Age-related prevalence of anal cancer precursors in homosexual men: the EXPLORE study

Cancer and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) populations

This article provides an overview of the current literature on seven cancer sites that may disproportionately affect lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) populations. For each cancer site, the authors present and discuss the descriptive statistics, primary prevention, secondary prevention and preclinical disease, tertiary prevention and late-stage disease, and clinical implications. Finally, an overview of psychosocial factors related to cancer survivorship is offered as well as strategies for improving access to care.

The estimated lifetime probability of acquiring human papillomavirus in the United States

BACKGROUND

Estimates of the lifetime probability of acquiring human papillomavirus (HPV) can help to quantify HPV incidence, illustrate how common HPV infection is, and highlight the importance of HPV vaccination.

METHODS

We developed a simple model, based primarily on the distribution of lifetime numbers of sex partners across the population and the per-partnership probability of acquiring HPV, to estimate the lifetime probability of acquiring HPV in the United States in the time frame before HPV vaccine availability.

RESULTS

We estimated the average lifetime probability of acquiring HPV among those with at least 1 opposite sex partner to be 84.6% (range, 53.6%-95.0%) for women and 91.3% (range, 69.5%-97.7%) for men. Under base case assumptions, more than 80% of women and men acquire HPV by age 45 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are consistent with estimates in the existing literature suggesting a high lifetime probability of HPV acquisition and are supported by cohort studies showing high cumulative HPV incidence over a relatively short period, such as 3 to 5 years.

Prevalence and associated factors of inhaled nitrites use among men who have sex with men in Beijing, China

BACKGROUND

Inhaled nitrites are commonly used by men who have sex with men (MSM) in western countries. As such compounds are not illicit, they are widely available in China. Recent studies have documented a high prevalence of inhaled nitrites use in this population.

METHODS

Snowball sampling was used to recruit 576 MSM in Beijing, China, who completed an anonymous face-to-face interview.

RESULTS

Of the participants, 49.8% had heard of "Rush" or "inhaled nitrites". The prevalence of use in the last three months was 28.3% among all participants and 56.8% among those with awareness about the compounds. A stepwise model found that age group (26-35 years old, ORm= 3.91; ≤ 25 years old, ORm = 3.05; reference group: >35 years old, P < 0.01) and multiple male sex partnerships (ORm = 2.29, P < 0.01) were associated with inhaled nitrites use. Adjusted for these two variables, constructs based on the Health Belief Model (HBM) were significantly associated with inhaled nitrites use in the last three months: Perceived Severity Scale [Adjusted Odds Ratios (AOR) = 0.72, P < 0.001], the Perceived Benefit Scale (AOR = 1.20, P < 0.001), the Perceived Barrier Scale (AOR = 0.81, P < 0.01), the Cue to Action Scale (AOR = 1.45, P < 0.001), and the Perceived Self-efficacy Scale (AOR = 0.71, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of inhaled nitrites use was high. It may further increase sharply among MSM in China when awareness becomes more common. Cognitive variables derived from the HBM provided a useful framework for designing interventions at structural, inter-personal and individual levels. Policy changes should also be considered.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infections and the Importance of HPV Vaccination

HPV persistence is necessary for the development of anogenital cancer. Studies show that cervical and anal HPV infections in women and in men who have sex with men are common. Clearance of HPV infection is similarly common; few individuals show persistence unless they are HIV-infected. HIV strongly influences the development of cervical and anal cancer, as well as their pre-malignant counterparts. Women with cervical and vulvar HPV-associated lesions have higher rates of anal cancer than the general population. HPV also plays an important role in pathogenesis of head and neck cancers, particularly oropharyngeal cancer. Two commercially available HPV vaccines have been proven to be safe and efficacious against cervical HPV16/18 infections and associated precancerous lesions; one of these has also been shown to prevent HPV16/18-associated anal lesions. The FDA has also just approved a new nonavalent HPV vaccine. HPV vaccines will play an important role in prevention of HPV-associated cancers.

Association between free testosterone levels and anal human papillomavirus types 16/18 infections in a cohort of men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 cause invasive cervical cancer and most invasive anal cancers (IACs). Overall, IAC rates are highest among men who have sex with men (MSM), especially MSM with HIV infection. Testosterone is prescribed for men showing hypogonadism and HIV-related wasting. While there are direct and indirect physiological effects of testosterone in males, its role in anal HPV16/18 infections in men is unknown.

METHODS

Free testosterone (FT) was measured in serum from 340 Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) participants who were tested for anal HPV16/18-DNA approximately 36 months later. The effect of log10-transformed current FT level on anal HPV16/18 prevalence was modeled using Poisson regression with robust error variance. Multivariate models controlled for other HPV types, cumulative years of exogenous testosterone use, race, age, lifetime number of receptive anal intercourse partnerships, body mass index, tobacco smoking, HIV-infection and CD4+ T-cell counts among HIV-infected, and blood draw timing.

RESULTS

Participants were, on average, 60 (+5.4) years of age, White (86%), and HIV-uninfected (56%); Twenty-four percent tested positive for anal HPV16 and/or 18-DNA (HPV16 prevalence=17.1%, HPV18=9.1%). In adjusted analysis, each half-log10 increase of FT was associated with a 1.9-fold (95% Confidence Interval: 1.11, 3.24) higher HPV16/18 prevalence. Additionally, other Group 1 high-risk HPVs were associated with a 1.56-fold (1.03, 2.37) higher HPV16/18 prevalence. Traditional risk factors for HPV16/18 infection (age, tobacco smoking; lifetime number of sexual partners, including the number of receptive anal intercourse partnerships within 24 months preceding HPV testing) were poorly correlated with one another and not statistically significantly associated with higher prevalence of HPV16/18 infection in unadjusted and adjusted analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher free testosterone was associated with increased HPV16/18 prevalence measured approximately three years later, independent of sexual behavior and other potential confounders. The mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear and warrant further study.

