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von Hofsten C, Rosander K. The Development of Sensorimotor Intelligence in Infants. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2018; 55:73-106. [PMID: 30031439 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Infancy is the most dynamic part of human development. During this period, all basic sensorimotor and cognitive abilities are established. In this chapter, we will trace some of the important achievements of this development with a focus on how infants achieve predictive control of actions, i.e., how they come to coordinate their behavior with the ongoing events in the world without lagging behind. With the maturation of the brain, new possibilities that have profound effects on cognition open up. Some of them are core abilities, i.e., they function at birth or very early in development. Important examples are the structured perception of objects and surfaces and the control of arm movements. Closely after birth, infants move their arms to the vicinity of objects in front of them demonstrating that they have some control of their arms and indicating that they perceive objects as such. Another example is the rapid onset of smooth-pursuit eye movements during the second month of life and the emerging ability to predict when and where an occluded moving object will reappear. At 4months of age, out of sight is no longer of mind. The child's sensorimotor system is especially designed to facilitate the extraction of knowledge about the world including other people. In addition, the infant is endowed with motives that ensure that the innate predispositions are transformed into a system of knowledge for guiding actions predictively. By perceiving and acting on the world, infants develop their cognition and through developmental studies; we can learn more about these processes.
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52
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Hadders-Algra M. Early human motor development: From variation to the ability to vary and adapt. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 90:411-427. [PMID: 29752957 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes early human motor development. From early fetal age motor behavior is based on spontaneous neural activity: activity of networks in the brainstem and spinal cord that is modulated by supraspinal activity. The supraspinal activity, first primarily brought about by the cortical subplate, later by the cortical plate, induces movement variation. Initially, movement variation especially serves exploration; its associated afferent information is primarily used to sculpt the developing nervous system, and less to adapt motor behavior. In the next phase, beginning at function-specific ages, movement variation starts to serve adaptation. In sucking and swallowing, this phase emerges shortly before term age. In speech, gross and fine motor development, it emerges from 3 to 4 months post-term onwards, i.e., when developmental focus in the primary sensory and motor cortices has shifted to the permanent cortical circuitries. With increasing age and increasing trial-and-error exploration, the infant improves its ability to use adaptive and efficicient forms of upright gross motor behavior, manual activities and vocalizations belonging to the native language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mijna Hadders-Algra
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Dept. Pediatrics - Section Developmental Neurology, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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53
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Brandenburg JE, Gransee HM, Fogarty MJ, Sieck GC. Differences in lumbar motor neuron pruning in an animal model of early onset spasticity. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:601-609. [PMID: 29718808 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00186.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor neuron (MN) development in early onset spasticity is poorly understood. For example, spastic cerebral palsy (sCP), the most common motor disability of childhood, is poorly predicted by brain imaging, yet research remains focused on the brain. By contrast, MNs, via the motor unit and neurotransmitter signaling, are the target of most therapeutic spasticity treatments and are the final common output of motor control. MN development in sCP is a critical knowledge gap, because the late embryonic and postnatal periods are not only when the supposed brain injury occurs but also are critical times for spinal cord neuromotor development. Using an animal model of early onset spasticity [ spa mouse (B6.Cg- Glrbspa/J) with a glycine (Gly) receptor mutation], we hypothesized that removal of effective glycinergic neurotransmitter inputs to MNs during development will influence MN pruning (including primary dendrites) and MN size. Spa (Glrb-/-) and wild-type (Glrb+/+) mice, ages 4-9 wk, underwent unilateral retrograde labeling of the tibialis anterior muscle MNs via peroneal nerve dip in tetramethylrhodamine. After 3 days, mice were euthanized and perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde, and the spinal cord was excised and processed for confocal imaging. Spa mice had ~61% fewer lumbar tibialis anterior MNs ( P < 0.01), disproportionately affecting larger MNs. Additionally, a ~23% reduction in tibialis anterior MN somal surface area ( P < 0.01) and a 12% increase in primary dendrites ( P = 0.046) were observed. Thus MN pruning and MN somal surface area are abnormal in early onset spasticity. Fewer and smaller MNs may contribute to the spastic phenotype. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Motor neuron (MN) development in early onset spasticity is poorly understood. In an animal model of early onset spasticity, spa mice, we found ~61% fewer lumbar tibialis anterior MNs compared with controls. This MN loss disproportionately affected larger MNs. Thus number and heterogeneity of the MN pool are decreased in spa mice, likely contributing to the spastic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joline E Brandenburg
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota.,Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Heather M Gransee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Matthew J Fogarty
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota.,School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Gary C Sieck
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota.,Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota.,Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, Minnesota
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54
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Yoshida Y, Isa T. Neural and genetic basis of dexterous hand movements. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2018; 52:25-32. [PMID: 29698882 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
An ability to control dexterous hand movements is considered to parallel the evolutionary development of the corticospinal tract and the appearance of direct connections between corticospinal neurons and motoneurons (the corticomotoneuronal (CM) pathway), which developed uniquely in higher primates. However, recent studies have revealed that some non-primate animal species have higher levels of dexterity than previously supposed, and in higher primates, various indirect non-CM descending pathways have been shown to participate in the control of dexterous movements. More recently, the CM pathway was shown to exist in rodents during early development, suggesting that rodents and primates diverged in their reliance on the CM pathway at some point in evolution, thus challenging the traditional view of the sequential development of hand control from rodents to primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutaka Yoshida
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
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55
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Abbott PW, Gumusoglu SB, Bittle J, Beversdorf DQ, Stevens HE. Prenatal stress and genetic risk: How prenatal stress interacts with genetics to alter risk for psychiatric illness. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 90:9-21. [PMID: 29407514 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 01/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Risk for neuropsychiatric disorders is complex and includes an individual's internal genetic endowment and their environmental experiences and exposures. Embryonic development captures a particularly complex period, in which genetic and environmental factors can interact to contribute to risk. These environmental factors are incorporated differently into the embryonic brain than postnatal one. Here, we comprehensively review the human and animal model literature for studies that assess the interaction between genetic risks and one particular environmental exposure with strong and complex associations with neuropsychiatric outcomes-prenatal maternal stress. Gene-environment interaction has been demonstrated for stress occurring during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Additional work demonstrates that prenatal stress risk may be similarly complex. Animal model studies have begun to address some underlying mechanisms, including particular maternal or fetal genetic susceptibilities that interact with stress exposure and those that do not. More specifically, the genetic underpinnings of serotonin and dopamine signaling and stress physiology mechanisms have been shown to be particularly relevant to social, attentional, and internalizing behavioral changes, while other genetic factors have not, including some growth factor and hormone-related genes. Interactions have reflected both the diathesis-stress and differential susceptibility models. Maternal genetic factors have received less attention than those in offspring, but strongly modulate impacts of prenatal stress. Priorities for future research are investigating maternal response to distinct forms of stress and developing whole-genome methods to examine the contributions of genetic variants of both mothers and offspring, particularly including genes involved in neurodevelopment. This is a burgeoning field of research that will ultimately contribute not only to a broad understanding of psychiatric pathophysiology but also to efforts for personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parker W Abbott
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA.
| | - Serena B Gumusoglu
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Jada Bittle
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - David Q Beversdorf
- Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program, Interdisciplinary Intercampus Research Program, Thompson Center for Autism and Neurodevelopment Disorders, Departments of Radiology, Neurology and Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.
| | - Hanna E Stevens
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 1310 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, 356 Medical Research Center, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, 2312 PBDB, 169 Newton Rd., Iowa City, IA, 52246, USA.
