Awareness of age-related change: examination of a (mostly) unexplored concept

Dynamic identities and self-perception of aging: The case of Turkish cosmetic surgery patients

Drawing on the idea that aging is a physical and a psychosocial process, this study aimed to understand self-perceived aging by focusing on the cultural and experiential perspective presented by Turkish women. The social and interactive aspects were reflected in their self-perceptions of aging, which did not necessarily entail physical degradation or health problems. This study focused on patients who underwent anti-aging operations, and cosmetic surgery was revealed to be a convenient and quick way to eliminate the physical signs of aging. By analyzing 31 in-depth interviews with patients of ages ranging from 21 to 75, three interpretations of aging were identified and discussed. Past-oriented women wanted to return to "good old times," present-oriented women wanted to balance their inner and outer selves, and future-oriented women desired a total transformation in their lives. This study contributes to our understanding of self-perceived aging and presents findings from patients who did not necessarily conceptualize their selves as moving forward in time. Successful aging may be possible by means of past, present, or future selves, and "success" in aging is socio-culturally interpreted by these women in addition to more objective definitions of well-being and medical norms.

Awareness of Age-Related Change as a Behavioral Determinant of Survival Time in Very Old Age

Although research on the association between subjective views of aging (VOA) and survival is scarce, more negative VOA have been found to be associated with increased all-cause mortality, even after controlling for possible confounders. Longitudinal studies on the predictive association of VOA with survival in individuals aged 80 years or older are, however, very limited. Thus, the aim of this study was to link adults' awareness of age-related change (AARC), a multidimensional measure of adults' subjective VOA, to survival time across a 3.5-year observation interval in advanced old age. To put the AARC construct in context, the study also considered related psychosocial concepts (i.e., perceived control and appraisal of life) essential for coping with late-life challenges as potential behavioral predictors of longevity. Data came from a representative panel study that included persons living in community and institutional settings. A total of 1,863 interviews were conducted at wave 1. This study used meta-data from wave 2 fieldwork 2 years after the initial assessment and death records obtained during panel maintenance after 3.5 years to estimate determinants of survival. Results showed that loss-related VOA indicated increased risk to survival, whereas gain-related VOA were predictive of longer survival. Both perceived age-related losses and perceived age-related gains exerted a significant independent effect on late-life mortality over and above socio-demographic background characteristics, perceived control, engagement with life, as well as health status. These findings suggest that the multidimensional examination of very old adults' VOA may help to better understand successful longevity in the Fourth Age.

Cognitive Interference in the Context of Daily Stressors, Daily Awareness of Age-Related Change, and General Aging Attitudes

OBJECTIVES

Previous diary work indicates that older people experience more intrusive and unwanted thoughts (i.e., cognitive interference) on days with stressors. We examined additional predictors of daily cognitive interference to enhance understanding of the psychological context surrounding this link. We specifically focused on factors related to subjective experiences of aging based on studies that have related higher stress and impairments in cognition such as executive control processes (working memory) to negative age stereotypes. Consistent with these findings, we generally expected stronger stress effects on cognitive interference when daily self-perceptions of aging (i.e., within-person fluctuations in awareness of age-related losses [AARC losses]) and general aging attitudes (i.e., individual differences in attitudes toward own aging [ATOA]) were more negative.

METHODS

Participants (n = 91; aged 60-80) on Amazon's Mechanical Turk completed surveys on 9 consecutive days, reporting on their ATOA (Day 1) as well as their stressors, AARC losses, and cognitive interference (Days 2-9).

RESULTS

Multilevel models showed that people reported more cognitive interference on days with more AARC losses. Individuals with positive ATOA also experienced less cognitive interference on days with more stressors, whereas those with negative ATOA experienced more.

DISCUSSION

Both individual differences and fluctuating daily perceptions of aging appear to be important for older adults' cognitive interference. Consistent with other work, positive ATOA protected against daily stressor effects. Further elucidating these relationships can increase understanding of and facilitate efforts to improve (daily) cognitive experiences in older adults.

Subjective perceptions of age-related gains buffer negative associations of perceived age-related losses with health, well-being, and engagement

People reflect on their own aging, and this subjective awareness has an influence on developmental outcomes. Scholars have recently operationalized subjective aging in terms of awareness of age-related change (AARC), which captures awareness of both gains and losses. We examined associations of AARC-gains and AARC-losses with physical functioning, subjective well-being, and engagement with life (enjoyable activities and sense of purpose). Importantly, we extended previous research by not only assessing main effects of gains and losses but also testing their interaction. We hypothesized that awareness of losses would be more weakly negatively associated with health and well-being among those who possessed higher awareness of gains. A total of 399 older participants aged 65 to 91 (235 women and 164 men) were recruited via Prime Panels crowd-sourcing platform to complete an online questionnaire. Greater AARC-losses was associated with poorer health, lower subjective well-being, and lower sense of purpose. AARC-gains was associated with better outcomes in general, and moderated associations of AARC-losses with physical functioning, subjective well-being, and sense of purpose (but not engagement in leisure activities). Consistent with predictions, moderation effects showed that negative associations of AARC-losses with the outcomes were weaker among those who reported higher AARC-gains. Results provided some support for a role of AARC-gains in buffering negative effects of AARC-losses on developmental outcomes.

Awareness of age-related gains and losses and their associations with psychological well-being: A longitudinal examination

OBJECTIVES

How people experience their own aging is more strongly linked to well-being than chronological age. This study examined associations of awareness of age-related change (AARC) with between-person differences and longitudinal changes in psychological well-being (PWB). We expected that higher AARC-gains would be associated with higher PWB and increases in PWB over time. Conversely, we expected higher AARC-losses would be associated with lower PWB, and steeper decline in PWB over time. Furthermore, we tested the interaction of AARC-gains and AARC-losses to examine whether negative associations between AARC-losses and PWB would be weaker among those reporting higher AARC-gains.

METHOD

Data were collected in three waves from a 12-month longitudinal study of 408 community-dwelling older adults (aged 60+). Multilevel growth models were used to analyze associations between AARC and a composite measure of PWB which included key components of PWB identified in self-determination theory (satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs), as well as vitality, and life engagement.

RESULTS

At the between-person level, higher AARC-gains and lower AARC-losses were consistently associated with higher PWB. Furthermore, associations between AARC-losses and lower PWB were weaker among those with higher AARC-gains. There was no evidence to suggest the interplay of AARC-gains and AARC-losses had implications for change in PWB over time.

DISCUSSION

Appreciation of age-related gains may buffer the impact of AARC-losses on PWB. However, longitudinal studies conducted over varying macro- and micro-time scales are needed to better understand the developmental significance of AARC for later life.

Measuring (Non)Essentialist Beliefs About the Process of Aging

OBJECTIVES

We validated an aging mindset measure that captures beliefs about the process of aging. Specifically, we introduce a brief 4-item and an extended 10-item measure assessing (non)essentialist beliefs about aging.

METHODS

We report findings from one longitudinal and one cross-cultural study, including young, middle-aged, and older adults between 18 and 88 years. The studies established (retest) reliability and measurement invariance as well as convergent and discriminant validity of the measures.

