold-grown transplanted tissue showed airway-like tissue with enhanced epithelial structure and organization compared to HLOs grown in vitro. By further comparing in vitro and in vivo grown HLOs with fetal and adult human lung tissue, we found that in vivo transplanted HLOs had improved cellular differentiation of secretory lineages that is reflective of differences between fetal and adult tissue, resulting in airway-like structures that were remarkably similar to the native adult human lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Briana R Dye
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Priya H Dedhia
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Alyssa J Miller
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States.,Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Melinda S Nagy
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Eric S White
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Center for Organogenesis, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States.,Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan Biomedical Engineering, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - Jason R Spence
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States.,Center for Organogenesis, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, United States
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55
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Abstract
The undesired destruction of healthy cells, either endogenous or transplanted, by the immune system results in the loss of tissue function or limits strategies to restore tissue function. Current therapies typically involve nonspecific immunosuppression that may prevent the appropriate response to an antigen, thereby decreasing humoral immunity and increasing the risks of patient susceptibility to opportunistic infections, viral reactivation, and neoplasia. The induction of antigen-specific immunological tolerance to block undesired immune responses to self- or allogeneic antigens, while maintaining the integrity of the remaining immune system, has the potential to transform the current treatment of autoimmune disease and serve as a key enabling technology for therapies based on cell transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xunrong Luo
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology and Hypertension.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, and
| | - Stephen D Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology and Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; ,
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109;
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56
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Bowers DT, Botchwey EA, Brayman KL. Advances in Local Drug Release and Scaffolding Design to Enhance Cell Therapy for Diabetes. TISSUE ENGINEERING. PART B, REVIEWS 2015; 21:491-503. [PMID: 26192271 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2015.0275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Islet transplant is a curative treatment for insulin-dependent diabetes. However, challenges, including poor tissue survival and a lack of efficient engraftment, must be overcome. An encapsulating or scaffolding material can act as a vehicle for agents carefully chosen for the islet transplant application. From open porous scaffolds to spherical capsules and conformal coatings, greater immune protection is often accompanied by greater distances to microvasculature. Generating a local oxygen supply from the implant material or encouraging vessel growth through the release of local factors can create an oxygenated engraftment site. Intricately related to the vascularization response, inflammatory interaction with the cell supporting implant is a long-standing hurdle to material-based islet transplant. Modulation of the immune responses to the islets as well as the material itself must be considered. To match the post-transplant complexity, the release rate can be tuned to orchestrate temporal responses. Material degradation properties can be utilized in passive approaches or external stimuli and biological cues in active approaches. A combination of multiple carefully chosen factors delivered in an agent-specialized manner is considered by this review to improve the long-term function of islets transplanted in scaffolding and encapsulating materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T Bowers
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, Virginia
- 2 Department of Surgery, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Edward A Botchwey
- 3 Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kenneth L Brayman
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, Virginia
- 2 Department of Surgery, University of Virginia , Charlottesville, Virginia
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57
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Azarin SM, Yi J, Gower RM, Aguado BA, Sullivan ME, Goodman AG, Jiang EJ, Rao SS, Ren Y, Tucker SL, Backman V, Jeruss JS, Shea LD. In vivo capture and label-free detection of early metastatic cells. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8094. [PMID: 26348915 PMCID: PMC4563812 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is a leading cause of death for women, with mortality resulting from metastasis. Metastases are often detected once tumor cells affect the function of solid organs, with a high disease burden limiting effective treatment. Here we report a method for the early detection of metastasis using an implanted scaffold to recruit and capture metastatic cells in vivo, which achieves high cell densities and reduces the tumor burden within solid organs 10-fold. Recruitment is associated with infiltration of immune cells, which include Gr1hiCD11b+ cells. We identify metastatic cells in the scaffold through a label-free detection system using inverse-spectroscopic optical coherence tomography, which identifies changes to nanoscale tissue architecture associated with the presence of tumor cells. For patients at risk of recurrence, scaffold implantation following completion of primary therapy has the potential to identify metastatic disease at the earliest stage, enabling initiation of therapy while the disease burden is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira M Azarin
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA
| | - Ji Yi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Robert M Gower
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA
| | - Brian A Aguado
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Megan E Sullivan
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Ashley G Goodman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Eric J Jiang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Shreyas S Rao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Yinying Ren
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Susan L Tucker
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Vadim Backman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA.,Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP), Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA.,The Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Jacqueline S Jeruss
- Department of Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA.,Institute for BioNanotechnology in Medicine (IBNAM), Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105, USA
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58