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56
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Kuczynski AM, Dukelow SP, Hodge JA, Carlson HL, Lebel C, Semrau JA, Kirton A. Corticospinal tract diffusion properties and robotic visually guided reaching in children with hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Hum Brain Mapp 2018; 39:1130-1144. [PMID: 29193460 PMCID: PMC6866356 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Perinatal stroke is the leading cause of hemiparetic cerebral palsy (CP), resulting in life-long disability. In this study, we examined the relationship between robotic upper extremity motor impairment and corticospinal tract (CST) diffusion properties. Thirty-three children with unilateral perinatal ischemic stroke (17 arterial, 16 venous) and hemiparesis were recruited from a population-based research cohort. Bilateral CSTs were defined using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and four diffusion metrics were quantified: fractional anisotropy (FA), mean (MD), radial (RD), and axial (AD) diffusivities. Participants completed a visually guided reaching task using the KINARM robot to define 10 movement parameters including movement time and maximum speed. Twenty-six typically developing children underwent the same evaluations. Partial correlations assessed the relationship between robotic reaching and CST diffusion parameters. All diffusion properties of the lesioned CST differed from controls in the arterial group, whereas only FA was reduced in the venous group. Non-lesioned CST diffusion measures were similar between stroke groups and controls. Both stroke groups demonstrated impaired reaching performance. Multiple reaching parameters of the affected limb correlated with lesioned CST diffusion properties. Lower FA and higher MD were associated with greater movement time. Few correlations were observed between non-lesioned CST diffusion and unaffected limb function though FA was associated with reaction time (R = -0.39, p < .01). Diffusion properties of the lesioned CST are altered after perinatal stroke, the degree of which correlates with specific elements of visually guided reaching performance, suggesting specific relevance of CST structural connectivity to clinical motor function in hemiparetic children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea M. Kuczynski
- University of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Section of Neurology, Department of PediatricsAlberta Children's HospitalCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Sean P. Dukelow
- University of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesHotchkiss Brain InstituteCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Jacquie A. Hodge
- Section of Neurology, Department of PediatricsAlberta Children's HospitalCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Helen L. Carlson
- Section of Neurology, Department of PediatricsAlberta Children's HospitalCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Catherine Lebel
- University of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of RadiologyAlberta Children's HospitalCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Jennifer A. Semrau
- University of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesHotchkiss Brain InstituteCalgaryAlbertaCanada
| | - Adam Kirton
- University of CalgaryCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Section of Neurology, Department of PediatricsAlberta Children's HospitalCalgaryAlbertaCanada
- Department of Clinical NeurosciencesHotchkiss Brain InstituteCalgaryAlbertaCanada
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57
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Abstract
This Viewpoint examines recent developments in the quantitative characterization of fetal movements via kinematical analysis. We contend that fetal kinematics represents a powerful tool to investigate prenatal cognition and the prepostnatal continuity of cognitive development. The potential benefits of increased investigation into the kinematics of fetal movement are manifold, and apply to diverse fields including pediatric medicine and developmental biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umberto Castiello
- Department
of General Psychology, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy
| | - Valentina Parma
- International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), 34136 Trieste, Italy
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58
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Early manifestation of arm–leg coordination during stepping on a surface in human neonates. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:1105-1115. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5201-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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59
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Hadders-Algra M. Neural substrate and clinical significance of general movements: an update. Dev Med Child Neurol 2018; 60:39-46. [PMID: 28832987 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED General movements are present from early fetal life to 3 to 5 months corrected age. Atypical general movements, especially in the last, so-called fidgety general movement phase, are predictive of cerebral palsy (CP). This review updates knowledge on the neural substrate and clinical significance of typical and atypical general movements. Typical general movements are primarily characterized by complexity and variation. Presumably these core characteristics are initially induced by modulating activity of the cortical subplate. When the subplate gradually dissolves between 3 months before term and 3 months corrected age the cortical plate takes over. This coincides with the fidgety general movement phase. Conceivably, fidgety activity reflects 'sparsification', i.e. fragmentation of cortical network activity. The quintessential feature of atypical general movements is reduced complexity and variation. This is attributed to impaired integrity of extensive cortical-subcortical networks, in which the subplate and periventricular white matter play a prominent role. The most serious forms of network impairment are associated with absent fidgety movements. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS The emergence of fidgety movements reflects a developmental transition from widespread to fragmented cortical network activity. Atypical general movements characterized by reduced complexity and variation are attributed to impaired integrity of extensive cortical-subcortical networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mijna Hadders-Algra
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Paediatrics - Developmental Neurology, Groningen, the Netherlands
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60
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Williams PTJA, Jiang YQ, Martin JH. Motor system plasticity after unilateral injury in the developing brain. Dev Med Child Neurol 2017; 59:1224-1229. [PMID: 28972274 PMCID: PMC5773112 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In maturity, motor skills depend on the corticospinal tract (CST) and brainstem pathways that together synapse on interneurons and motoneurons in the spinal cord. Descending signals to spinal neurons that mediate voluntary control can be distinguished from peripheral sensory signals, primarily for feedback control. These motor system circuits depend initially on developmental genetic mechanisms to establish their connections and neural activity- and use-dependent synaptic refinement during the early postnatal period to enable motor skills to develop. In this review we consider four key activity-dependent developmental mechanisms that provide insights into how the motor systems establish the proper connections for skilled movement control and how the same mechanisms also inform the mechanisms of motor impairments and developmental plasticity after corticospinal system injury: (1) synaptic competition between the CSTs from each hemisphere; (2) interactions between the CST and spinal cord neurons; (3) synaptic competition between the CST and proprioceptive sensory fibres; and (4) interactions between the developing corticospinal motor system and the rubrospinal tract. Our findings suggest that the corticospinal motor system effectively 'oversees' development of its subcortical targets through synaptic competition and trophic-like interactions and this has important implications for motor impairments after perinatal cortical stroke. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS Neural activity-dependent processes inform the brain and spinal cord response to injury. The corticospinal motor system may 'oversee' development of its downstream subcortical targets through activity, trophic-like interactions, and synaptic competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preston TJA Williams
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City University of New York School of Medicine at City College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yu-Qiu Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City University of New York School of Medicine at City College, New York, NY, USA
| | - John H Martin
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City University of New York School of Medicine at City College, New York, NY, USA,City University of New York Graduate Center, New York, NY, USA
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61
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How plastic are human spinal cord motor circuitries? Exp Brain Res 2017; 235:3243-3249. [PMID: 28776155 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-017-5037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Human and animal studies have documented that neural circuitries in the spinal cord show adaptive changes caused by altered supraspinal and/or afferent input to the spinal circuitry in relation to learning, immobilization, injury and neurorehabilitation. Reversible adaptations following, e.g. the acquisition or refinement of a motor skill rely heavily on the functional integration between supraspinal and sensory inputs to the spinal cord networks. Accordingly, what is frequently conceived as a change in the spinal circuitry may be a change in either descending or afferent input or in the relative integration of these, i.e. a change in the neuronal weighting. This is evident from findings documenting only task-specific functional changes after periods of altered inputs whereas resting responses remain unaffected. In fact, the proximity of the spinal circuitry to the outer world may demand a more rigid organization compared to the highly flexible cortical circuits. The understanding of all of this is important for the planning and execution of neurorehabilitation.
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62
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Effects of Robot-Assisted Training for the Unaffected Arm in Patients with Hemiparetic Cerebral Palsy: A Proof-of-Concept Pilot Study. Behav Neurol 2017; 2017:8349242. [PMID: 28744066 PMCID: PMC5518504 DOI: 10.1155/2017/8349242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
On a voluntary basis, 10 adolescents with hemiparesis due to cerebral palsy and 11 neurologically healthy control subjects participated in this proof-of-concept pilot study. The aim was to examine the effects of robot-assisted training for the unaffected arm in patients with hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Baseline comparison between the unaffected arm of the hemiparetic patients with cerebral palsy and the dominant arm of healthy control subjects showed significant differences on the Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function test and action planning ability tests. Within-group comparison after ten 30-minute sessions (five days a week for two consecutive weeks) of robot-assisted training for the unaffected arm showed significant improvements in patients with cerebral palsy on the Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function test (performed at both hands) and action planning ability test (evaluated at the unaffected arm). Our findings are in line with previous evidences of action planning deficits at the unaffected arm in patients with hemiparetic cerebral palsy and support the hypothesis that robot-assisted training for the unaffected arm may be useful to improve manual dexterity and action planning in patients with hemiparesis due to cerebral palsy.