RESULTS

First, in a longitudinal study (N = 124, 50-84 years) including 4 measurement occasions, we showed that the 4-item scale assessing (non)essentialist beliefs about aging has good retest reliability and convergent as well as discriminant validity (e.g., awareness of age-related change). Second, in a large cross-cultural sample (N = 1,080, 18-82 years) of participants in the United States and Germany, we established an extended 10-item measure of (non)essentialist beliefs about aging, providing support for a 2-factor structure as well as measurement invariance across samples within and across countries (the United States and Germany), age groups (young, middle-aged, and older adults), as well as across men and women.

DISCUSSION

Our results highlight the importance of distinguishing between fixed versus malleable aging beliefs in research on aging and life-span development.

The cross-sectional relationship between pain and awareness of age-related changes

BACKGROUND

Awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses) captures the perceived changes that older individuals experience in several domains of their lives including physical, cognitive and social functioning; interpersonal relationships; and lifestyle. Exploring antecedents of AARC is important to identify those individuals that could benefit the most from interventions promoting positive experiences of ageing and/or adaptation to age-related changes. This study investigates the experience of pain as a predictor of lower AARC gains and higher AARC losses.

METHODS

Analyses are based on cross-sectional data from the PROTECT cohort (2019); 1013 UK residents (mean (SD; range) age: 65.3 (7.1; 51.4-92) years, 84.4% women) completed measures of AARC and pain and provided demographic information. Linear regression models were fitted to examine pain as a predictor of AARC gains and AARC losses.

RESULTS

Higher levels of pain predicted more AARC losses both before (regression coefficient, B = 0.36; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.29 to 0.42, p-value < 0.001; R 2 = 0.11) and after adjusting for demographic covariates (B = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.27 to 0.40; p-value < 0.001; Partial R 2 = 0.11). Pain was not significantly associated with AARC gains (unadjusted B = 0.05; 95% CI: -0.03 to 0.12, p-value = 0.21; Partial R 2 = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Individuals experiencing pain may perceive more AARC losses. Interventions aiming to decrease levels of pain could include a component targeting self-perceptions of ageing and/or promoting acceptance of the negative changes that can happen with ageing.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The predictive role of greater levels of pain for more negative perceptions of age-related changes extends the literature on the negative psychological outcomes of pain and on predictors of perceived awareness of age-related changes (AARC). As individuals experiencing pain may be more at risk of perceiving their own ageing in a more negative way, they may benefit from interventions that combine strategies to reduce levels of pain and the interference that pain exerts on their daily activities with an educational component enhancing positive self-perceptions of ageing and promoting acceptance of negative age-related changes.

Cross-sectional association between objective cognitive performance and perceived age-related gains and losses in cognition

OBJECTIVES

Evidence linking subjective concerns about cognition with poorer objective cognitive performance is limited by reliance on unidimensional measures of self-perceptions of aging (SPA). We used the awareness of age-related change (AARC) construct to assess self-perception of both positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses). We tested whether AARC has greater utility in linking self-perceptions to objective cognition compared to well-established measures of self-perceptions of cognition and aging. We examined the associations of AARC with objective cognition, several psychological variables, and engagement in cognitive training.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational study.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample comprised 6056 cognitively healthy participants (mean [SD] age = 66.0 [7.0] years); divided into subgroups representing middle, early old, and advanced old age.

MEASUREMENTS

We used an online cognitive battery and measures of global AARC, AARC specific to the cognitive domain, subjective cognitive change, attitudes toward own aging (ATOA), subjective age (SA), depression, anxiety, self-rated health (SRH).

RESULTS

Scores on the AARC measures showed stronger associations with objective cognition compared to other measures of self-perceptions of cognition and aging. Higher AARC gains were associated with poorer cognition in middle and early old age. Higher AARC losses and poorer cognition were associated across all subgroups. Higher AARC losses were associated with greater depression and anxiety, more negative SPA, poorer SRH, but not with engagement in cognitive training.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessing both positive and negative self-perceptions of cognition and aging is important when linking self-perceptions to cognitive functioning. Objective cognition is one of the many variables - alongside psychological variables - related to perceived cognitive losses.

Optimizing aging: A call for a new narrative

Decades of research have shown that biological and psychosocial aging are not as predetermined as had been thought for a long time. Yet, despite a large and growing evidence base, most individuals still hold negative views of aging that keep them from optimizing their chances for healthy and productive aging. Given this general background, this article has three major objectives: (a) to show that the 3 big misconceptions at the heart of the public's negative views of aging can be refuted based on scientific evidence; (b) to illustrate that changing individuals' views of aging calls for the development of a new narrative on aging, one that incorporates the increasing diversity of the aging population; and (c) to discuss how psychologists can contribute to creating this new narrative on aging. We argue that growing old(er) in the United States is not the same old business anymore and that psychologists are uniquely positioned to contribute to the social and cultural transformation that population aging and increasing diversity in the U.S. society require. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Achieving healthy ageing through the perspective of sense of coherence among senior-only households: a qualitative study

Objectives: Explore perceptions towards healthy ageing through the perspective of sense of coherence among older adults residing in senior-only households.Methods: A qualitative study using focus group interviews was conducted and appreciative inquiry was adopted as a strengths-based interviewing approach. 27 older adults who either live alone or with their spouses only were involved in six focus group discussions at a community centre in Singapore. Data saturation was achieved and thematic analysis was performed to analyse the data.Results: The four emerging themes were (1) contending evolving vulnerabilities, (2) intrinsic value of health, (3) taking care of oneself is a personal responsibility, and (4) taking one day at a time: outlook towards later part of life. Older adults' underlying pathogenic orientation towards health contributed to their perceived unpredictable confrontations with vicissitudes including illness and death. This played a part to their short outlook towards old age. Consequently, this could limit their will and abilities to seek meaningful pursuits or valued aspirations and movement towards the salutogenic health pole.Conclusion: By reframing the definition of health to pursuing and fulfilling valued accomplishments, optimal health can be achieved regardless of physical health state. This study suggested that sense of coherence towards the pursuit of healthy ageing can be addressed by reducing the unpredictability of ageing-related processes and vulnerabilities (comprehensibility), supporting active adoption of actions which promotes physical, mental and social health (manageability) and individual reflection in making sense of old age to seek motivation in living each day purposefully (meaningfulness).

The Effects of Age Stereotypes on Physical and Mental Health Are Mediated by Self-perceptions of Aging

OBJECTIVES

Although the evidence linking views on aging (VoA) with aging outcomes is robust, little is known about how different types of VoA may interact to influence such outcomes. Therefore, this study examined two types of VoA, age stereotypes (AS), representing general VoA, and self-perceptions of aging (SPA), representing personal VoA. We operationalized SPA in terms of awareness of age-related change (AARC), distinguishing between gain- and loss-related SPA (e.g., awareness of positive and negative age-related changes, respectively). Based on theoretical reasoning, we hypothesized that AS would be an antecedent of SPA, and that the effect of AS on physical and mental health would be mediated by SPA.

METHOD

A total of 819 German and U.S. adults aged 40-98 completed a survey on VoA, physical health, and mental health at baseline and 2.5 years later. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to examine the effects of Time 1 AS (predictor) and Time 2 gain- and loss-related SPA (mediators) on physical and mental health outcomes.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, AS predicted later SPA. Loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on physical health; both gain- and loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on mental health.