Non-16/non-18 high-risk human papillomavirus types predominate in anal cytology categories of negative for intraepithelial lesion and atypical cells of undetermined significance

INTRODUCTION

Screening for anal carcinoma continues to grow despite controversy regarding its efficacy. High-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) has been adopted as a cotest with anal Papanicolaou tests. We sought to identify the prevalence of HR-HPV types in the most common anal cytology specimens: negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy (NILM) and atypical squamous cell of undetermined significance (ASC-US).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anal cytology specimens were identified and tested for HR-HPV using Roche cobas 4800 HR-HPV analysis (Roche Molecular Systems, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind) and, if positive, typed further for: HPV-16, -18, and/or non-16/non-18 "other" HR-HPV type.

RESULTS

There were 642 specimens from 538 patients. The most common interpretation was NILM (48.6%) and ASC-US (25.7%). Of NILM cases, 47% were HR-HPV+ (53% in men, 33% in women, P = 0.03, χ²). In ASC-US cases, 73% were HR-HPV+ (74% in male patients, 70% in female patients). The most common HPV subtype was non-16/non-18 HR-HPV "other" types in 89% of cases. HPV-16 and HPV-18 were positive in 35% and 18% of cases, respectively. In patients with non-16/non-18 HR-HPV+ anal cytology, 16 of 79 had biopsies histologically diagnosed as at least high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL+). However, the relative risk of having HSIL+ was 2.3-times higher for anal cytology positive for HPV-16, -18, with/without coinfection with non-16/non-18 HR-HPV than those positive for non-16/non-18 "other" HR-HPV types alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-16/non-18 "other" HR-HPV types are most prevalent in anal cytology interpretations of NILM and ASC-US. Patients with HR-HPV+ NILM or ASC-US, negative for HPV-16/-18, are at lower relative risk of having subsequent histologic HSIL+, but a percentage of these patients still harbor HSIL+ on biopsy.

Comparison of 2 anal cytology protocols to predict high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia

OBJECTIVES

Nylon-flocked and Dacron swab anal cytology collection procedures were evaluated for detecting high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cross-sectional data for 42 HIV-infected and 16 uninfected men who have sex with men have been used. Sequentially collected anal cytology specimens, high-resolution anoscopy, and medical biopsy evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of cytology for predicting high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Men showing atypical squamous cells (ASC) or more severe findings by cytology were compared with those showing negative for intraepithelial lesions.

RESULTS

The prevalence of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia was 35% (21/58), and findings were approximately 1.5 times higher among HIV-infected compared with uninfected men. Unsatisfactory cytology was twice as common among Dacron compared with nylon-flocked swab protocol specimens (14% [8/58] vs 7% [4/58]). Sensitivity and specificity for the nylon-flocked protocol cytology showing ASC or more severe findings were 81% (58%-95%) and 73% (50%-89%), respectively. Dacron protocol specimens showed 52% (30%-74%) and 58% (34%-80%) sensitivity and specificity, respectively. Men showing ASC or more severe findings using the nylon-flocked protocol cytology showed 3-fold higher odds for high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia compared with men with negative results (p < .05), but no statistically significantly higher odds of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia for men showing ASC or more severe findings compared with those with negative results for Dacron protocol cytology (p > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The nylon-flocked protocol better detects high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia than does the Dacron protocol, yields more interpretable results, and classifies men with high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia as cytologically abnormal 2.5 times more often, even in this small clinical trial.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT00955591.

Incidence of and risk factors for type-specific anal human papillomavirus infection among HIV-positive MSM

OBJECTIVE

HIV-positive MSM are at increased risk of anal human papillomavirus (HPV) infection compared with men in the general population, and little is known about the natural history of anal HPV infection in this population. The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of and risk factors for anal type-specific HPV infection.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

METHODS

HIV-positive MSM were evaluated for anal HPV DNA, lifestyle factors, and sexual risk behaviors every 6 months for at least 2 years.

RESULTS

The overall incidence rate of detectable type-specific anal HPV infection was 21.3 per 100 person-years [95% confidence interval (CI) 17.7-25.4] and was 13.3/100 person-years (10.5-16.6) for oncogenic HPV types. The most common incident infections were HPV 18 (3.7/100 person-years) and HPV 16 (3.5/100 person-years). An increased number of recent partners with whom the participant was the receptive partner [odds ratio (OR) 2.9 (1.6-5.1) 8+ partners vs. 0-1], an increased number of new partners in which the participant was the receptive partner [OR 1.03 (1.01-1.1) per partner], an increased number of new oral-anal contact partners in which the participant was the receptive partner [OR 1.1 (1.03-1.1) per partner], and the frequency of receptive anal intercourse [OR 1.1 (1.03-1.1) per act] all significantly increased the odds of incident HPV infection (P ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSION

HIV-positive MSM have a high incidence of oncogenic anal HPV infection. Recent receptive anal sexual behaviors, including receptive anal intercourse and receptive oral-anal contact, are the most important risk factors for incident anal HPV infection.