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Dumont CM, Park J, Shea LD. Controlled release strategies for modulating immune responses to promote tissue regeneration. J Control Release 2015; 219:155-166. [PMID: 26264833 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Advances in the field of tissue engineering have enhanced the potential of regenerative medicine, yet the efficacy of these strategies remains incomplete, and is limited by the innate and adaptive immune responses. The immune response associated with injury or disease combined with that mounted to biomaterials, transplanted cells, proteins, and gene therapies vectors can contribute to the inability to fully restore tissue function. Blocking immune responses such as with anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive agents are either ineffective, as the immune response contributes significantly to regeneration, or have significant side effects. This review describes targeted strategies to modulate the immune response in order to limit tissue damage following injury, promote an anti-inflammatory environment that leads to regeneration, and induce antigen (Ag)-specific tolerance that can target degenerative diseases that destroy tissues and promote engraftment of transplanted cells. Focusing on targeted immuno-modulation, we describe local delivery techniques to sites of inflammation as well as systemic approaches that preferentially target subsets of immune populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney M Dumont
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Jonghyuck Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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59
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Yang EY, Kronenfeld JP, Gattás-Asfura KM, Bayer AL, Stabler CL. Engineering an "infectious" T(reg) biomimetic through chemoselective tethering of TGF-β1 to PEG brush surfaces. Biomaterials 2015. [PMID: 26197412 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Modulation of immunological responses to allografts following transplantation is of pivotal importance to improving graft outcome and duration. Of the many approaches, harnessing the dominant tolerance induced by regulatory T cells (Treg) holds tremendous promise. Recent studies have highlighted the unique potency of cell surface-bound TGF-β1 on Treg for promoting infectious tolerance, i.e. to confer suppressive capacity from one cell to another. To mimic this characteristic, TGF-β1 was chemoselectively tethered to inert and viable polymer grafting platforms using Staudinger ligation. We report the synthesis and functional characterization of these engineered TGF-β1 surfaces. Inert beads tethered with TGF-β1 were capable of efficiently converting naïve CD4(+) CD62L(hi) T cells to functional Treg. Concordantly, translation of conjugation scheme from inert surfaces to viable cells also led to efficient generation of functional Treg. Further, the capacity of these platforms to generate antigen-specific Treg was demonstrated. These findings illustrate the unique faculty of tethered TGF-β1 biomaterial platforms to function as an "infectious" Treg and provide a compelling approach for generating tolerogenic microenvironments for allograft transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Y Yang
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - J P Kronenfeld
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | | | - A L Bayer
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - C L Stabler
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.
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60
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Singh A, Peppas NA. Hydrogels and scaffolds for immunomodulation. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2014; 26:6530-41. [PMID: 25155610 PMCID: PMC4269549 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201402105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
For over two decades, immunologists and biomaterials scientists have co-existed in parallel world with the rationale of understanding the molecular profile of immune responses to vaccination, implantation, and treating incurable diseases. Much of the field of biomaterial-based immunotherapy has relied on evaluating model antigens such as chicken egg ovalbumin in mouse models but their relevance to humans has been point of much discussion. Nevertheless, such model antigens have provided important insights into the mechanisms of immune regulation and served as a proof-of-concept for plethora of biomaterial-based vaccines. After years of extensive development of numerous biomaterials for immunomodulation, it is only recently that an experimental scaffold vaccine implanted beneath the skin has begun to use the human model to study the immune responses to cancer vaccination by co-delivering patient-derived tumor lysates and immunomodulatory proteins. If successful, this scaffold vaccine will change the way we approached untreatable cancers, but more importantly, will allow a faster and more rational translation of therapeutic regimes to other cancers, chronic infections, and autoimmune diseases. Most materials reviews have focused on immunomodulatory adjuvants and micro-nano-particles. Here we provide an insight into emerging hydrogel and scaffold based immunomodulatory approaches that continue to demonstrate efficacy against immune associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankur Singh
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Peppas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering and College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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61
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Gower RM, Boehler RM, Azarin SM, Ricci CF, Leonard JN, Shea LD. Modulation of leukocyte infiltration and phenotype in microporous tissue engineering scaffolds via vector induced IL-10 expression. Biomaterials 2013; 35:2024-31. [PMID: 24309498 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Biomaterial scaffolds are central to many tissue engineering strategies as they create a space for tissue growth and provide a support for cell adhesion and migration. However, biomaterial implantation results in unavoidable injury resulting in an inflammatory response, which can impair integration with the host and tissue regeneration. Toward the goal of reducing inflammation, we investigated the hypothesis that a lentiviral gene therapy-based approach to localized and sustained IL-10 expression at a scaffold could modulate the number, relative proportions, and cytokine production of infiltrating leukocyte populations. Flow cytometry was used to quantify infiltration of six leukocyte populations for 21 days following implantation of PLG scaffolds into intraperitoneal fat. Leukocytes with innate immune functions (i.e., macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils) were most prevalent at early time points, while T lymphocytes became prevalent by day 14. Reporter gene delivery indicated that transgene expression persisted at the scaffold for up to 28 days and macrophages were the most common leukocyte transduced, while transduced dendritic cells expressed the greatest levels of transgene. IL-10 delivery decreased leukocyte infiltration by 50% relative to controls, increased macrophage IL-10 expression, and decreased macrophage, dendritic cell, and CD4 T cell IFN-γ expression. Thus, IL-10 gene delivery significantly decreased inflammation following scaffold implant into the intraperitoneal fat, in part by modulating cytokine expression of infiltrating leukocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Michael Gower
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Ryan M Boehler
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Samira M Azarin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Christine F Ricci
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Joshua N Leonard
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Institute for BioNanotechnology in Medicine (IBNAM), Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
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