DISCUSSION

Congruent with theoretical assumptions, our findings provide empirical support for a directional pathway by which AS shape later SPA. We conclude that AS and SPA may affect physical health outcomes more strongly than mental health outcomes. Studies that assess both types of VoA are needed to illuminate the pathways by which VoA influence aging outcomes.

Self-Perceptions of Aging: Factorial Structure and Invariance by Gender

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Self-perceptions of aging (SPA)-the appraisals people place on their own aging processes-predict well-being in later life. Researchers are increasingly hypothesizing that the overarching construct of SPA is comprised of two factors-positive SPA and negative SPA-and that SPA are gendered. The purpose of this study was to empirically test the hypothesized two-factor structure of SPA and to analyze how the two-factor structure varies between men and women.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Data come from the 2012 wave of the Health and Retirement Study (N = 7,029; Mage = 68.08), which includes an 8-item SPA scale. We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to assess (i) the positive SPA and negative SPA two-factor solution for the 8-item scale and (ii) whether the two-factor solution had configural, strong, or weak invariance across men and women.

RESULTS

CFAs indicated a two-factor latent structure of the 8-item scale, with SPA being comprised of both a positive SPA factor and a negative SPA factor. The latent structure was the same for both men and women.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Results suggest that SPA is a broader construct made up of positive and negative latent factors. Researchers should consider separating the SPA by positive and negative factors to analyze how each factor uniquely shapes health. Moreover, the two-factor solution was equivalent across men and women, possibly because of the generalized nature of the 8-item scale. Researchers can use the 8-item scale similarly for men and women and should continue to elucidate possible gender differences in SPA.

Associations of Awareness of Age-Related Change With Emotional and Physical Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background and Objectives

This systematic review aimed to synthesize and quantify the associations of awareness of age-related change (AARC) with emotional well-being, physical well-being, and cognitive functioning.

Research Design and Methods

We conducted a systematic review with a correlational random effects meta-analysis. We included quantitative studies, published from January 1, 2009 to October 3, 2018, exploring associations between AARC and one or more of the following outcomes: emotional well-being, physical well-being, and cognitive functioning. We assessed heterogeneity (I²) and publication bias.

Results

We included 12 studies in the review, 9 exploring the association between AARC and emotional well-being and 11 exploring the association between AARC and physical well-being. No study explored the association between AARC and cognitive functioning. Six articles were included in the meta-analysis. We found a moderate association between a higher level of AARC gains and better emotional well-being (r = .33; 95% CI 0.18, 0.47; p <.001; I² = 76.01) and between a higher level of AARC losses and poorer emotional (r = −.31; 95% CI −0.38, −0.24; p < .001; I² = 0.00) and physical well-being (r = −.38; 95% CI −0.51, −0.24; p < .001; I² = 83.48). We found a negligible association between AARC gains and physical well-being (r = .08; 95% CI 0.02, 0.14; p < .122; I² = 0.00). Studies were of medium to high methodological quality.

Discussion and Implications

There is some indication that AARC gains and losses can play a role in emotional well-being and that AARC losses are associated with physical well-being. However, the number of included studies is limited and there was some indication of heterogeneity.

PROSPERO Registration

CRD42018111472.

Psychometric study of the Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC) Short Scale translated to Portuguese, applied to Brazilian older adults

The concept Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC) is defined as a person’s awareness that their behavior, level of physical, cognitive and social performance, and ways of experiencing life have changed as a consequence of having grown older, and not because of disease.

Measurement Invariance and Developmental Trajectories of Multidimensional Self-Perceptions of Aging in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the measurement invariance and longitudinal trajectories of multidimensional self-perceptions of aging (SPA) and factors that predict between-person variability in the level and change of SPA in middle-aged and older adults.

METHOD

Data were drawn from the German Ageing Survey spanning four waves, covering a 15-year period. Multidimensional SPA was assessed with the Personal Experience of Aging Scale, consisting of three dimensions, physical decline, social loss, and continuous growth.

RESULTS

The measurement invariance models across age groups (middle-aged versus older adults) and across time showed a good fit after allowing one item to vary at metric and/or scalar levels. Growth curve models showed only minor declining trajectories in two of the three dimensions of SPA, social loss and continuous growth dimensions, toward more negative views. Participants with poor resources in general were more likely to have negative SPA across all three dimensions. The protective effect of having a spouse was observed on only the social dimension of SPA, supporting a domain-specific effect of having a spouse.

DISCUSSION

The study demonstrates the usefulness of a multidimensional understanding of SPA and recognizes the need for identifying different factors that may promote positive perceptions on aging in different dimensions of life.

Age-related change in self-perceptions of aging: Longitudinal trajectories and predictors of change

Using data from the German Ageing Survey (Deutscher Alterssurvey, DEAS; N = 4,712), this study examined age-related change in three dimensions of self-perceptions of aging (SPA): perceptions of physical losses, social losses, and ongoing development. Participants ranged in age from 40 to 85 years at study entry (1996, 2002, or 2008) and were followed for up to 21 years. Time-invariant, context-specific and time-varying, person-specific predictors of the observed age-related changes were examined. Findings from longitudinal multilevel regression analyses showed significant nonlinear age-related change for all three dimensions. Specifically, starting at about age 65, participants showed age-related increases in perceptions of physical and social losses, with increases getting steeper in old age. Starting at about age 55, participants reported increasingly fewer perceptions related to ongoing development. The decline in perceptions of ongoing development also became increasingly steeper after age 70. Region of residence was a significant context-specific predictor of the intercepts of the three SPA dimensions. Health-related variables (i.e., number of chronic diseases, self-rated health), affective well-being (i.e., positive and negative affect), and measures of social integration (i.e., loneliness) were significant person-specific predictors. Health-related variables had their strongest association with perceptions of physical losses, whereas negative affect and loneliness had their strongest association with perceptions of social losses. Positive affect had its strongest association with perceptions of ongoing development. This study is the first one to describe age-related change trajectories in multiple dimensions of SPA and significant predictors of these change trajectories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Are Thoughts About the Future Associated With Perceptions in the Present?: Optimism, Possible Selves, and Self-Perceptions of Aging

Despite much literature pointing to the saliency of self-perceptions of aging (SPA) to aging processes, limited research offers empirical analysis on what shapes SPA. In order to identify possible antecedents to SPA, we conducted an exploratory analysis to analyze whether two future-oriented constructs-optimism and self-efficacy associated with possible selves-were associated with SPA. We ran hierarchical linear regressions, with optimism and self-efficacy of possible selves predicting SPA among 244 middle-aged and older adults. Higher optimism, higher self-efficacy to achieve hoped-for selves, and higher self-efficacy to avoid feared selves were associated with higher overall SPA. Results from our study suggest that how someone appraises their future older self impacts how they perceive their current older self.