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63
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Vasung L, Raguz M, Kostovic I, Takahashi E. Spatiotemporal Relationship of Brain Pathways during Human Fetal Development Using High-Angular Resolution Diffusion MR Imaging and Histology. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:348. [PMID: 28744187 PMCID: PMC5504538 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to identify major fiber pathways and their spatiotemporal relationships within transient fetal zones in the human fetal brain by comparing postmortem high-angular resolution diffusion MR imaging (HARDI) in combination with deterministic streamline tractography and histology. Diffusion weighted imaging was performed on postmortem human fetal brains [N = 9, age = 18–34 post-conceptual weeks (PCW)] that were grossly normal with no pathologic abnormalities. After HARDI was performed, the fibers were reconstructed using Q-ball algorithm and deterministic streamline tractography. The position of major fiber pathways within transient fetal zones was identified both on diffusion weighted images and on histological sections. Our major findings include: (1) the development of massive projection fibers by 18 PCW, as compared to most association fibers (with the exception of limbic fibers) which have only begun to emerge, (2) the characteristic laminar distribution and sagittal plane geometry of reconstructed fibers throughout development, (3) the protracted prenatal development shown of the corpus collosum and its' associated fibers, as well as the association fibers, and (4) the predomination of radial coherence in the telencephalon (i.e., majority of streamlines in the telencephalic wall were radially oriented) during early prenatal period (24 PCW). In conclusion, correlation between histology and HARDI (in combination with Q-ball reconstruction and deterministic streamline tractography) allowed us to detect sequential development of fiber systems (projection, callosal, and association), their spatial relations with transient fetal zones, and their geometric properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Vasung
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, United States
| | - Marina Raguz
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of ZagrebZagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivica Kostovic
- School of Medicine, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of ZagrebZagreb, Croatia
| | - Emi Takahashi
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, United States
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64
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Gannotti ME. Coupling Timing of Interventions With Dose to Optimize Plasticity and Participation in Pediatric Neurologic Populations. Pediatr Phys Ther 2017; 29 Suppl 3:S37-S47. [PMID: 28654476 PMCID: PMC5488702 DOI: 10.1097/pep.0000000000000383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this article is to propose that coupling of timing of interventions with dosing of interventions optimizes plasticity and participation in pediatric neurologic conditions, specifically cerebral palsy. Dosing includes frequency, intensity, time per session, and type of intervention. Interventions focus on body structures and function and activity and participation, and both are explored. Known parameters for promoting bone, muscle, and brain plasticity and evidence supporting critical periods of growth during development are reviewed. Although parameters for dosing participation are not yet established, emerging evidence suggests that participation at high intensities has the potential for change. Participation interventions may provide an additional avenue to promote change through the life span. Recommendations for research and clinical practice are presented to stimulate discussions and innovations in research and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Gannotti
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Hartford, West Hartford, Connecticut
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65
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Geertsen SS, Willerslev-Olsen M, Lorentzen J, Nielsen JB. Development and aging of human spinal cord circuitries. J Neurophysiol 2017; 118:1133-1140. [PMID: 28566459 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00103.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural motor circuitries in the spinal cord receive information from our senses and the rest of the nervous system and translate it into purposeful movements, which allow us to interact with the rest of the world. In this review, we discuss how these circuitries are established during early development and the extent to which they are shaped according to the demands of the body that they control and the environment with which the body has to interact. We also discuss how aging processes and physiological changes in our body are reflected in adaptations of activity in the spinal cord motor circuitries. The complex, multifaceted connectivity of the spinal cord motor circuitries allows them to generate vastly different movements and to adapt their activity to meet new challenges imposed by bodily changes or a changing environment. There are thus plenty of possibilities for adaptive changes in the spinal motor circuitries both early and late in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svend Sparre Geertsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Department of Nutrition, Exercise, and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark; and
| | - Maria Willerslev-Olsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Jakob Lorentzen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Jens Bo Nielsen
- Neural Control of Movement Research Group, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark; .,Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
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66
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Ritterband-Rosenbaum A, Herskind A, Li X, Willerslev-Olsen M, Olsen MD, Farmer SF, Nielsen JB. A critical period of corticomuscular and EMG-EMG coherence detection in healthy infants aged 9-25 weeks. J Physiol 2017; 595:2699-2713. [PMID: 28004392 PMCID: PMC5390881 DOI: 10.1113/jp273090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS The early postnatal development of functional corticospinal connections in human infants is not fully clarified. Corticospinal drive to upper and lower limb muscle shows developmental changes with an increased functional coupling in infants between 9 and 25 weeks in the beta frequency band. The changes in functional coupling coincide with the developmental period where fidgety movements are present in healthy infants. Data support a possible sensitive period where functional connections between corticospinal tract fibres and spinal motoneurones undergo activity-dependent reorganization. ABSTRACT The early postnatal development of functional corticospinal connections in human infants is not fully clarified. We used EEG and EMG to investigate the development of corticomuscular and intramuscular coherence as indicators of functional corticospinal connectivity in healthy infants aged 1-66 weeks. EEG was recorded over leg and hand area of motor cortex. EMG recordings were made from right ankle dorsiflexor and right wrist extensor muscles. Quantification of the amount of corticomuscular coherence in the 20-40 Hz frequency band showed a significantly larger coherence for infants aged 9-25 weeks compared to younger and older infants. Coherence between paired EMG recordings from tibialis anterior muscle in the 20-40 Hz frequency band was also significantly larger for the 9-25 week age group. A low-amplitude, broad-duration (40-50 ms) central peak of EMG-EMG synchronization was observed for infants younger than 9 weeks, whereas a short-lasting (10-20 ms) central peak was observed for EMG-EMG synchronization in older infants. This peak was largest for infants aged 9-25 weeks. These data suggest that the corticospinal drive to lower and upper limb muscles shows significant developmental changes with an increase in functional coupling in infants aged 9-25 weeks, a period which coincides partly with the developmental period of normal fidgety movements. We propose that these neurophysiological findings may reflect the existence of a sensitive period where the functional connections between corticospinal tract fibres and spinal motoneurones undergo activity-dependent reorganization. This may be relevant for the timing of early therapy interventions in infants with pre- and perinatal brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anina Ritterband-Rosenbaum
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Anna Herskind
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
- Department of Neonatology, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Xi Li
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Maria Willerslev-Olsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
| | - Mikkel Damgaard Olsen
- Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
- Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Simon Francis Farmer
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience & Movement Disorders, Institute of Neurology, University College London & Department of Clinical Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, UK
| | - Jens Bo Nielsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Elsass Institute, Charlottenlund, Denmark
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Understanding Brain Reorganization in Infants With Perinatal Stroke Through Neuroexcitability and Neuroimaging. Pediatr Phys Ther 2017; 29:173-178. [PMID: 28350777 PMCID: PMC5560124 DOI: 10.1097/pep.0000000000000365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The primary aim of this proposed study is to evaluate brain reorganization patterns in infants with perinatal stroke between 3 and 5 months of age using transcranial magnetic stimulation and magnetic resonance imaging, with the addition of the General Movements Assessment. A secondary aim is to demonstrate feasibility and safety of infant-appropriate brain assessment protocols. METHODS Ten infants with perinatal stroke will be enrolled. In this exploratory study, infants will first receive magnetic resonance imaging scanning during natural sleep to examine their corticospinal tract integrity. Infants will then receive transcranial magnetic stimulation to assess their corticomotor excitability. A General Movements Assessment video of at least 5 minutes will also be recorded. DISCUSSION Study results will enhance our understanding of brain reorganization in infants with perinatal stroke. We expect these results will also guide the development of early interventions designed to mitigate maladaptive neuroplastic changes and improve long-term motor outcomes.