Phase I study demonstrates safety and tolerability of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) of the anal mucosa

BACKGROUND

Anal carcinoma is increasing in high-risk populations. Dysplasia is often distributed throughout the anal mucosa, and focal ablative techniques have high rates of recurrence.

METHODS

With the goal of eradicating dysplasia from the entire anal mucosa, we conducted a phase I dose-ranging study to determine the safety and tolerability of radiofrequency ablation (RFA). HIV-infected individuals with high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia underwent RFA of the anal mucosa. Patient-reported procedural and postprocedural symptoms were recorded, and mucosal healing was visually assessed.

RESULTS

Four groups of 3 subjects each were treated with incrementally increasing numbers of RF pulses (1-3) applied to a single area of anal mucosa. Two or three doses of 12 J/cm2 were found to have acceptable patient tolerance and healing of the mucosa within 4 weeks of ablation. Using these doses, 2 groups underwent ablation of 180° of contiguous mucosa. Subjects experienced a loss of 1 to 3 days of daily activities of living, 7 to 14 days of postprocedure symptoms, and mucosal healing within 4 weeks. One subject in the first treatment group had the procedure aborted due to severe procedural pain.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provides evidence of the safety and tolerability of anal RFA of 180° of contiguous mucosa in a single procedure and will allow future RFA efficacy studies in the treatment of anal dysplasia.

Health Conditions in Younger, Middle, and Older Ages: Are There Differences by Sexual Orientation?

PURPOSE

Sexual minorities engage in more risk behaviors at a younger age than heterosexuals and many are subject to minority stress from a young age, which raises questions about the age at which sexual minorities' experience morbidities. Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of health conditions among young, middle age, and older age groups to examine sexual orientation differences while stratifying by gender.

METHODS

We pooled 4 years of data from the California Health Interview Survey to obtain a representative sample of the male and female population in California, allowing us to examine health conditions by sexual orientation in three age strata, age 20-39, age 40-59, and age 60 and older.

RESULTS

Compared with same-gender heterosexuals, sexual minority women had a higher likelihood of physical morbidities (disability: adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 2.66 for lesbians and AOR 2.21 for bisexuals; arthritis: AOR 2.12 for lesbians) at a young age, whereas gay men had a higher likelihood of heart disease (AOR 2.78) and cancer (AOR 4.75) at a young age. Across the life span, sexual minorities had higher likelihoods of poor mental health than heterosexuals.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that at a young age, sexual minorities experience more morbidities than heterosexual individuals. Consideration should be given to early detection, identification, and treatment of these conditions among sexual minorities particularly at younger ages.

Does high-risk human papilloma virus genotyping of abnormal anal cytology improve detection of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia?

INTRODUCTION

High-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) testing is accepted as the standard of care for surveillance of cervical cancer. Its role in anal cancer is not clear. This study was therefore designed to determine if HR HPV genotyping is a useful adjunct in management of abnormal anal Papanicolaou (Pap) tests.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HR HPV genotyping and virus quantification was performed on 101 residual anal Pap test samples (28 negative, 25 atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance [ASC], 34 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion [LSIL], 6 atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance, cannot exclude high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion, and 8 high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion) using multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results were correlated with cytodiagnosis and follow-up.

RESULTS

HR HPV was detected in 82% (50% negative, 84% ASC, and 100% LSIL and above) cases. Multiple genotypes were present in 71% of cases. Genotype number and viral load correlated with the degree of anal cytologic abnormality. HPV 16, 18, and 45 were the most frequent genotypes detected. The high frequency of HR HPV in abnormal anal cytologies limits its use as an adjunct test. Anal Pap test samples with anal intraepithelial neoplasia 2/3 (AIN 2/3) on follow-up were positive for HPV 16 and/or 18 (HPV 16/18+) in 80% of cases. We hypothesize that testing for HPV 16/18 on the ASC and LSIL cases would have detected AIN 2/3 with a sensitivity of 81%, specificity of 43%, positive predictive value of 39%, and negative predictive value of 83%.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results with a small cohort suggest that genotyping for HPV 16/18 may be effective in identifying patients at high risk for anal cancer and in reducing the number of anoscopy referrals. Prospective studies with follow-up are warranted.

Prevalence of abnormal anal cytology and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions among a cohort of HIV-infected men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

The incidence of anal cancer among HIV-infected patients is higher than that in other populations. Anal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions are considered precursors to invasive squamous-cell carcinomas and are strongly associated to high-risk human papillomavirus infection.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of anal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions through screening based on cytology and high-resolution anoscopy with biopsy in a cohort of HIV-infected men who have sex with men.

DESIGN

This investigation is an observational cross-sectional cohort study.

SETTING

The study was conducted in the HIV unit of a tertiary hospital in Spain.

PATIENTS

Three hundred HIV-infected men who have sex with men participated. Physical examination led to a diagnosis of perianal squamous-cell carcinoma and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions in 2 patients who were then excluded.

INTERVENTIONS

Anal liquid cytology was performed. Patients with cytological abnormalities underwent high-resolution anoscopy and biopsy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The primary outcome measured was biopsy-proven high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions.