The assessment of views on ageing: a review of self-report measures and innovative extensions

This is a review of existing self-report measures for assessing views on ageing. It provides an overview of instruments, for which basic psychometric properties are available and describes them according to the purposes for which they are suitable. Literature search resulted in the inclusion of 89 instruments which were categorised along eight dimensions. The majority of measures focus on explicit cognitions about people's own age and ageing or other (older) people. A substantial amount of tools account for the multidimensionality and multidirectionality of views on ageing, i.e. the idea that ageing is accompanied by both gains and losses in several different domains. To some extent, measures reflect that ageing is a long-term process and that views on ageing are malleable, rather than just stable traits. Cluster analysis revealed heterogeneity in instruments regarding the dimensions of Ecosystem, Balance, Stability, Dynamics, and Complexity. It becomes apparent, however, that approaches to measure views on ageing should be extended to more specifically target the implicit level as well as affective, physiological, and behavioural manifestations. Additionally, means for capturing views on ageing on the societal level and tools with a distinct time reference are needed. This is particularly important when one wants to account for the lifelong dynamics of views on ageing.

Views on ageing: a lifespan perspective

Views on ageing (VoA) have special relevance for the ageing process by influencing health, well-being, and longevity. Although VoA form early in life, so far, most research has concentrated on how VoA affect later middle-aged and older adults. In this theoretical article, we argue that a lifespan approach is needed in order to more fully understand the origins of VoA, how they change over ontogenetic time, and how they shape development across the full breadth of the lifespan. We begin by explicitly linking VoA to fundamental principles of lifespan development. We review existing theories of VoA and discuss their respective contributions and limitations. We then outline a lifespan approach to VoA that integrates existing theories and addresses some of their limitations. We elaborate on three core propositions of a lifespan approach to VoA: (1) VoA develop as the result of a dynamic, ongoing, and complex interaction between biological-evolutionary, psychological, and social-contextual factors; however, the relative importance of different sources changes across the lifespan; (2) VoA impact development across the whole lifespan; however, different outcomes, mechanisms, and time frames need to be considered in order to describe and understand their effects; and (3) VoA are multidimensional, multidirectional, and multifunctional throughout life, but their complexity, meaning, and adaptivity change across the lifespan. We conclude with recommendations for future lifespan research on VoA.

Within- and Between-Person Relationships Among Health, Awareness of Aging, and Control Beliefs: A Microlongitudinal Study

Objective

Control beliefs are bidirectionally related to physical and cognitive health, and control beliefs are associated with awareness of aging (subjective age and awareness of age-related change [AARC]), but it is unclear how these processes unfold within persons over time. We examine these relationships from both between- and within-person perspectives.

Methods: Older adults (n = 116) ranging in age from 60 to 90 (M = 64.71) completed a 9-day daily diary study online, resulting in 743 total days. Participants reported their sociodemographic characteristics on Day 1 and physical symptoms, memory failures, felt age, daily AARC gain and loss experiences, and control beliefs on Days 2–9.

Results

Within-person deviations from one’s typical awareness of aging (AARC losses, AARC gains, and subjective age) were associated with fluctuations in control beliefs. Multilevel mediation results showed that between-person AARC losses mediated the relationship between health (both physical symptoms and memory failures) and control beliefs, whereas both within- and between-person control beliefs mediated the relationship between physical health and AARC losses. Model fit comparisons showed that models with control beliefs mediating health and awareness of aging fit better than models with awareness of aging mediating health and control beliefs.

Discussion

Our findings suggest that within-person physical and cognitive health indicators were associated with awareness of aging indirectly through control beliefs. Although between-person differences in AARC losses may link health and control beliefs, our results suggest that a more consistent pattern involves control beliefs linking health and awareness of aging.

Brief Anti-Ageism Messaging Effects on Physical Activity Motivation Among Older Adults

When people have more negative perceptions about aging or attribute health decline to old age, they engage in less health promotion behavior. We tested whether an intervention of brief anti-ageism messages addressing views of aging could motivate engagement in physical activities at senior centers. Attendees aged 50 and older ( n = 349; Mage = 72, SD = 9) at seven centers were randomly assigned to read one of three intervention messages (different approaches addressing views of aging) or to not read a message before rating their likelihood of attending a variety of center programs, including physical activities. Multilevel regression models indicated the intervention increased motivation to attend physical activities compared with the control group among participants aged 72 and older. The three anti-ageism messages were similarly effective suggesting some flexibility in framing. The results indicate anti-ageism messages may be a scalable, low-cost approach to promoting physical activity in older adults.

Becoming and being an older adult: A mixed methods study of the lived experience of aging

PURPOSE

This phenomenological inquiry explored what it is like to become and to be old. The principal aims of this study were to first characterize participants' lived experience of becoming and being an older person, then to determine the extent to which they were aging in a conscious way that evidenced aspects of gerotranscendence, and finally, to contextualize participants' responses within existing research on the phenomenon.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In a concurrent embedded mixed-methods design using an interpretive inquiry strategy, 17 men and women living independently in their communities responded to questions about their experience of aging and completed measures of gerotranscendence and adjustment to aging and their psychosocial correlates. A structural analysis of the verbatim transcripts of the interviews employed a phenomenological-hermeneutic approach. The quantitative measures informed further interpretations of interview data.

RESULTS

Most participants exemplified aging well with strengths and positive experiences across multiple domains; others evidenced optimal aging as physical challenges began to appear. Seven themes emerged from the structural analysis of the interview transcripts: Accepting/making accommodations for the inexorable physical changes; Being old versus feeling old; Being seen as old; Changing-and growing-psychologically and emotionally; Experiencing time as long and as short; Maintaining meaningful interpersonal relationships; and Speaking and living freely, and authentically.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Convergences and divergences between the themes identified in this study and prior literature on the phenomenology of aging are discussed. Findings from this and similar studies have implications both for older adults and for those who care for and about them. If an older person is motivated to adapt in positive ways, then the potential to continue developing and growing into very old age is enhanced. On the macro level, an increased understanding of and appreciation for the breadth of older adults' experience of their eighth, ninth, and tenth decades of life should inform the development of policies, programs, and services to enhance their day-to-day lives.

International relevance of two measures of awareness of age-related change (AARC)

BACKGROUND

A questionnaire assessing awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses) was developed in the US and Germany. We validated the short form of the measure (AARC-10 SF) and the cognitive functioning subscale from the 50-item version of the AARC (AARC-50) questionnaire in the UK population aged 50 and over.

METHODS

Data from 9410 participants (Mean (SD) age = 65.9 (7.1)) in the PROTECT cohort were used to explore and confirm the psychometric properties of the AARC measures including: validity of the factor structure; reliability; measurement invariance across men and women, individuals with and without a university degree, and in middle age, early old age, and advanced old age; and convergent validity with measures of self-perception of aging and mental, physical, and cognitive health. We explored the relationship between demographic variables (age, sex, marital status, employment, and university education) and AARC.

RESULTS

We confirmed the two-factor structure (gains and losses) of the AARC-10 SF and the AARC-50 cognitive functioning subscale. Both scales showed good reliability and good convergent validity for AARC losses, but weak convergent validity for AARC gains. For both scales metric invariance was held for the two subgroups defined by education level and age. For the AARC-50 subscale, but not for the AARC-10 SF, strong invariance was also held for the two subgroups defined by sex. Age, sex, marital status, employment, and university education predicted AARC gains and losses.