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68
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Scheef L, Nordmeyer-Massner JA, Smith-Collins APR, Müller N, Stegmann-Woessner G, Jankowski J, Gieseke J, Born M, Seitz H, Bartmann P, Schild HH, Pruessmann KP, Heep A, Boecker H. Functional Laterality of Task-Evoked Activation in Sensorimotor Cortex of Preterm Infants: An Optimized 3 T fMRI Study Employing a Customized Neonatal Head Coil. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169392. [PMID: 28076368 PMCID: PMC5226735 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in neonates has been introduced as a non-invasive method for studying sensorimotor processing in the developing brain. However, previous neonatal studies have delivered conflicting results regarding localization, lateralization, and directionality of blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) responses in sensorimotor cortex (SMC). Amongst the confounding factors in interpreting neonatal fMRI studies include the use of standard adult MR-coils providing insufficient signal to noise, and liberal statistical thresholds, compromising clinical interpretation at the single subject level. Patients / methods Here, we employed a custom-designed neonatal MR-coil adapted and optimized to the head size of a newborn in order to improve robustness, reliability and validity of neonatal sensorimotor fMRI. Thirteen preterm infants with a median gestational age of 26 weeks were scanned at term-corrected age using a prototype 8-channel neonatal head coil at 3T (Achieva, Philips, Best, NL). Sensorimotor stimulation was elicited by passive extension/flexion of the elbow at 1 Hz in a block design. Analysis of temporal signal to noise ratio (tSNR) was performed on the whole brain and the SMC, and was compared to data acquired with an ‘adult’ 8 channel head coil published previously. Task-evoked activation was determined by single-subject SPM8 analyses, thresholded at p < 0.05, whole-brain FWE-corrected. Results Using a custom-designed neonatal MR-coil, we found significant positive BOLD responses in contralateral SMC after unilateral passive sensorimotor stimulation in all neonates (analyses restricted to artifact-free data sets = 8/13). Improved imaging characteristics of the neonatal MR-coil were evidenced by additional phantom and in vivo tSNR measurements: phantom studies revealed a 240% global increase in tSNR; in vivo studies revealed a 73% global and a 55% local (SMC) increase in tSNR, as compared to the ‘adult’ MR-coil. Conclusions Our findings strengthen the importance of using optimized coil settings for neonatal fMRI, yielding robust and reproducible SMC activation at the single subject level. We conclude that functional lateralization of SMC activation, as found in children and adults, is already present in the newborn period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Scheef
- Department of Radiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | - Nicole Müller
- Department of Neonatology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Mark Born
- Department of Radiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Hermann Seitz
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Peter Bartmann
- Department of Neonatology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Hans H. Schild
- Department of Radiology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Klaas P. Pruessmann
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Axel Heep
- School of Clinical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Department of Neonatology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Kraan CM, Tan AHJ, Cornish KM. The developmental dynamics of gait maturation with a focus on spatiotemporal measures. Gait Posture 2017; 51:208-217. [PMID: 27816899 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2016.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Gait analysis is recognised as a powerful clinical tool for studying relationships between motor control and brain function. By drawing on the literature investigating gait in individuals with neurological disorders, this review provides insight into the neural processes that contribute to and regulate specific spatiotemporal sub-components of gait and how they may mature across early to late childhood. This review also discusses the roles of changing anthropomorphic characteristics, and maturing sensory and higher-order cognitive processes in differentiating the developmental trajectories of the sub-components of gait. Importantly, although studies have shown that cognitive-gait interference is larger in children compared to adults, the contributing neurocognitive mechanisms may vary across age groups who have different types of attentional or cognitive vulnerabilities. These findings have implications for current models of gait maturation by highlighting the need for a dynamic model that focuses on the integration of various factors that contribute to gait though experience and practice. This is essential to elucidating why gait and other motor deficits are often contiguous with cognitive neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Kraan
- School of Psychological Sciences and The Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical and Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - A H J Tan
- School of Psychological Sciences and The Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical and Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - K M Cornish
- School of Psychological Sciences and The Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical and Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
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70
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Kirton A. Advancing non-invasive neuromodulation clinical trials in children: Lessons from perinatal stroke. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2017; 21:75-103. [PMID: 27470654 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Applications of non-invasive brain stimulation including therapeutic neuromodulation are expanding at an alarming rate. Increasingly established scientific principles, including directional modulation of well-informed cortical targets, are advancing clinical trial development. However, high levels of disease burden coupled with zealous enthusiasm may be getting ahead of rational research and evidence. Experience is limited in the developing brain where additional issues must be considered. Properly designed and meticulously executed clinical trials are essential and required to advance and optimize the potential of non-invasive neuromodulation without risking the well-being of children and families. Perinatal stroke causes most hemiplegic cerebral palsy and, as a focal injury of defined timing in an otherwise healthy brain, is an ideal human model of developmental plasticity. Advanced models of how the motor systems of young brains develop following early stroke are affording novel windows of opportunity for neuromodulation clinical trials, possibly directing neuroplasticity toward better outcomes. Reviewing the principles of clinical trial design relevant to neuromodulation and using perinatal stroke as a model, this article reviews the current and future issues of advancing such trials in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Kirton
- Departments of Pediatrics and Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, 2888 Shaganappi Trail NW, Calgary, AB T3B6A8, Canada.
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71
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Charles J. Upper extremity muscle activation in children with unilateral cerebral palsy during an auditory cued repetitive task: Effects on bimanual coordination. J Pediatr Rehabil Med 2017; 10:19-26. [PMID: 28339407 DOI: 10.3233/prm-170407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate mirror muscle activation in the upper limbs of children with unilateral cerebral palsy during an auditory-cued repetitive squeezing task and to compare upper limb muscle activation patterns to typically developing peers engaged in the same task. METHODS A convenience sample of six children with unilateral cerebral palsy and six typically developing peers (7-17 y) participated in the study. Muscle activity was measured using a 16 channel Zerowire EMG system (Noraxon, USA Inc. Scottsdale, AZ) in the anterior deltoid, biceps brachii, extensor carpi radialis, flexor carpi radialis, and lateral triceps muscles bilaterally as children squeezed a pediatric bulb dynamometer to 3 pounds per square inch (PSI) for a one second duration, 10 times in one minute. Squeezing activity was cued by a computer generated auditory beep. Between hand differences in muscle onset times and onset amplitude for each muscle were determined using paired t-tests. Two group by two hand ANOVA measured between group differences. RESULTS Results supported increased later muscle onset and lack of significant differences in onset amplitude bilaterally when the dominant hand was working in the CP population. CONCLUSIONS There are differences in motor control mechanisms of muscle activation between populations.
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72
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Welniarz Q, Dusart I, Roze E. The corticospinal tract: Evolution, development, and human disorders. Dev Neurobiol 2016; 77:810-829. [PMID: 27706924 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The corticospinal tract (CST) plays a major role in cortical control of spinal cord activity. In particular, it is the principal motor pathway for voluntary movements. Here, we discuss: (i) the anatomic evolution and development of the CST across mammalian species, focusing on its role in motor functions; (ii) the molecular mechanisms regulating corticospinal tract formation and guidance during mouse development; and (iii) human disorders associated with abnormal CST development. A comparison of CST anatomy and development across mammalian species first highlights important similarities. In particular, most CST axons cross the anatomical midline at the junction between the brainstem and spinal cord, forming the pyramidal decussation. Reorganization of the pattern of CST projections to the spinal cord during evolution led to improved motor skills. Studies of the molecular mechanisms involved in CST formation and guidance in mice have identified several factors that act synergistically to ensure proper formation of the CST at each step of development. Human CST developmental disorders can result in a reduction of the CST, or in guidance defects associated with abnormal CST anatomy. These latter disorders result in altered midline crossing at the pyramidal decussation or in the spinal cord, but spare the rest of the CST. Careful appraisal of clinical manifestations associated with CST malformations highlights the critical role of the CST in the lateralization of motor control. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 77: 810-829, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Welniarz
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Dusart
- Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, Neuroscience Paris Seine, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Roze
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, F-75013, Paris, France.,Département des Maladies du Système Nerveux, AP-HP, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, Paris, France
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73