RESULTS

The median age was 41 ± 10.5 years. The mean and nadir CD4 cell counts were 651 ± 205 cells/mm(3) (interquartile range, 438-800) and 273 ± 205 cells/mm(3) (interquartile range, 131-362). High-risk human papillomavirus was detected in 80.9% of patients, and human papillomavirus 16 was detected in 35.9% of patients. The mean number of human papillomavirus genotypes was 4.6 ± 2.9 (CI, 2-6). Anal cytology was abnormal in 40.9% of patients (n = 122/298; interquartile range, 35.4%-46.6%). High-resolution anoscopy and biopsies were performed in 119 patients. The results of histological analyses were as follows: normal, 7.7% (n = 23); condyloma, 4.3% (n = 13); anal intraepithelial neoplasia 1, 5.7% (n = 17); anal intraepithelial neoplasia 2, 14% (n = 42); and anal intraepithelial neoplasia 3, 8% (n = 24). The overall prevalence of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions among patients with abnormal cytology was 54% (95% CI, 45.1%-62.8%). A diagnosis of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions was associated with human papillomavirus 16 and human papillomavirus 51 infection, and with detection of a higher number of human papillomavirus genotypes.

LIMITATIONS

High-resolution anoscopy was only performed in patients with abnormal cytology.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus infection and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions is high in our cohort. Physical examination enabled straightforward diagnosis of perianal high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and squamous-cell carcinoma in 2 patients.

Anal cytology and p16 immunostaining for screening anal intraepithelial neoplasia in HIV-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men: a cross-sectional study

Summary Akin to cervical cancer in sexually-active women, men who have sex with men (MSM) are predisposed to anal cancers, especially those with HIV co-infection. This cross-sectional study endeavored to assess the prevalence of anal dysplasia using Pap smears and p16 immunostaining amongst Indian MSM. A total of 31 consecutive HIV-positive and 34 HIV-negative MSM, from a cohort of sexually transmitted infection clinic attendees, underwent anal cytological evaluation with Pap smear and p16 staining. Chi square test and coefficient of correlation were used for comparison. Eighteen (27.7%) had abnormal anal cytology; increased in HIV-positive as compared to HIV-negative men (35% versus 20%, p = 0.180). Similarly, both low-grade (25.8% versus 17.6%) and high-grade lesions (8.3% versus 4.8%) were comparable in HIV-positive and HIV-negative group. Thirteen (20%) smears were p16-positive with a sensitivity and specificity for anal dysplasia of 72.3% and 100%, respectively. Anal cytology may be used to screen for anal dysplasia in MSM irrespective of HIV status. Furthermore, the addition of p16, with greater specificity for high-grade lesions, may improve diagnostic accuracy especially for high-grade lesions. A larger study to further corroborate these observations is warranted.

High rates of anal dysplasia in HIV-infected men who have sex with men, women, and heterosexual men

OBJECTIVE

To determine rates of anal dysplasia in a cohort of HIV-infected men who have sex with men (MSM), women, and heterosexual men with abnormal anal cytology.

DESIGN/METHODS

We evaluated histologic findings in 728 HIV-infected MSM, women, and heterosexual men referred for high-resolution anoscopy (HRA) after abnormal anal cytology in a single-center cohort study. Using multivariable logistic regression, we evaluated predictors of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) histology or invasive carcinoma including age, sexual behavior, receptive anal intercourse (RAI), anogenital warts, smoking status, antiretroviral therapy, CD4 T-cell count, and HIV-1 plasma viral load.

RESULTS

A total of 2075 HIV-positive patients were screened with anal cytology and 62% of MSM, 42% of women, and 29% of heterosexual men had abnormal findings (P <0.001). Of the 728 HIV-infected patients with abnormal anal cytology who underwent HRA, 71% were MSM, 23% women, and 6% heterosexual men. HSIL/cancer was found in 32% of MSM, 26% of women, and 23% of heterosexual men (P = 0.3). There were five cases of anal squamous cell carcinoma (0.7%), four in MSM and one in a heterosexual man. In a multivariable adjusted analysis, biopsy-proven HSIL/cancer was associated with RAI [odds ratio (OR) 2.2; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3-3.7]. CD4 T-cell counts more than 500/μl conferred a lower risk of HSIL/cancer (OR 0.5; 95% CI 0.3-0.9).

CONCLUSION

Rates of anal HSIL histology are high in HIV-infected patients of all sexual risk groups with abnormal anal cytology. Consequently, all HIV-infected patients may warrant anal cancer screening.

Anogenital warts in Northern Nigeria: A ten-year Review

Background:

Anogenital warts are a common cause of morbidity affecting mainly the productive age group of the economy. Paucity of data in Nigeria necessitated this study.

Materials and Methods:

The pathology records of anogenital warts diagnosed in the Department of Pathology, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria between 1^st January 2000 and 31^st December 2009 were reviewed.

Results:

A total of 68 warts were diagnosed within the study period with anogenital warts constituting 39.7%. Majority of cases (62%) were in the 20-39 years age group (range: 5–50 years) and vulva was the most common site affected.

Conclusion:

Genital warts are common in our environment, biopsy of suspicious lesions is recommended for diagnostic yield.

Risk Factors for the presence of anal intraepithelial neoplasia in HIV+ men who have sex with men

Objective

Anal Intraepithelial Neoplasia (AIN) is present in the majority of HIV+ men who have sex with men (MSM) and routine AIN-screening is subject of discussion. In this study we analysed a wide range of potential risk factors for AIN in order to target screening programs.

Methods

We screened 311 HIV+ MSM by high resolution anoscopy, with biopsies of suspect lesions. HIV-parameters, previous sexual transmitted infections (STI’s), anal pathology, sexual practices and substance use were analysed in relation to AIN by uni- and multivariable logistic regression.