CONCLUSIONS

The AARC-10 SF and AARC-50 cognitive functioning subscale identify UK individuals who perceive age-related changes in their mental, physical, and cognitive health.

Psychological aging, depression, and well-being

Aging is a multifactorial process, which affects the human body on every level and results in both biological and psychological changes. Multiple studies have demonstrated that a lower subjective age is associated with better mental and physical health, cognitive functions, well-being and satisfaction with life. In this work we propose a list of non-modifiable and modifiable factors that may possibly be influenced by subjective age and its changes across an individual's lifespan. These factors can be used for a future development of individual psychological aging clocks, which may be utilized as a sensitive measure for health status and overall life satisfaction. Furthermore, recent progress in artificial intelligence and biomarkers of biological aging have enabled scientists to discover and evaluate the efficacy of potential aging- and disease-modifying drugs and interventions. We propose that biomarkers of psychological age, which are just as important as those for biological age, may likewise be used for these purposes. Indeed, these two types of markers complement one another. We foresee the development of a broad range of parametric and deep psychological and biopsychological aging clocks, which may have implications for drug development and therapeutic interventions, and thus healthcare and other industries.

Age-Related Attributions of Experienced Changes in Life: Origins and Implications

Objectives

Attributing life changes to age represents a core marker of the subjective experience of aging. The aims of our study were to investigate views on aging (VA) as origins of age-related attributions of life changes and to investigate the implications of these age-related attributions for personal control (PC) and life satisfaction (LS).

Methods

Life changes and the attribution of life changes to age were independently assessed on a large international sample of older adults (N = 2,900; age range 40–90 years) from the Ageing as Future project. The valence of VA, PC, and LS were also assessed to investigate possible determinants (VA) and consequences (PC and LS) of age-related attributions of life changes.

Results

Attributions to age were shown to depend on the valence of experienced life changes, with more negative changes being linked to more age-related attributions. This relation was moderated by the valence of personally held VA, with more negative VA amplifying the relation between negative life changes and age-related attributions. Age-related attributions predicted reduced PC and lower LS and were found to exacerbate the effects of negative life changes on LS, especially for the older cohorts of our sample.

Discussion

Our findings help to better understand what determines age-related attributions of life changes and highlight the negative consequences of attributing them to aging. Age-related attributions of change are a major factor that worsens the subjective aging experience. Methodologically, our study emphasizes the necessity to separately assess changes and their attributions to age.

The distance to death perceptions of older adults explain why they age in place: A theoretical examination

Older persons prefer to age in place or stay put in their current dwellings and move less frequently than any other age group. However, current residential mobility theories do not fully account for these preferences and behaviors because they focus on why older people move rather than on why they remain in their dwellings and do not consider the temporal or human developmental context of these residential decisions. It is essential to understand why older persons are reluctant to move because their ability to age successfully-have healthy, independent, active, and enjoyable lives-depends on where they live. When they stay put, they also rely more on family caregivers and paid home care providers to maintain their independence, rather than on the supportive services offered by senior group facilities, such as assisted living. They demand more home modification and financial service products, and their residential decisions influence the supply of housing that younger populations can potentially buy or rent. This paper's theoretical analysis proposes that Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory (SST), a lifespan theory of motivation, improves our understanding of why older persons age in place-either in their dwellings or more broadly in their communities. It offers an alternative interpretation of how life-changing events, such as retirement, lower incomes, spousal death, physical limitations, and health declines, influence their residential decisions. Whereas residential mobility theories view these transitions as disruptions that change the appropriateness or congruence of where older people live, SST proposes that older persons perceive these events as signs or cues that they are closer to death and must differently prioritize their goals and emotional experiences. Feeling their time is "running out," older persons are motivated to stay put because moving requires preparations that are physically and emotionally trying and they are able to adapt to their current housing shortcomings. Their residential environments are now also a source of difficult-to-replace positive emotions and provide them with a supportive network of intimate and reliable interpersonal relationships. It is challenging for them to learn how to safely and efficiently conduct their usual activities and routines in another location and to establish new residential attachments and social connections. They would benefit from any net positive emotional payoffs only in a distant future, an unattractive prospect when they perceive a limited time left to live. Empirical studies must test the theoretical propositions presented in this paper. However, the disproportionally large projected future growth of the age 75 and older population with a heightened awareness of their limited time left to live should be a strong rationale for such investigations.

The AgingPLUS trial: Design of a randomized controlled trial to increase physical activity in middle-aged and older adults

BACKGROUND

Negative views of aging (NVOA), low self-efficacy beliefs, and poor goal planning skills represent risk factors that undermine adults' motivation to engage in physical activity (PA). Targeting these three risk factors may motivate adults to become physically active.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy of Aging^PLUS, a 4-week educational program that explicitly targets NVOA, low self-efficacy beliefs, and poor goal planning skills compared to a 4-week health education program. The study also examines the role of NVOA, self-efficacy beliefs, and goal planning as the mechanisms underlying change in PA.

DESIGN

This randomized controlled trial (RCT) utilizes the experimental medicine approach to assess change in PA as a function of modifying three risk factors. The RCT recruitment target includes 288 mostly sedentary adults ranging in age from 45 to 75 years.

METHODS

Eligible middle-aged and older adults are recruited through community sources. Participants are randomized to either the Aging^PLUS or the control group. Participants in both groups are enrolled in the trial for 8 months total, with four assessment points: Baseline (pre-test), Week 4 (immediate post-test), Week 8 (delayed post-test), and Month 6 (long-term follow-up). The intervention takes place over 4 consecutive weeks with 2-h sessions each week. PA engagement is the primary outcome variable. Positive changes in NVOA, self-efficacy beliefs, and goal planning are the intervention targets and hypothesized mediators of increases in PA.

SUMMARY

By utilizing a multi-component approach and targeting a cluster of psychological mechanisms, the Aging^PLUS program implements the experimental medicine approach to health behavior change.

Ageism in the Fitness and Health Industry: A Review of the Literature

This review aims to understand how age-related stereotypes against older adults' physical capabilities influence their ability to engage in regular physical activity. The authors wanted to know how people construe ageism in the fitness and health arena, how ageism manifests in this field, and how ageism influences older adults' learning and practicing physical activity. Data was extracted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. Twenty-two empirical studies met the selection criteria. The findings revealed that the attributes of ageism fell into either self-imposed or other-directed ageism categories and manifested as implicit or explicit ageism. The study also identified the following four themes: (a) perceptions of aging and exercise, (b) exercise motivation, (c) opportunities for older adults, and (d) ambiguous positionality as older exercisers. The research provides evidence for the existence of ageism against older exercisers. Further research considering the implication of ageism within the exercising industry is necessary.