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Morgan C, Darrah J, Gordon AM, Harbourne R, Spittle A, Johnson R, Fetters L. Effectiveness of motor interventions in infants with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2016; 58:900-9. [PMID: 27027732 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.13105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIM To systematically review the evidence on the effectiveness of motor interventions for infants from birth to 2 years with a diagnosis of cerebral palsy or at high risk of it. METHOD Relevant literature was identified by searching journal article databases (PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Cochrane, Web of Knowledge, and PEDro). Selection criteria included infants between the ages of birth and 2 years diagnosed with, or at risk of, cerebral palsy who received early motor intervention. RESULTS Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria, including 10 randomized controlled trials. Studies varied in quality, interventions, and participant inclusion criteria. Neurodevelopmental therapy was the most common intervention investigated either as the experimental or control assignment. The two interventions that had a moderate to large effect on motor outcomes (Cohen's effect size>0.7) had the common themes of child-initiated movement, environment modification/enrichment, and task-specific training. INTERPRETATION The published evidence for early motor intervention is limited by the lack of high-quality trials. There is some promising evidence that early intervention incorporating child-initiated movement (based on motor-learning principles and task specificity), parental education, and environment modification have a positive effect on motor development. Further research is crucial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Morgan
- Cerebral Palsy Alliance, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Johanna Darrah
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Andrew M Gordon
- Department of Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Regina Harbourne
- Rangos School of Health Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Alicia Spittle
- Department of Physiotherapy, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.,Victorian Infant Brain Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Parkville, Vic., Australia
| | - Robert Johnson
- Norris Medical Library, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Linda Fetters
- Division of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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74
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Monfils MH, Plautz EJ, Kleim JA. In Search of the Motor Engram: Motor Map Plasticity as a Mechanism for Encoding Motor Experience. Neuroscientist 2016; 11:471-83. [PMID: 16151047 DOI: 10.1177/1073858405278015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Motor skill acquisition occurs through modification and organization of muscle synergies into effective movement sequences. The learning process is reflected neurophysiologically as a reorganization of movement representations within the primary motor cortex, suggesting that the motor map is a motor engram. However, the specific neural mechanisms underlying map plasticity are unknown. Here the authors review evidence that 1) motor map topography reflects the capacity for skilled movement, 2) motor skill learning induces reorganization of motor maps in a manner that reflects the kinematics of acquired skilled movement, 3) map plasticity is supported by a reorganization of cortical microcircuitry involving changes in synaptic efficacy, and 4) motor map integrity and topography are influenced by various neurochemical signals that coordinate changes in cortical circuitry to encode motor experience. Finally, the role of motor map plasticity in recovery of motor function after brain damage is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-H Monfils
- Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
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Abstract
The corticospinal system is the principal motor system for controlling movements that require the greatest skill and flexibility. It is the last motor system to develop. The pattern of termination of corticospinal axons, as they grow into the spinal gray matter, bears little resemblance to the pattern later in development and in maturity. Refinement of corticospinal terminations occurs during a protracted postnatal period and includes both elimination of transient terminations and growth to new targets. This refinement is driven by neural activity in the motor cortical areas and by limb motor experience. Developing corticospinal terminals compete with each other for synaptic space on spinal neurons. More active terminals are more competitive and are able to secure more synaptic space than their less active counterparts. Corticospinal terminals can activate spinal neurons from very early in development. The importance of this early synaptic activity appears to be more for refining corticospinal connections than for transmitting signals to spinal motor circuits for movement control. The motor control functions of the corticospinal system are not expressed until development of connectional specificity with spinal cord neurons, a strong capacity for corticospinal synapses to facilitate spinal motor circuits, and the formation of the cortical motor map.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Martin
- Center for Neurology and Behavior, Columbia University, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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76
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Intermuscular Coherence in Normal Adults: Variability and Changes with Age. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149029. [PMID: 26901129 PMCID: PMC4763454 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated beta-band intermuscular coherence (IMC) in 92 healthy adults stratified by decade of age, and analysed variability between and within subjects. In the dominant upper limb, IMC was estimated between extensor digitorum communis and first dorsal interosseous as well as between flexor digitorum superficialis and first dorsal interosseous. In the ipsilateral lower limb, IMC was measured between medial gastrocnemius and extensor digitorum brevis as well as between tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum brevis. Age-related changes in IMC were analysed with age as a continuous variable or binned by decade. Intrasession variance of IMC was examined by dividing sessions into pairs of epochs and comparing coherence estimates between these pairs. Eight volunteers returned for a further session after one year, allowing us to compare intrasession and intersession variance. We found no age-related changes in IMC amplitude across almost six decades of age, allowing us to collate data from all ages into an aggregate normative dataset. Interindividual variability ranged over two orders of magnitude. Intrasession variance was significantly greater than expected from statistical variability alone, and intersession variance was even larger. Potential contributors include fluctuations in task performance, differences in electrode montage and short-term random variation in central coupling. These factors require further exploration and, where possible, minimisation. This study provides evidence that coherence is remarkably robust to senescent changes in the nervous system and provides a large normative dataset for future applications of IMC as a biomarker in disease states.
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77
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Krisa L, Murray M. The implications of injury in the developing nervous system on upper extremity function. J Hand Ther 2016; 28:101-4; quiz 105. [PMID: 25835256 DOI: 10.1016/j.jht.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Literature review. PURPOSE The corticospinal system (CS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) are common sites of damage during the early stages of life. The prenatal or immediately prenatal period is the most common time for damage to occur. Here we briefly review the basic features of the development of the CS and the PNS and the clinical consequences of injury to or improper development of these systems on upper extremity (UE) function. RESULTS The proper development of both the CS and PNS is necessary to achieve adequate function of the (UE). Injury or improper development of these systems can lead to upper extremity dysfunction and limit participation in activities of daily living. CONCLUSIONS Both the PNS and CS play major roles in the proper functioning of the UE. A better understanding of their roles and common developmental disorders is needed to move rehabilitation of motor impairments forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Krisa
- Jefferson University School of Health Professions, Department of Occupational Therapy, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Jefferson University School of Health Professions, Department of Physical Therapy, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Marion Murray
- Jefferson University School of Health Professions, Department of Occupational Therapy, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Jefferson University School of Health Professions, Department of Physical Therapy, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Drexel University College of Medicine, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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78
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Vasudevan EV, Patrick SK, Yang JF. Gait Transitions in Human Infants: Coping with Extremes of Treadmill Speed. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148124. [PMID: 26828941 PMCID: PMC4734668 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal pattern generators in quadrupedal animals can coordinate different forms of locomotion, like trotting or galloping, by altering coordination between the limbs (interlimb coordination). In the human system, infants have been used to study the subcortical control of gait, since the cerebral cortex and corticospinal tract are immature early in life. Like other animals, human infants can modify interlimb coordination to jump or step. Do human infants possess functional neuronal circuitry necessary to modify coordination within a limb (intralimb coordination) in order to generate distinct forms of alternating bipedal gait, such as walking and running? We monitored twenty-eight infants (7–12 months) stepping on a treadmill at speeds ranging between 0.06–2.36 m/s, and seventeen adults (22–47 years) walking or running at speeds spanning the walk-to-run transition. Six of the adults were tested with body weight support to mimic the conditions of infant stepping. We found that infants could accommodate a wide range of speeds by altering stride length and frequency, similar to adults. Moreover, as the treadmill speed increased, we observed periods of flight during which neither foot was in ground contact in infants and in adults. However, while adults modified other aspects of intralimb coordination and the mechanics of progression to transition to a running gait, infants did not make comparable changes. The lack of evidence for distinct walking and running patterns in infants suggests that the expression of different functional, alternating gait patterns in humans may require neuromuscular maturation and a period of learning post-independent walking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin V. Vasudevan
- Rehabilitation Research and Movement Performance (RRAMP) Lab, Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, School of Health Technology and Management, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Susan K. Patrick