Results

AIN (any grade) was found in 175/311 MSM (56%), high grade (HG)AIN in 30%. In the univariable analysis, years since HIV diagnosis, years of antiretroviral therapy (cART) and anal XTC use decreased AIN risk, while a history of anogenital warts and use of GHB (γ-hydroxybutyric acid) increased this risk. In the multivariable analysis three parameters remained significant: years of cART (OR=0.92 per year, p=0.003), anal XTC use (OR=0.10, p=0.002) and GHB use (OR=2.60, p=0.003). No parameters were significantly associated with HGAIN, but there was a trend towards increased risk with anal enema use prior to sex (>50 times ever; p=0.07) and with a history of AIN (p=0.06). CD4 count, STI’s, anal pathology, smoking, number of sex partners and anal fisting were not associated with (HG)AIN.

Conclusion

GHB use increases the risk for AIN, while duration of cART and anal XTC use are negatively correlated with AIN. Given the high prevalence of AIN in HIV+ MSM, these associations are not helpful to guide a screening program.

Factors affecting the prevalence of strongly and weakly carcinogenic and lower-risk human papillomaviruses in anal specimens in a cohort of men who have sex with men (MSM)

Background

MSM are at higher risk for invasive anal cancer. Twelve human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause cervical cancer in women (Group 1 high-risk HPVs (hrHPVs)) and 13 HPVs are probable/possible causes (Group 2 hrHPVs) of cervical malignancy. HPVs rarely associated with malignancy are classified as lower-risk HPVs (lrHPVs).

Materials and Methods

Dacron-swab anal-cytology specimens were collected from and data complete for 97% (1262/1296) of Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) men tested for HPVs using the Linear Array assay. Multivariate Poisson regression analyses estimated adjusted prevalence ratios for Group 1/2 hrHPVs and lrHPVs, controlling for the effects of age, race, ethnicity, sexual partnerships, smoking; HIV-infection characteristics, treatment, and immune status among HIV-infected men.

Results

HIV-infected men showed 35–90% higher prevalence of Group 1/2 hrHPVs and lrHPVs than HIV-uninfected men, and higher prevalence of multi-Type, and multiple risk-group infections. CD4+ T-cell count was inversely associated with HPV Group 2 prevalence (p<0.0001). The number of receptive anal intercourse (RAI) partners reported in the 24 months preceding HPV testing predicted higher prevalence of Group 1/2 hrHPVs. Men reporting ≥30 lifetime male sex partners before their first MACS visit and men reporting ≥1 RAI partners during the 24 months before HPV testing showed 17–24% and 13–17% higher prevalence of lrHPVs (p-values ≤0.05). Men reporting smoking between MACS visit 1 and 24 months before HPV testing showed 1.2-fold higher prevalence of Group 2 hrHPVs (p = 0.03). Both complete adherence to CART (p = 0.02) and HIV load <50 copies/mL (p = 0.04) were protective for Group 1 hrHPVs among HIV-infected men.

Conclusions

HIV-infected men more often show multi-type and multi-group HPV infections HIV-uninfected men. Long-term mutual monogamy and smoking cessation, generally, and CART-adherence that promotes (HIV) viremia control and prevents immunosuppression, specifically among HIV-infected MSM, are important prevention strategies for HPV infections that are relevant to anal cancer.

Why rectal douches may be acceptable rectal-microbicide delivery vehicles for men who have sex with men

RATIONALE

To explore age of onset of rectal douching among men who have sex with men (MSM) and reasons leading to and maintaining douching behavior; and to consider whether rectal douches containing microbicidal agents might be acceptable for men at HIV risk.

METHODS

In stage 1, we used qualitative methods to explore douching behavior in a sample of 20 MSM. Subsequently, we developed a structured questionnaire that was administered in stage 2 to 105 MSM.

RESULTS

More than half of participants who completed stage 1 douched during the trial despite having been advised not to do so. Of the 105 human immunodeficiency virus uninfected participants in stage 2, 51% reported using rectal douches in the prior 6 months; 47% douched before and 25% after anal intercourse. Most participants reported douching frequently or always. On average, men reported douching about 2 hours before or 1 hour following intercourse. Average age of onset was late 20s. Most men who douched wanted to be clean or were encouraged to douche by their partners. Some men thought douching after sex could prevent sexually transmitted infections.

CONCLUSION

Rectal douching appears to be a popular behavior among men who have receptive anal intercourse. It is necessary to identify harmless douches. If human immunodeficiency virus or sexually transmitted infections preventive douches can be developed, rectal douching before or following sexual intercourse could become an important additional prevention tool. To reshape an existing behavior to which some men strongly adhere, like douching, by suggesting use of 1 type of douche over another may be more successful than trying to convince MSM to engage in behaviors they never practiced before or those they resist (e.g., condom use).

Sexual healthcare preferences among gay and bisexual men: a qualitative study in San Francisco, California

Background

Research on gay and other men who have sex with men's (G/MSM) preferences for sexual healthcare services focuses largely on HIV testing and to some extent on sexually transmitted infections (STI). This research illustrates the frequency and location of where G/MSM interface with the healthcare system, but it does not speak to why men seek care in those locations. As HIV and STI prevention strategies evolve, evidence about G/MSM's motivations and decision-making can inform future plans to optimize models of HIV/STI prevention and primary care.

Methods

We conducted a phenomenological study of gay men's sexual health seeking experiences, which included 32 in-depth interviews with gay and bisexual men. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and entered into Atlas.ti. We conducted a Framework Analysis.