Dynamic awareness of age-related losses predict concurrent and subsequent changes in daily inductive reasoning performance

To address gaps in previous research, we examined daily within-person associations between awareness of age-related change (AARC) and cognitive performance in older adults. One hundred twelve adults aged 60-90 participated in an online daily diary study for nine consecutive days. On Day 1, they reported demographic information. On Days 2-9, they reported daily AARC, subjective age, and stressors and completed three tasks that gauged memory (word recall), perceptual speed (number comparison), and reasoning (letter series), respectively, once per day. Unconditional multilevel models revealed significant within-person fluctuations in daily cognitive performance and daily AARC. Controlling for age, education, health, and daily stressors, daily awareness of age-related losses was negatively associated with letter series scores of the same day and changes from one day to the next. The effects held over and above AARC gains and subjective age. Dynamic, naturally occurring perceptions of ageing may influence within-person concurrent and subsequent changes in reasoning performance on a daily basis and point to a promising avenue of intervention.

Concurrent and enduring associations between married partners' shared beliefs and markers of aging

Beliefs about aging are grounded in social experience. This study considered the extent to which married older adults' shared beliefs about aging and markers of aging maintain a concurrent and enduring association with their partners' beliefs about and markers of aging. Data from the 2010/2012 and 2014/2016 waves of the Health and Retirement Study provided measures of husbands' and wives' (3,779 couples) positive and negative beliefs about aging and internal (Cystatin C) and external (grip strength) markers of aging at 2 time points. Latent dyadic models parsed beliefs and markers into partners' individual and shared variances, which were connected both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Longitudinal analysis showed that the cross-sectional associations between shared beliefs and markers of aging were stable over 4 years. Partners' shared beliefs and markers of aging were found to have enduring associations with each other over time. The enduring association between grip strength and future negative beliefs remained significant after accounting for partner selection and similarity in health. Model comparisons across marriage duration and emotional closeness showed partners' beliefs to be more similar in marriages that were either long established or emotionally close. In all groups, shared beliefs and markers of aging were associated with each other over time. The association between positive beliefs and future grip strength was stronger in long-established than in recent marriages. In summary, this study provides evidence that, within older couples, beliefs about aging are shaped in part through experiences of aging together. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Ageism between Medical and Preliminary Medical Persons in Korea

Background

We aimed to analyse the trends in ageism among health care providers and medical students in the Republic of Korea.

Methods

We used the Fraboni Scale of Ageism (FSA), Relating to Older People Evaluation (ROPE) questionnaire, Anxiety about Aging Scale (AAS), and the Facts on Aging Quiz II to assess ageism in medical students (n=90), nurses (n=114), and physicians (n=83). We grouped health care providers based on the percentage of aged patients (over 65 years) that they treated.

Results

Compared to the other groups, physicians had more knowledge about aging and the highest and lowest total scores in the FSA and ROPE, respectively. The total FSA scores were negatively correlated with the percentage of aged patients treated. Regarding the ROPE score, negative and positive ageist behaviors were positively correlated with the percentage of aged patients. Conclusions: Ageism and ageist behavior among physicians differed from previous reports and those of the other groups mentioned in the present study. Although physicians had more knowledge of aging, they had expressed a high levels of ageism. However, they did not act ageistically. Health care providers who treat a large number of older patients had minimal ageism but more ageist behavior. These findings indicate that continued education of geriatrics and ageism for medical staff and prospective medical personnel could help improve this situation.

Managing expectations: How stress, social support, and aging attitudes affect awareness of age-related changes

The degree to which social support (SS) moderates the effects of stress on self-perceptions of aging may depend on individual differences in general aging attitudes. We examined how stress, different types of SS, and general expectations regarding aging (ERA) affect awareness of age-related changes (AARCs). The sample included 137 adults (21-76 years; 56.2% women) who took an online survey on Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Regression analyses showed differential moderation of stress effects due to ERA and the SS measure (perceived and received) and function (emotional and instrumental). Received emotional SS was only associated with AARC losses, whereas perceived support-both emotional and instrumental-was associated with AARC gains and losses. Findings may help guide future work aimed at promoting health and well-being in adulthood.

Effects of Age Discrimination on Self-perceptions of Aging and Cancer Risk Behaviors

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Almost one-third of older adults report experiencing age discrimination. We hypothesized sequential links between older adults' everyday experiences of age discrimination and future health behaviors related to cancer risk through self-perceptions of aging (SPA).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants were community-dwelling respondents (age: 51-96 years) from the 2008, 2012, and 2014 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (N = 4,467). Generalized path models estimated the immediate and enduring effects of age discrimination in 2008 on proximal SPA in 2012 and distal health behaviors in 2014.

RESULTS

Age discrimination was associated with lower positive SPA and higher negative SPA in 2012. The effect of age discrimination on physical activity, smoking, and drinking in 2014 was mediated by positive and negative SPA in 2012. Through subsequent SPA, those who experienced age discrimination in 2008 were less likely to engage in regular moderate physical activity, more likely to smoke, and less likely to drink more than 3 times per week in 2014. Analysis of change in positive and negative SPA showed the effect of age discrimination on physical activity to be mediated by change in positive, but not negative, SPA.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The enduring effects of age discrimination were found through a reduction in positive SPA. Elevating positive SPA could be as important as reducing negative SPA for future health behaviors related to cancer risk.

Examining the Process of Modal Choice for Everyday Travel Among Older People

Modal choice is a prominent concept within transport studies. However, the term is often used quite loosely, with little known about the factors lying behind the choice, the alternatives available to a person, and whether the person had a 'choice' to begin with. This study draws on a travel survey among older people living in Sweden's large metropolitan regions. The questions posed as part of this survey facilitate a greater insight into the processes at play behind modal choice. An analysis of the differences between: (1) the range of modal options available to respondents and (2) the modes selected from this range (modal choice) is presented. An analysis of the respondents' reasoning for choosing the modes they did and not the others they could have chosen is also presented. It was found that more than a quarter of respondents have the option to use and actually use all modes for everyday travel. The car is more inclined to be selected among those who have a range of different modal options. Suitability and comfort are the two main reasons given for modal choice. More positive reasons are given for actively selecting walking and cycling, whereas the motives behind the selection of the car instead tend to be framed as reasons for not selecting other modes. Adaptive preference and adjustment effects are also apparent in the selection processes. This study gives us a deeper understanding of the intricate mechanisms and reasoning at play behind the process of modal choice among this group. In this way, we have a better basis for shaping and implementing measures to promote and encourage sustainable mobility, in such a way that the well-being of older people is also supported.

Measuring Awareness of Age-Related Change: Development of a 10-Item Short Form for Use in Large-Scale Surveys

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Existing measures of subjective aging have been useful in predicting developmental outcomes. Unlike other constructs of subjective aging, Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC) focuses on how adults' self-perceptions of aging result in an awareness of age-related gains and losses. We developed a 10-item short form (SF) of the existing 50-item AARC questionnaire as a reliable, valid, and parsimonious solution for use primarily in large-scale surveys but also in applied contexts.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

AARC was assessed in a German and North American sample of 819 individuals. Item selection for the suggested AARC-10 SF was based on multidimensional item response theory (MIRT). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test for measurement invariance (MI) across groups of participants in middle age (40-69 years), early old age (70-79 years), and advanced age (80+ years). Concurrent and discriminant validity in old age was assessed with regard to established measures of subjective aging, well-being, and health.

RESULTS

The AARC-10 SF showed adequate fit to the data and reliability for the perceived gains and losses composites. Valid comparison of latent means was confirmed for early old and advanced age respondents and with some reservation also for middle-aged individuals due to partial MI. Concurrent and discriminant validity were confirmed.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The proposed AARC-10 SF offers an economic device to measure AARC and use the construct as an antecedent or outcome in the context of substantive model testing in large-scale survey data.