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaynie F. Yang
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Schneider LA, Burns NR, Giles LC, Nettelbeck TJ, Hudson IL, Ridding MC, Pitcher JB. The influence of motor function on processing speed in preterm and term-born children. Child Neuropsychol 2015; 23:300-315. [DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1102215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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80
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Allievi AG, Arichi T, Tusor N, Kimpton J, Arulkumaran S, Counsell SJ, Edwards AD, Burdet E. Maturation of Sensori-Motor Functional Responses in the Preterm Brain. Cereb Cortex 2015; 26:402-413. [PMID: 26491066 PMCID: PMC4677983 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhv203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Preterm birth engenders an increased risk of conditions like cerebral palsy and therefore this time may be crucial for the brain's developing sensori-motor system. However, little is known about how cortical sensori-motor function matures at this time, whether development is influenced by experience, and about its role in spontaneous motor behavior. We aimed to systematically characterize spatial and temporal maturation of sensori-motor functional brain activity across this period using functional MRI and a custom-made robotic stimulation device. We studied 57 infants aged from 30 + 2 to 43 + 2 weeks postmenstrual age. Following both induced and spontaneous right wrist movements, we saw consistent positive blood oxygen level–dependent functional responses in the contralateral (left) primary somatosensory and motor cortices. In addition, we saw a maturational trend toward faster, higher amplitude, and more spatially dispersed functional responses; and increasing integration of the ipsilateral hemisphere and sensori-motor associative areas. We also found that interhemispheric functional connectivity was significantly related to ex-utero exposure, suggesting the influence of experience-dependent mechanisms. At term equivalent age, we saw a decrease in both response amplitude and interhemispheric functional connectivity, and an increase in spatial specificity, culminating in the establishment of a sensori-motor functional response similar to that seen in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tomoki Arichi
- Department of Bioengineering.,Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, UK
| | - Nora Tusor
- Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, LondonSE1 7EH, UK
| | - Jessica Kimpton
- Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, LondonSE1 7EH, UK
| | - Sophie Arulkumaran
- Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, LondonSE1 7EH, UK
| | - Serena J Counsell
- Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, LondonSE1 7EH, UK
| | - A David Edwards
- Department of Bioengineering.,Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London SW7 2AZ, UK.,Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, UK
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81
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Fiori S, Staudt M, Pannek K, Borghetti D, Biagi L, Scelfo D, Rose SE, Tosetti M, Cioni G, Guzzetta A. Is one motor cortex enough for two hands? Dev Med Child Neurol 2015; 57:977-80. [PMID: 26104046 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We report on a patient with mirror movements sustained by a mono-hemispheric fast control of bilateral hand muscles and normal hand function. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right motor cortex evoked contractions of muscles in both hands while no responses were observed from the left hemisphere. Somatosensory-evoked potentials, functional magnetic resonance, and diffusion tractography showed evidence of sensorimotor dissociation and asymmetry of corticospinal projections, suggestive of reorganization after early unilateral left brain lesion. This is the first evidence that, in certain rare conditions, good hand function is possible with ipsilateral corticospinal reorganization, supporting the role of unexplored mechanisms of motor recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Staudt
- Clinic for Neuropediatrics and Neurorehabilitation, Epilepsy Center for Children and Adolescents, Schön Klinik Vogtareuth, Germany.,Department of Pediatric Neurology and Developmental Medicine, University Children's Hospital, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Pannek
- The Australian e-Health Research Centre CSIRO, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | | | | | | | - Stephen E Rose
- The Australian e-Health Research Centre CSIRO, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
| | | | - Giovanni Cioni
- IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Guzzetta
- IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Pisa, Italy.,Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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82
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Klein CS, Zhou P, Marciniak C. Excitability properties of motor axons in adults with cerebral palsy. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:329. [PMID: 26089791 PMCID: PMC4452826 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a permanent disorder caused by a lesion to the developing brain that significantly impairs motor function. The neurophysiological mechanisms underlying motor impairment are not well understood. Specifically, few have addressed whether motoneuron or peripheral axon properties are altered in CP, even though disruption of descending inputs to the spinal cord may cause them to change. In the present study, we have compared nerve excitability properties in seven adults with CP and fourteen healthy controls using threshold tracking techniques by stimulating the median nerve at the wrist and recording the compound muscle action potential over the abductor pollicis brevis. The excitability properties in the CP subjects were found to be abnormal. Early and late depolarizing and hyperpolarizing threshold electrotonus was significantly larger (i.e., fanning out), and resting current-threshold (I/V) slope was smaller, in CP compared to control. In addition resting threshold and rheobase tended to be larger in CP. According to a modeling analysis of the data, an increase in leakage current under or through the myelin sheath, i.e., the Barrett-Barrett conductance, combined with a slight hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential, best explained the group differences in excitability properties. There was a trend for those with greater impairment in gross motor function to have more abnormal axon properties. The findings indicate plasticity of motor axon properties far removed from the site of the lesion. We suspect that this plasticity is caused by disruption of descending inputs to the motoneurons at an early age around the time of their injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cliff S Klein
- Guangdong Provincial Work Injury Rehabilitation Center, Guangzhou China ; Sensory Motor Performance Program, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago Chicago, IL, USA ; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Ping Zhou
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston and TIRR Memorial Hermann Research Center, Houston, TX USA ; Biomedical Engineering Program, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei China
| | - Christina Marciniak
- Sensory Motor Performance Program, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago Chicago, IL, USA ; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL USA
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83
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Welniarz Q, Dusart I, Gallea C, Roze E. One hand clapping: lateralization of motor control. Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:75. [PMID: 26082690 PMCID: PMC4451425 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lateralization of motor control refers to the ability to produce pure unilateral or asymmetric movements. It is required for a variety of coordinated activities, including skilled bimanual tasks and locomotion. Here we discuss the neuroanatomical substrates and pathophysiological underpinnings of lateralized motor outputs. Significant breakthroughs have been made in the past few years by studying the two known conditions characterized by the inability to properly produce unilateral or asymmetric movements, namely human patients with congenital “mirror movements” and model rodents with a “hopping gait”. Whereas mirror movements are associated with altered interhemispheric connectivity and abnormal corticospinal projections, abnormal spinal cord interneurons trajectory is responsible for the “hopping gait”. Proper commissural axon guidance is a critical requirement for these mechanisms. Interestingly, the analysis of these two conditions reveals that the production of asymmetric movements involves similar anatomical and functional requirements but in two different structures: (i) lateralized activation of the brain or spinal cord through contralateral silencing by cross-midline inhibition; and (ii) unilateral transmission of this activation, resulting in lateralized motor output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Welniarz
- Neuroscience Paris Seine, CNRS UMR8246, Inserm U1130, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC UM119 Paris, France ; Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC UMR S1127, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Dusart
- Neuroscience Paris Seine, CNRS UMR8246, Inserm U1130, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC UM119 Paris, France
| | - Cécile Gallea
- Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC UMR S1127, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Roze
- Inserm U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC UMR S1127, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, ICM Paris, France ; Département des Maladies du Système Nerveux, AP-HP, Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière Paris, France
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84
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Sclafani V, Simpson EA, Suomi SJ, Ferrari PF. Development of space perception in relation to the maturation of the motor system in infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Neuropsychologia 2015; 70:429-41. [PMID: 25486636 PMCID: PMC5100747 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To act on the environment, organisms must perceive object locations in relation to their body. Several neuroscientific studies provide evidence of neural circuits that selectively represent space within reach (i.e., peripersonal) and space outside of reach (i.e., extrapersonal). However, the developmental emergence of these space representations remains largely unexplored. We investigated the development of space coding in infant macaques and found that they exhibit different motor strategies and hand configurations depending on the objects' size and location. Reaching-grasping improved from 2 to 4 weeks of age, suggesting a broadly defined perceptual body schema at birth, modified by the acquisition and refinement of motor skills through early sensorimotor experience, enabling the development of a mature capacity for coding space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Sclafani
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università di Parma, Via Volturno 39 - 43100 Parma, Italy.