Findings

We identified a continuum of sexual healthcare seeking practices and their associated drivers. Men differed in their preferences for separating sexual healthcare from other forms of healthcare (“fragmentation”) versus combining all care into one location (“consolidation”). Fragmentation drivers included: fear of being monitored by insurance companies, a desire to seek non-judgmental providers with expertise in sexual health, a desire for rapid HIV testing, perceiving sexual health services as more convenient than primary care services, and a lack of healthcare coverage. Consolidation drivers included: a comfortable and trusting relationship with a provider, a desire for one provider to oversee overall health and those with access to public or private health insurance.

Conclusions

Men in this study were likely to separate sexual healthcare from primary care. Based on this finding, we recommend placing new combination HIV/STI prevention interventions within sexual health clinics. Furthermore, given the evolution of the financing and delivery of healthcare services and in HIV prevention, policymakers and clinicians should consider including more primary care services within sexual healthcare settings.

Risk factors for anal human papillomavirus infection type 16 among HIV-positive men who have sex with men in San Francisco

BACKGROUND

HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) are at high risk of anal cancer compared with the general population. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, particularly HPV 16, is causally associated with anal cancer. However, the risk factors for anal HPV 16 infection are poorly understood. We determined the prevalence and risk factors for anal HPV 16 infection in a population of HIV-positive MSM, most of whom were being treated with antiretroviral therapy.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional data from the baseline visit of a 4-year prospective cohort study.

METHODS

Three hundred forty-eight HIV-positive MSM were recruited in San Francisco, and they received a detailed sexual behavior risk factor questionnaire. An anal swab was used to collect specimens for HPV type-specific DNA testing using L1 HPV DNA polymerase chain reaction. We used log-binomial multivariable models to determine the risk factors for anal HPV 16 infection.

RESULTS

Ninety-two percent of HIV-positive MSM had at least 1 anal HPV type, 80% had at least 1 oncogenic HPV type, and 42% had HPV 16. Non-Hispanic white race and higher level of education were associated with a decreased risk of HPV 16 infection. A higher number of total male partners was associated with HPV 16 (relative risk: 1.6, 95% confidence interval 1.1 to 2.4, P = 0.01) for 201-1000 partners compared with 1-200. Injection drug use was independently associated with anal HPV 16 infection (relative risk: 1.5, 95% confidence interval 1.2 to 1.9, P = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of anal HPV infection, including HPV 16, is high in HIV-positive MSM. HIV-positive MSM should be counseled about the risk associated with increased partners and injection drug use.

Risk factors for anal HPV infection and anal precancer in HIV-infected men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

Carcinogenic human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause a large proportion of anal cancers. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected men who have sex with men (MSM) are at increased risk of HPV infection and anal cancer compared with HIV-negative men. We evaluated risk factors for HPV infection and anal precancer in a population of HIV-infected MSM.

METHODS

Our study included 305 MSM at an HIV/AIDS clinic in the Kaiser Permanente Northern California Health Maintenance Organization. Logistic regression was used to estimate associations of risk factors comparing men without anal HPV infection; men with anal HPV infection, but no precancer; and men with anal precancer.

RESULTS

Low CD4 count (<350 cells/mm(3)) and previous chlamydia infection were associated with an increased risk of carcinogenic HPV infection (odds ratio [OR], 3.65; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.28-10.40 and OR, 4.24; 95% CI, 1.16-15.51, respectively). History of smoking (OR, 2.71 95% CI, 1.43-5.14), duration, recency, and dose of smoking increased the risk of anal precancer among carcinogenic HPV-positive men but had no association with HPV infection.

CONCLUSIONS

We found distinct risk factors for anal HPV infection and anal precancer. Risk factors for HPV infection and anal precancer are similar to established risk factors for cervical cancer progression.

Feasibility of incorporating self-collected rectal swabs into a community venue-based survey to measure the prevalence of HPV infection in men who have sex with men

BACKGROUND

Inclusion of self-collected rectal swabs (SCRS) into existing community venue-based HIV surveillance systems for men who have sex with men (MSM) may provide a feasible method for monitoring human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine-related outcomes in this population. We measured the prevalence of HPV and anal dysplasia through incorporating SCRS into ManCount, the Vancouver site of the M-Track HIV surveillance system.

METHODS

Participating MSM were provided with a self-collection kit for collection on-site or at a follow-up venue. Swabs were subject to polymerase chain reaction amplification for HPV detection, and cytology slides were reviewed for anal dysplasia. Factors associated with participation were identified through multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

Of 766 men completing ManCount, 268 (35%) agreed to participate, self-collecting 252 specimens (247 on-site). Of 239 complete specimens, 33.5% did not have detectable β-globin; in the remainder (159 specimens) the prevalence of HPV infection was 62.3% (23.3% HPV type 16 or 18; 38.4% HPV type 6, 11, 16, or 18). In the 62.3% (149) of specimens adequate for cytology, the prevalence of anal dysplasia was 42.3% (HSIL 11.4%, LSIL 18.8%, ASC-US 6.7%, ASC-H 5.4%). Participation was associated with venue type, availability of on-site collection, and other characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

SCRS can be feasibly integrated within existing community venue-based HIV surveillance systems for MSM, and may be a suitable method for monitoring the impact of HPV vaccination in this population. However, participation may be influenced by venue type and availability of on-site collection, and adequacy of SCRS specimens may be lower in community venues as compared with clinical settings.