A New Multidimensional Questionnaire to Assess Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

This two-study article describes the development and evaluation of a multidimensional questionnaire based on the subjective aging construct Awareness of Age-Related Change (AARC). AARC captures the inherent multidimensionality and complexity of aging attitudes, which are strongly linked to indicators of successful aging, including health and well-being.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In Study 1, we generated a large item pool related to subjective aging experiences and then evaluated the psychometric properties of a 189-item version of the AARC questionnaire in a sample of 396 adults aged 40-95 years. Based on findings from Study 1, we retained the best-performing items and arrived at a more parsimonious 50-item version (AARC-50). In Study 2, the psychometric properties of the 50-item version were examined in an expanded sample of 424 adults ages 40-98.

RESULTS

Factor analyses in Study 1 indicated a two-factor structure of the questionnaire, representing the awareness of positive (AARC-Gains) and negative (AARC-Losses) age-related changes across five behavioral domains. Confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 further supported this two-factor structure. In both studies, the AARC questionnaire demonstrated strong psychometric properties, including scale and item reliability, convergent and divergent validity, and predictive validity.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The availability of a reliable and valid assessment tool for measuring AARC-Gains and AARC-Losses allows researchers to capture detailed information about adults' positive and negative self-perceptions of aging across multiple behavioral domains, which are instrumental for promoting successful aging.

Developmental Regulation and Awareness of Age-Related Change: A (Mostly) Unexplored Connection

Objectives

Linkages between developmental regulation and awareness of aging-although suggested by theoretical considerations-have not found much empirical consideration. To address this gap, we examined associations between two established modes of developmental regulation, that is, assimilation and accommodation, and awareness of age-related change (AARC) in midlife and old age, while considering the role of chronological age as a moderator.

Method

Data are based on a cross-sectional sample of 356 adults (aged 42-100 years). A newly developed measure of AARC was used to assess perceived gain- and loss-related aging experiences.

Results

AARC was associated with assimilation and accommodation over and above a range of control variables. Individuals who perceived many loss-related aging experiences were less likely to use assimilation and accommodation. Individuals perceiving many gain-related aging experiences were more likely to make use of these strategies. The effects remained stable when controlling for subjective age and self-efficacy, except for the association between gain-related aging experiences and assimilation. No moderation effect of calendar age was found.

Discussion

Results suggest that multidimensional subjective aging constructs may enrich our understanding of how developmental regulation modalities are used by aging individuals.

Awareness of Age-Related Change and Depressive Symptoms in Middle and Late Adulthood: Longitudinal Associations and the Role of Self-Regulation and Calendar Age

Objectives

Studies that examine bidirectional relations between subjective aging and depressive symptoms have remained rare. We addressed this issue by investigating longitudinal linkages between awareness of age-related change (AARC) and depressive symptomatology in midlife and old age. Assimilative and accommodative self-regulation strategies and calendar age were studied as moderators.

Method

Analyses were based on two measurements (Time 1: 2012, N = 423 (40-98 years); Time 2: 2015, N = 356). AARC was operationalized as perceived age-related gains and losses. Data were analyzed by means of a cross-lagged panel model and multiple regression.

Results

Perceived losses but not gains had an effect on change in depressive symptoms over time. The reverse effect with depressive symptoms predicting change in AARC was not significant. The association between perceived gains but not losses and change in depressive symptoms was moderated by self-regulation; when perceived gains were low, less increase in depressive symptoms was reported when accommodation was high. The association between AARC and change in depressive symptoms was stable across the entire second half of the life span.

Discussion

Results suggest that a better integration of research on subjective aging with clinically relevant developmental outcomes is a promising future pathway.

Longitudinal Associations Among Older Adults' Neurocognitive Performance, Psychological Distress, and Self-Reported Cognitive Function

Subjective cognitive complaints increase with age. Although subjective cognitive difficulties have been linked to cognitive impairment and psychological distress, some studies have failed to establish a link between subjective cognitive complaints and present or future cognitive impairment. The present study examined the interactive, longitudinal effects of age, psychological distress, and objective cognitive performance on subjective cognitive function. Older adults (N=147, Mage = 74.17) were assessed biannually for up to six years. Subjective cognitive function, psychological distress, and neuropsychological testing were obtained at each assessment. In multilevel models with single predictors, age, poorer average task-switching and poorer memory predicted worse subjective cognitive functioning. Both average levels and within-person deviations in distress predicted worse subjective cognitive function. There were two significant interactions: one between average distress and chronological age, and the other between average memory and within-person distress. Task switching performance and distress had an additive effect on subjective cognitive function. Both individual differences (i.e., between-person differences) and fluctuations over time (i.e., within-person changes) contributed to worse subjective cognitive function. Psychological distress may help explain the relationship between objective cognitive performance and subjective cognitive function and should be assessed when patient concerns about cognitive functioning arise.

Future time perspective and general self-efficacy mediate the association between awareness of age-related losses and depressive symptoms

Perceiving one's own aging process as associated with many losses is linked to an increase in depressive symptoms over 2.5 years. We investigated whether this pattern of associations also applies for a 4.5-year interval. No study has yet investigated the pathways underlying the association between perceived age-related losses and depressive symptoms. We examined the mediating role of future time perspective (FTP) and general self-efficacy (GSE) in this association. Analyses were based on a sample of 40-to-98-year-old adults (Time 1: 2012, N = 423) that was assessed at two additional points covering 4.5 years (Time 2: 2015, N = 356; Time 3: 2017, N = 299). Perceived age-related losses were operationalized via the loss dimension of the Awareness of Age-Related Change instrument; FTP, GSE, and depressive symptoms were assessed via established questionnaires. Data were analyzed by means of a cross-lagged panel model and longitudinal mediation model realized as a structural equation model. In line with prior findings, perceived age-related losses were associated with an increase in depressive symptoms over 4.5 years. A higher amount of perceived age-related losses dampened FTP and GSE 2.5 years later, which in turn increased the level of depressive symptoms a further 2 years later, controlling for age, sex, education, physical health, and neuroticism, and taking into account the stabilities and time-synchronous correlations of the study variables. Effects were comparable across middle-aged and older individuals. FTP and GSE are important resources for understanding how perceived age-related losses translate into depressive symptoms.

The Role of Personality in Becoming Aware of Age-Related Changes

Awareness of age-related change (AARC) refers to an individual's conscious knowledge about the gains and losses resulting from growing older. Personality traits reflect dispositional patterns of behavior, perception, and evaluation and should therefore influence the experience of AARC. The 4.5-year longitudinal study examines this association between personality traits and AARC in a sample of 423 individuals aged 40 to 98 years (M = 62.9 years) using latent change analyses. After controlling for sex, health, and education, a different pattern of associations for cross-sectional vs. longitudinal relations. Cross-sectionally, neuroticism was positively related to AARC losses, whereas openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism were positively related to AARC gains. Longitudinally, the impact of personality traits on change in AARC was rather limited with only higher conscientiousness acting as a predictor of decreases in AARC losses over time. Overall, the findings add to the existing literature on associations between personality traits and subjective aging. Specifically, the results indicate that personality traits are differentially related to awareness of age-related gains in comparison to awareness of age-related losses.