| | - Elizabeth A Simpson
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Università di Parma, Via Volturno 39 - 43100 Parma, Italy; Eunice Kennedy Shiver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Laboratory of Comparative Ethology, Poolesville, MD, USA
| | - Stephen J Suomi
- Eunice Kennedy Shiver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Laboratory of Comparative Ethology, Poolesville, MD, USA
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85
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Motor behaviour of human foetuses during the second trimester of gestation: A longitudinal ultrasound study. ANALES DE PEDIATRÍA (ENGLISH EDITION) 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anpede.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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86
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Basu AP, Clowry G. Improving outcomes in cerebral palsy with early intervention: new translational approaches. Front Neurol 2015; 6:24. [PMID: 25717317 PMCID: PMC4324139 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2015.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Purna Basu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
| | - Gavin Clowry
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
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87
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Herskind A, Greisen G, Nielsen JB. Early identification and intervention in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2015; 57:29-36. [PMID: 25041565 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Infants with possible cerebral palsy (CP) are commonly assumed to benefit from early diagnosis and early intervention, but substantial evidence for this is lacking. There is no consensus in the literature on a definition of 'early', but this review focuses on interventions initiated within the first 6 months after term age. We cover basic neuroscience, arguing for a beneficial effect of early intervention, and discuss why clinical research to support this convincingly is lacking. We argue that infants offered early intervention in future clinical studies must be identified carefully, and that the intervention should be focused on infants showing early signs of CP to determine an effect of treatment. Such signs may be efficiently detected by a combination of neuroimaging and the General Movements Assessment. We propose a research agenda directed at large-scale identification of infants showing early signs of CP and testing of high-intensity, early interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Herskind
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology and Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Helene Elsass Center, Charlottenlund, Denmark; Department of Neonatology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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88
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Jaspers E, Byblow WD, Feys H, Wenderoth N. The Corticospinal Tract: A Biomarker to Categorize Upper Limb Functional Potential in Unilateral Cerebral Palsy. Front Pediatr 2015; 3:112. [PMID: 26779464 PMCID: PMC4701904 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2015.00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Children with unilateral cerebral palsy (CP) typically present with largely divergent upper limb sensorimotor deficits and individual differences in response to upper limb rehabilitation. This review summarizes how early brain damage can cause dramatic deviations from the normal anatomy of sensory and motor tracts, resulting in unique "wiring patterns" of the sensorimotor system in CP. Based on the existing literature, we suggest that corticospinal tract (CST) anatomy and integrity constrains sensorimotor function of the upper limb and potentially also the response to treatment. However, it is not possible to infer CST (re)organization from clinical presentation alone and conventional biomarkers, such as time of insult, location, and lesion extent seem to have limited clinical utility. Here, we propose a theoretical framework based on a detailed examination of the motor system using behavioral, neurophysiological, and magnetic resonance imaging measures, akin to those used to predict potential for upper limb recovery of adults after stroke. This theoretical framework might prove useful because it provides testable hypotheses for future research with the goal to develop and validate a clinical assessment flowchart to categorize children with unilateral CP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Jaspers
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Winston D Byblow
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Hilde Feys
- KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Research Group of Neuromotor Rehabilitation , Leuven , Belgium
| | - Nicole Wenderoth
- Neural Control of Movement Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; KU Leuven, Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Leuven, Belgium
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89
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Clowry GJ, Basuodan R, Chan F. What are the Best Animal Models for Testing Early Intervention in Cerebral Palsy? Front Neurol 2014; 5:258. [PMID: 25538677 PMCID: PMC4255621 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interventions to treat cerebral palsy should be initiated as soon as possible in order to restore the nervous system to the correct developmental trajectory. One drawback to this approach is that interventions have to undergo exceptionally rigorous assessment for both safety and efficacy prior to use in infants. Part of this process should involve research using animals but how good are our animal models? Part of the problem is that cerebral palsy is an umbrella term that covers a number of conditions. There are also many causal pathways to cerebral palsy, such as periventricular white matter injury in premature babies, perinatal infarcts of the middle cerebral artery, or generalized anoxia at the time of birth, indeed multiple causes, including intra-uterine infection or a genetic predisposition to infarction, may need to interact to produce a clinically significant injury. In this review, we consider which animal models best reproduce certain aspects of the condition, and the extent to which the multifactorial nature of cerebral palsy has been modeled. The degree to which the corticospinal system of various animal models human corticospinal system function and development is also explored. Where attempts have already been made to test early intervention in animal models, the outcomes are evaluated in light of the suitability of the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin John Clowry
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
| | - Reem Basuodan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
| | - Felix Chan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK
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90
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Friel KM, Williams PTJA, Serradj N, Chakrabarty S, Martin JH. Activity-Based Therapies for Repair of the Corticospinal System Injured during Development. Front Neurol 2014; 5:229. [PMID: 25505443 PMCID: PMC4241838 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
This review presents the mechanistic underpinnings of corticospinal tract (CST) development, derived from animal models, and applies what has been learned to inform neural activity-based strategies for CST repair. We first discuss that, in normal development, early bilateral CST projections are later refined into a dense crossed CST projection, with maintenance of sparse ipsilateral projections. Using a novel mouse genetic model, we show that promoting the ipsilateral CST projection produces mirror movements, common in hemiplegic cerebral palsy (CP), suggesting that ipsilateral CST projections become maladaptive when they become abnormally dense and strong. We next discuss how animal studies support a developmental “competition rule” whereby more active/used connections are more competitive and overtake less active/used connections. Based on this rule, after unilateral injury the damaged CST is less able to compete for spinal synaptic connections than the uninjured CST. This can lead to a progressive loss of the injured hemisphere’s contralateral projection and a reactive gain of the undamaged hemisphere’s ipsilateral CST. Knowledge of the pathophysiology of the developing CST after injury informs interventional strategies. In an animal model of hemiplegic CP, promoting injured system activity or decreasing the uninjured system’s activity immediately after the period of a developmental injury both increase the synaptic competitiveness of the damaged system, contributing to significant CST repair and motor recovery. However, delayed intervention, despite significant CST repair, fails to restore skilled movements, stressing the need to consider repair strategies for other neural systems, including the rubrospinal and spinal interneuronal systems. Our interventional approaches harness neural activity-dependent processes and are highly effective in restoring function. These approaches are minimally invasive and are poised for translation to the human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Friel
- Department of Neurology, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College , New York, NY , USA ; Burke Medical Research Institute , White Plains, NY , USA
| | - Preston T J A Williams
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City College of the City University of New York , New York, NY , USA
| | - Najet Serradj
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City College of the City University of New York , New York, NY , USA
| | - Samit Chakrabarty
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Leeds , Leeds , UK
| | - John H Martin
- Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, City College of the City University of New York , New York, NY , USA ; The Graduate Center of the City University of New York , New York, NY , USA
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91
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Kostović I, Kostović-Srzentić M, Benjak V, Jovanov-Milošević N, Radoš M. Developmental dynamics of radial vulnerability in the cerebral compartments in preterm infants and neonates. Front Neurol 2014; 5:139. [PMID: 25120530 PMCID: PMC4114264 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2014.00139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The developmental vulnerability of different classes of axonal pathways in preterm white matter is not known. We propose that laminar compartments of the developing cerebral wall serve as spatial framework for axonal growth and evaluate potential of anatomical landmarks for understanding reorganization of the cerebral wall after perinatal lesions. The 3-T MRI (in vivo) and histological analysis were performed in a series of cases ranging from 22 postconceptional weeks to 3 years. For the follow-up scans, three groups of children (control, normotypic, and preterms with lesions) were examined at the term equivalent age and after the first year of life. MRI and histological abnormalities were analyzed in the following compartments: (a) periventricular, with periventricular fiber system; (b) intermediate, with periventricular crossroads, sagittal strata, and centrum semiovale; (c) superficial, composed of gyral white matter, subplate, and cortical plate. Vulnerability of thalamocortical pathways within the crossroads and sagittal strata seems to be characteristic for early preterms, while vulnerability of long association pathways in the centrum semiovale seems to be predominant feature of late preterms. The structural indicator of the lesion of the long association pathways is the loss of delineation between centrum semiovale and subplate remnant, which is possible substrate of the diffuse periventricular leukomalacia. The enhanced difference in MR signal intensity of centrum semiovale and subplate remnant, observed in damaged children after first year, we interpret as structural plasticity of intact short cortico-cortical fibers, which grow postnatally through U-zones and enter the cortex through the subplate remnant. Our findings indicate that radial distribution of MRI signal abnormalities in the cerebral compartments may be related to lesion of different classes of axonal pathways and have prognostic value for predicting the likely outcome of prenatal and perinatal lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivica Kostović
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine , Zagreb , Croatia
| | | | - Vesna Benjak
- Department of Pediatrics, Clinical Hospital Center Zagreb, University of Zagreb School of Medicine , Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Nataša Jovanov-Milošević
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine , Zagreb , Croatia
| | - Milan Radoš
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine , Zagreb , Croatia
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92
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Reynoso C, Crespo-Eguílaz N, Alcázar JL, Narbona J. [Motor behavior of human fetuses during the second trimester of gestation: a longitudinal ultrasound study]. An Pediatr (Barc) 2014; 82:183-91. [PMID: 25001373 DOI: 10.1016/j.anpedi.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The aim of this research is to contribute to knowledge of the normal spontaneous motor behavior of the human fetus during the second trimester of pregnancy. This study focuses on five patterns of spontaneous fetal movement: startle (S), axo-rhizomelic rhythmia (ARR), axial stretching (AS), general movement (GM), and diaphragmatic contraction (DC). METHODS A cohort of 13 subjects was followed up using 2D obstetrical ultrasound images at 12, 16, 20, and 24 weeks of gestation. As inclusion criteria, neonatal neurological examination and general movements after eutocic delivery at term were normal in all of the subjects, and their neuromotor and cognitive development until the end of pre-school age were also normal. RESULTS All these five motor patterns are present at the beginning of the 2(nd) gestational trimester, but their quantitative and qualitative traits are diverse according to gestational ages. The phasic, isolated or rhythmically repeated movements, S and ARR, are prominent at 12 and 16 weeks of gestation, and then their presence gradually diminishes. By contrast, tonic and complex AS and GM movements increase their presence and quality at 20 and 24 weeks. RAR constitute a particular periodic motor pattern not described in previous literature. Moreover, the incidence of DC is progressive throughout the trimester, in clusters of 2-6 arrhythmic and irregular beats. Fetal heart rate increases during fetal motor active periods. CONCLUSIONS All five normal behavioral patterns observed in the ultrasounds reflect the progressive tuning of motor generators in human nervous system during mid-pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Reynoso
- Unidad de Neurología Pediátrica, Departamento de Pediatría, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, España; Centro Médico ABC, México DF, México
| | - N Crespo-Eguílaz
- Unidad de Neurología Pediátrica, Departamento de Pediatría, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, España
| | - J L Alcázar
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, España
| | - J Narbona
- Unidad de Neurología Pediátrica, Departamento de Pediatría, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, España.