Anal cancer - a review

Anal cancer accounts for only 1.5% of gastrointestinal malignancies but this disease has shown a steady increase in incidence particularly in HIV positive males. The understanding of pathophysiology and treatment of anal cancer has changed radically over last thirty years. Risk factors have been identified and organ preservation by chemoradiotherapy has become a standard. This article aims to review the clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment options for anal cancer in the light of current literature.

HPV Infection in a Cohort of HIV-Positive Men and Women: Prevalence of Oncogenic Genotypes and Predictors of Mucosal Damage at Genital and Oral Sites

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of HPV infection and determinants of abnormal cytology in HIV-positive patients. In a cross-sectional study, patients of both sexes, asymptomatic for HPV, underwent anorectal (men)/cervical (women) and oral swabs. Cytology and HPV-PCR detection/genotyping (high- and low-risk genotypes, HR-LR/HPV) were performed. A total of 20% of the 277 enrolled patients showed oral HPV, with no atypical cytology; in men, anal HPV prevalence was 81% with 64% HR genotypes. In women, cervical HPV prevalence was 58% with 37% HR-HPV. The most frequent genotypes were HPV-16 and HPV-18; 37% of men and 20% of women harbored multiple genotypes. Also, 47% of men showed anal squamous intraepithelial lesions (SILs); 6% had high- and 35% low-grade SILs (HSILs/LSILs); 5% had atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US). HR-HPV was independently associated with anal-SIL in men (P = 0.039). Moreover, 37% of women showed cervical SIL: 14 ASC-US, 15 LSILs, 4 HSILs, and 1 in situ cancer. The presence of both LR and HR-HPV in women was independently associated with SIL (P = 0.003 and P = 0.0001). HR-HPV and atypical cytology were frequently identified in our cohort. HPV screening should be mandatory in HIV-infected subjects, and vaccine programs for HPV-negative patients should be implemented.

Epidemiology, natural history and risk factors for anal intraepithelial neoplasia

Studies conducted in HIV-seropositive individuals have enhanced our understanding of the natural history of anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN) and of factors predictive of progression to high-grade AIN, the immediate precursor to anal cancer. AIN is frequently detected in HIV-seropositive individuals. Factors that increase the risk for AIN include HIV infection, low current or nadir blood CD4+ cell counts, receptive anal intercourse, oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, persistent anal HPV infection, multiple HPV type infections and high anal HPV viral load. This review confirms the importance of high-grade AIN in HIV-seropositive individuals and HIV-seronegative men having sex with men.

Prevalence and predictors of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia in a community-based sample of homosexual men

BACKGROUND

We report the prevalence and predictors for high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (HGAIN) in community-based cohorts of HIV-negative and HIV-positive homosexual men in Sydney, Australia.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study of consecutive participants in both cohorts was performed in 2005 (204 HIV-negative and 128 HIV-positive men). Anal swabs collected by a research nurse underwent cytological analysis, using the ThinPrep procedure, and human papillomavirus (HPV) testing. Participants who had cytological abnormalities other than low-grade squamous epithelial lesions (SIL) were referred for high resolution anoscopy (HRA).

RESULTS

A total of 114 men had cytological abnormalities (24.3% of HIV-negative and 57.5% of HIV-positive men, odds ratio (OR)=4.21, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.57-6.90). However, only three (2.3%) HIV-positive men and no HIV-negative men had high-grade SIL on anal cytology. Seventy-seven men were referred for HRA, of whom 63 (81.8%) attended. Histologically confirmed HGAIN was detected in 21 (33.3%). The prevalence of HGAIN was higher in HIV-positive men (10.8%) than in HIV-negative men (5.0%, OR=2.29, 95% CI 0.93-5.63, P=0.071). HGAIN was not related to age but was strongly associated with the detection of high-risk types of anal HPV (OR=10.1, 95% CI 1.33-76.2) rather than low-risk types (OR=1.97, 95% CI 0.74-5.25).

CONCLUSION

HGAIN was prevalent in homosexual men across all age groups and was more than twice as common in HIV-positive men compared with HIV-negative men. The presence of high-risk anal HPV was highly predictive of HGAIN.

High prevalence of anal human papillomavirus infection and associated risky behaviors in men infected with human immunodeficiency virus in Taiwan

A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the prevalence, types, and risk factors associated with anal HPV infection among HIV-infected men in outpatient clinics at an AIDS designated hospital in Taiwan. Anal swabs were collect and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) was used to analyze the types of anal HPV infection. HPV DNA was detected in 74.2% of the 198 participants, including high-risk types (40.4%), low-risk types (18.2%) and multiple-types (6%). The most common types were HPV 16 (13.1%), 6 (10.4%), 11 (7.1%) and 18 (6.1%). The significant risk factor for being infected with any type or a high-risk type of HPV was having sexual partners (>3) in the preceding 6 months. Low-risk type of anal HPV infection was associated with a history of anal lesions. Our findings support the need for regular follow-up of all HIV/HPV coinfected patients and their partners to allow early detection of anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

Health care use and opportunities for human papillomavirus vaccination among young men who have sex with men

We studied 2941 young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men using National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System data. Within the past 12 months, 88.9% used health care, suggesting many opportunities for recommended care including human papillomavirus vaccination. However, only 61.3% disclosed male-male sexual attraction/behavior to a provider, which may result in some opportunities being missed.