Development of the Relational Ageism Scale: Confirmatory Test on Survey Data

The objective of the study is to test a refined measure of attitudes about aging as a multidimensional construct reflective of a relational process that includes personal identity (i.e., beliefs about oneself), social identity (i.e., self-conception based on group membership), and collective identity (i.e., self-conception based on comparison of groups) as well as capturing awareness of ageism and its impact. Researchers refined the Aging Anxiety Scale and recruited a convenience sample of 329 participants via a social media platform. A principal component factor analysis revealed the specification of three latent factors: personal, relational, and collective aging anxiety. Awareness of ageism as a problem in society was lower than awareness of other forms of discrimination, and awareness of the negative impacts of ageism was low. The findings support the incorporation of this new measure of relational aging anxiety as a by-product of social identity and construction in future ageism studies.

Goal-setting to Promote a Healthier Lifestyle in Later Life: Qualitative Evaluation of the AgeWell Trial

OBJECTIVE

We report a mixed method evaluation of the feasibility and implementation of the AgeWell goal-setting intervention to promote healthy ageing later life.

METHOD

Researcher field notes, goal-setting interview content, and semi-structured interviews with participants were content analysed to review trial implementation and participants' perspective on the goal-setting and mentoring intervention.

RESULTS

75 people were recruited: 21 in the goal-setting and 22 in the goal-setting with mentoring arms of the intervention. Goal-setting was feasible in the main domains of interest. Adherence to the protocol was good and the mentoring schedule was adhered to. Participants reported satisfaction with their goal attainment, but barriers for non-achievement were also identified. Recommendations for small changes to the intervention included reducing the number of goals.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants understood the goal-setting process, and were able to set realistic and achievable lifestyle goals. The intervention and the procedures were acceptable but changes in how goal-setting is both introduced and monitored are needed for wider implementation.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Goal-setting can be a useful process to help people alter their lifestyle to allow them to age more successfully and reduce risk factors associated with dementia.

Feeling How Old I Am: Subjective Age Is Associated With Estimated Brain Age

While the aging process is a universal phenomenon, people perceive and experience one's aging considerably differently. Subjective age (SA), referring to how individuals experience themselves as younger or older than their actual age, has been highlighted as an important predictor of late-life health outcomes. However, it is unclear whether and how SA is associated with the neurobiological process of aging. In this study, 68 healthy older adults underwent a SA survey and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. T1-weighted brain images of open-access datasets were utilized to construct a model for age prediction. We utilized both voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and age-prediction modeling techniques to explore whether the three groups of SA (i.e., feels younger, same, or older than actual age) differed in their regional gray matter (GM) volumes, and predicted brain age. The results showed that elderly individuals who perceived themselves as younger than their real age showed not only larger GM volume in the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus, but also younger predicted brain age. Our findings suggest that subjective experience of aging is closely related to the process of brain aging and underscores the neurobiological mechanisms of SA as an important marker of late-life neurocognitive health.

Residential Reasoning and the Tug of the Fourth Age

Purpose of the Study

Where to grow older occupies the minds of many aging adults. This study examines how anticipation of the fourth age influences third-age residential reasoning. It also investigates the role of social relationships in choosing housing for later life.

Design and Methods

Analyses were based on semi-structured interviews with 30 community-dwelling retirees aged 67-97 who were asked about preparations for the future, including housing.

Results

Replies about future housing fell into two categories: preemptive and contingent. In preemptive reasoning, participants anticipated that their current homes would be suitable over the long term and explained why, while those engaged in contingent reasoning could imagine a possible future move to more supportive housing and even had destination places in mind. Both types of responses reflect residential reasoning that is ongoing and driven in large part by anticipation of fourth-age vulnerabilities. Peers influenced participants' thinking about whether, when, and where to move. Relationships with spouses and offspring were also factors commonly mentioned in residential reasoning, both in terms of sources of support and perceived obligations.

Implications

The fourth age is generally conceived as an experience of loss, but it also functions as a social imaginary. Our study suggests that the fourth age, both as a potential personal destiny and a social construct, influences housing decisions among those firmly in the third age. More attention in housing research to prudential anticipation of the fourth age as well as the relational aspects of residential reasoning would enhance understanding of late-life housing choices.

Aging Attitudes and Daily Awareness of Age-Related Change Interact to Predict Negative Affect

Background and Objectives

Possessing more positive views of one's own aging is associated with better self-rated health, reduced reactivity to stressors, and better well-being. We examined two components of aging attitudes: awareness of age-related change (AARC) of loss and gain experiences and attitudes toward own aging (ATOA). We expected that AARC would vary day-to-day and interact with ATOA to predict daily negative affect.

Research Design and Methods

One hundred and sixteen participants (61% women, M age = 64.71, range 60-90) reported on 743 total days via an online daily diary study. On Day 1, participants reported baseline ATOA and baseline AARC for losses and gains. On Days 2-9, daily stressor exposure, daily AARC losses and gains, and negative affect were reported.

Results

Unconditional multilevel models revealed significant within-person fluctuation in daily AARC losses and gains. Controlling for daily stressors, age, and baseline AARC, daily increases in AARC losses were associated with increases in negative affect and a cross-level interaction revealed that this effect was stronger for those with more positive ATOA.

Discussion and Implications

AARC gains and losses vary from day-to-day, suggesting that interventions targeting the contextual fluctuations in daily life may be a promising avenue for future research. Specifically, individuals who feel generally positive about their own aging, although less likely to report awareness of daily age-related losses, may be the most vulnerable when they do occur. Efforts to reduce daily AARC losses (e.g., limiting activities due to age, receiving help because others assume age-related deficits) may improve the daily well-being of older adults.

It's "the Joneses": the influence of objective and subjective socioeconomic status on subjective perceptions of aging

Positive subjective perceptions of aging predict various well-being, physical health, mental health, and longevity outcomes. Thus, it is important to consider what factors contribute to their formation. Socioeconomic status (SES) has been hypothesized to be one such factor, but past research has been mixed. We propose that subjective assessments of SES may better predict subjective perceptions of aging than traditional objective measures (e.g., income and education). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of objective and subjective indicators of SES on subjective perceptions of aging. Participants (n = 296) from the Mindfulness and Anticipatory Coping Everyday study were recruited with a Human Intelligence Task on Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Participants reported on their SES (i.e., income, education, and subjective social status) and subjective perceptions of aging (i.e., attitudes toward own aging, subjective age, and awareness of age-related gains and losses). Data were analyzed via hierarchical multiple regression with demographic and health variables entered first, followed by income and education, then subjective social status. Results demonstrated that although objective measures of SES did not contribute to predicting subjective perceptions of aging, those who rated themselves subjectively higher in their community social standing were more likely to possess positive aging attitudes, younger subjective ages, more awareness of age-related gains, and fewer awareness of age-related losses. These findings suggest that perceptions of doing better than one's neighbors (i.e., "the Joneses") may matter more for understanding subjective perceptions of aging than objective indicators of social status.