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93
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Kanazawa H, Kawai M, Kinai T, Iwanaga K, Mima T, Heike T. Cortical muscle control of spontaneous movements in human neonates. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 40:2548-53. [PMID: 24827432 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2014] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Anatomical studies show the existence of corticomotor neuronal projections to the spinal cord before birth, but whether the primary motor cortex drives muscle activity in neonatal 'spontaneous' movements is unclear. To investigate this issue, we calculated corticomuscular coherence (CMC) and Granger causality in human neonates. CMC is widely used as an index of functional connectivity between the primary motor cortex and limb muscles, and Granger causality is used across many fields of science to detect the direction of coherence. To calculate CMC and Granger causality, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure activity over the cortical region that governs leg muscles, and surface electromyography (EMG) over the right and left tibialis anterior muscles, in 15 healthy term and preterm neonates, during spontaneous movements without any external stimulation. We found that 17 leg muscles (10 right, seven left) in 12 neonates showed significant CMC, whose magnitude significantly correlated with postnatal age only in the beta frequency band. Further analysis revealed Granger causal drive from EEG to EMG in 14 leg muscles. Our findings suggest that the primary motor cortex drives muscle activity when neonates move their limbs. Moreover, the positive correlation between CMC magnitude and postnatal age suggests that corticomuscular communication begins to develop during the neonatal stage. This process may facilitate sensory-motor integration and activity-dependent development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoshinori Kanazawa
- Department of Pediatrics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, 606-8507, Kyoto, Japan; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 102-0083, Tokyo, Japan
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94
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Nagy E, Pal A, Orvos H. Learning to imitate individual finger movements by the human neonate. Dev Sci 2014; 17:841-57. [DOI: 10.1111/desc.12163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emese Nagy
- School of Psychology; University of Dundee; UK
| | - Attila Pal
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; University of Szeged; Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Orvos
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; University of Szeged; Hungary
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95
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MRI of animal models of developmental disorders and translation to human imaging. Curr Opin Neurol 2014; 27:157-67. [DOI: 10.1097/wco.0000000000000066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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96
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Sukal-Moulton T, Krosschell KJ, Gaebler-Spira DJ, Dewald JP. Motor impairment factors related to brain injury timing in early hemiparesis. Part I: expression of upper-extremity weakness. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2014; 28:13-23. [PMID: 24009182 PMCID: PMC3974904 DOI: 10.1177/1545968313500564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extensive neuromotor development occurs early in human life, but the time that a brain injury occurs during development has not been rigorously studied when quantifying motor impairments. OBJECTIVE This study investigated the impact of timing of brain injury on the magnitude and distribution of weakness in the paretic arm of individuals with childhood-onset hemiparesis. METHODS A total of 24 individuals with hemiparesis were divided into time periods of injury before birth (PRE-natal, n = 8), around the time of birth (PERI-natal, n = 8), or after 6 months of age (POST-natal, n = 8). They, along with 8 typically developing peers, participated in maximal isometric shoulder, elbow, wrist, and finger torque generation tasks using a multiple-degree-of-freedom load cell to quantify torques in 10 directions. A mixed-model ANOVA was used to determine the effect of group and task on a calculated relative weakness ratio between arms. RESULTS There was a significant effect of both time of injury group (P < .001) and joint torque direction (P < .001) on the relative weakness of the paretic arm. Distal joints were more affected compared with proximal joints, especially in the POST-natal group. CONCLUSIONS The distribution of weakness provides evidence for the relative preservation of ipsilateral corticospinal motor pathways to the paretic limb in those individuals injured earlier, whereas those who sustained later injury may rely more on indirect ipsilateral corticobulbospinal projections during the generation of torques with the paretic arm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Sukal-Moulton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Northwestern University
| | | | - Deborah J. Gaebler-Spira
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University
- The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago
| | - Julius P.A. Dewald
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Northwestern University
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Northwestern University
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97
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Delafield-Butt JT, Gangopadhyay N. Sensorimotor intentionality: The origins of intentionality in prospective agent action. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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98
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Friel KM, Chakrabarty S, Martin JH. Pathophysiological mechanisms of impaired limb use and repair strategies for motor systems after unilateral injury of the developing brain. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55 Suppl 4:27-31. [PMID: 24237276 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The corticospinal tract (CST) is important for limb control. In humans, it begins developing prenatally but CST connections do not have a mature pattern until about 6 months of age and its capacity to evoke muscle contraction does not mature until mid-adolescence. An initially bilateral projection is subsequently refined, so that most ipsilateral CST connections are eliminated. Unilateral brain damage during refinement leads to bilateral developmental impairments. The damaged side develops sparse and weak contralateral spinal connections and the non-involved hemisphere maintains its ipsilateral projection to develop an aberrant bilateral spinal projection. In a kitten model of unilateral spastic cerebral palsy, we replicate key features of the CST circuit changes: robust bilateral CST projections from the non-involved hemisphere, sparse contralateral connections from the affected hemisphere, and motor impairments. We discuss the role of activity-dependent synaptic competition in development of bilateral CSTs and consider several experimental strategies for restoring a more normal pattern of CST connections from the damaged and non-involved sides. We highlight recent results stressing the importance of combined repair of CST axons, restoration of a more normal motor cortex motor representation, and key involvement of spinal cholinergic interneurons in restoring skilled motor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Friel
- Burke-Cornell Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Physiology, Pharmacology, and Neuroscience, City College of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
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99
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Russ JB, Verina T, Comer JD, Comi AM, Kaltschmidt JA. Corticospinal tract insult alters GABAergic circuitry in the mammalian spinal cord. Front Neural Circuits 2013; 7:150. [PMID: 24093008 PMCID: PMC3782692 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2013.00150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
During perinatal development, corticospinal tract (CST) projections into the spinal cord help refine spinal circuitry. Although the normal developmental processes that are controlled by the arrival of corticospinal input are becoming clear, little is known about how perinatal cortical damage impacts specific aspects of spinal circuit development, particularly the inhibitory microcircuitry that regulates spinal reflex circuits. In this study, we sought to determine how ischemic cortical damage impacts the synaptic attributes of a well-characterized population of inhibitory, GABAergic interneurons, called GABApre neurons, which modulates the efficiency of proprioceptive sensory terminals in the sensorimotor reflex circuit. We found that putative GABApre interneurons receive CST input and, using an established mouse model of perinatal stroke, that cortical ischemic injury results in a reduction of CST density within the intermediate region of the spinal cord, where these interneurons reside. Importantly, CST alterations were restricted to the side contralateral to the injury. Within the synaptic terminals of the GABApre interneurons, we observed a dramatic upregulation of the 65-isoform of the GABA synthetic enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65). In accordance with the CST density reduction, GAD65 was elevated on the side of the spinal cord contralateral to cortical injury. This effect was not seen for other GABApre synaptic markers or in animals that received sham surgery. Our data reveal a novel effect of perinatal stroke that involves severe deficits in the architecture of a descending spinal pathway, which in turn appear to promote molecular alterations in a specific spinal GABAergic circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey B Russ
- Weill Cornell/Rockefeller University/Sloan-Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program New York, NY, USA ; Neuroscience Program, Weill Cornell Medical College New York, NY, USA ; Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute New York, NY, USA
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100
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Michel GF, Babik I, Nelson EL, Campbell JM, Marcinowski EC. How the development of handedness could contribute to the development of language. Dev Psychobiol 2013; 55:608-20. [PMID: 23754687 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We propose a developmental process which may link the development of handedness with the development of hemispheric specialization for speech processing. Using Arbib's proposed sequence of sensorimotor development of manual skills and gestures (that he considers to be the basis of speech gestures and proto-language), we show how the development of hand-use preferences in proto-reaching skills concatenate into object acquisition skills and eventually into role-differentiated bimanual manipulation skills (that reflect interhemispheric communication and coordination). These latter sensorimotor skills might facilitate the development of speech processing via their influence on the development of tool-using and object management abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Michel
- Psychology Department, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA.
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