Human papillomavirus and oral disease - emerging evidence: a review

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infections have received considerable attention in recent years. Of the 120 or so known types of the virus, some cause a variety of benign wart-like lesions of the skin and genital and oral mucosae, whilst others are aetiologically associated with cervical and anogenital cancers. Recent epidemiologic evidence suggests that HPV may also be an independent risk factor for oropharyngeal cancer. In this context it has been suggested that HPV virus may modulate the process of carcinogenesis in some tobacco and alcohol induced oropharyngeal cancers and act as the primary oncogenic agent for inducing carcinogenesis among non-smokers. Dental practitioners have a major role in detecting all lesions of the oral mucosa caused, or possibly caused, by HPV. This paper briefly reviews the current state of knowledge of molecular and clinical aspects of HPV infections of the oral mucosa.

The role of human papillomavirus in nongenital cancers

Human papillomavirus (HPV), one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases worldwide, has an established role in the pathogenesis of genital malignancies such as cervical cancer. The virus has also been implicated in the oncogenesis of nongenital cancers including head and neck malignancies (specifically oropharyngeal cancers) as well as anal cancer. There is less clarity regarding its role in lung and esophageal cancers. Worldwide, the incidence and prevalence of HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancer has been increasing over time. These patients have improved outcomes compared with those with HPV-negative oropharyngeal cancers, and there is continued interest in designing treatments specifically for this HPV-positive subgroup. Clinicians continue to gain an understanding of HPV in anal cancers and the risk factors associated with infection and progression to malignancy. This has potential implications for the eventual screening of high-risk groups. While HPV vaccination is currently approved for the prevention of cervical cancer, it also has potential in the prevention of all HPV-associated malignancies. In this review, current understanding of the role of HPV in nongenital cancers is discussed, as well as future implications for treatment and prevention.

[CD4 lymphocytes as a protective factor against infection by oncogenic genotypes of human papillomavirus in the anal mucosa of men who have sex with human immunodeficiency virus positive men]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

To analyze the prevalence of human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes and anal dysplasia in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected men who have sex with men (MSM) from southern Spain, and the variables associated with the appearance of dysplastic lesions and oncogenic HPV genotypes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving a prospective cohort of HIV-positive MSM included consecutively after signing an informed consent form. During the consultation 2 samples were taken from the anal mucosa: one for HPV detection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the other for cytological evaluation; the Bethesda system was used to classify the cytology.

RESULTS

One hundred and thirty-four consecutive patients were included. 91.1% patients were colonized by HPV, 66.1% by high-grade types and 41.52% by genotypes of low and high-grade malignancy. The most prevalent genotypes were: 6, 11, 16, 18, 51 and 53. 72.2% samples sent for cytology showed dysplasia, of which 71.4% were low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, 23.1% were atypical squamous cell, and 0% was high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions. The multivariate analysis of risk factors associated with the appearance of dysplasia revealed association with smoking (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.196-9.303; odds ratio [OR] 3.336; P=.02) and number of oncogenic HPV types (95% CI 1.387-3.811; OR 2.229; P=.001). With regard to the presence of oncogenic HPV genotypes the multivariate analysis showed a high CD4 cell count was a protective factor against infection by these viruses (95% CI 1.098-5.58; OR 2.48; P=.029).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of anal dysplasia among HIV-positive MSM in this study is very high, fundamentally in smokers and a high number of oncogenic HPV genotypes. The presence of oncogenic HPV genotypes was associated with a lower CD4 cell count.

Anal cytological abnormalities and epidemiological correlates among men who have sex with men at risk for HIV-1 infection

Background

The incidence of anal cancer, a Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-related neoplasia, has been increasing in recent decades, mainly in men who have sex with men (MSM). Cytological changes of the anal epithelium induced by HPV can be detected through an anal pap smear. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and epidemiological correlates of anal cytological abnormalities among relatively young MSM at risk for HIV-1 infection, to help clarify whether or not this population deserves further investigation to assess the presence of anal cancer precursor lesions.

Methods

MSM were recruited among attendees of a large STI clinic for a HIV-1 screening program. Anal samples, collected with a Dracon swab in PreservCyt, were used both for liquid-based cytology and HPV testing by the Linear Array HPV Genotyping Test. Data regarding socio-demographic characteristics and sexual behavior were collected in face-to-face interviews.

Results

A total of 346 MSM were recruited (median age 32 years). Overall, 72.5% of the individuals had an anal HPV infection, with 56.1% of them being infected by oncogenic HPV genotypes. Anal cytological abnormalities were found in 29.8% of the cases (16.7% ASC-US and 13.1% L-SIL). Presence of ASC-US+ was strongly associated with infection by any HPV type (OR=4.21, 95% CI: 1.97-9.23), and particularly by HPV 16 and/or 18 (OR=5.62, 95% CI: 2.33-13.81). A higher proportion of ASC-US+ was found in older MSM, in those with a higher number of lifetime partners and in those with a history of ano-genital warts. However, none of these variables or the others analyzed showed any significant association with abnormal cytological findings.

Conclusions

The presence of anal cytological abnormalities in about one third of the recruited MSM and their strong association with HPV infection, in particular that caused by HPV 16 and/or 18, might provide a further complement to the data that now support the introduction of HPV vaccination among MSM to protect them from the development of HPV-associated diseases. Additional studies are needed to determine whether and how screening for anal cancer precursor lesions should be performed in younger MSM.

Premalignant lesions of the anal canal and squamous cell carcinoma of the anal canal

Squamous cell carcinoma of the anus (SCCA) is a rare tumor. However, its incidence has been increasing in men and women over the past 25 years worldwide. Risk factors associated with this cancer are those behaviors that predispose individuals to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immunosuppression. Anal cancer is generally preceded by high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (HGAIN), which is most prevalent in human immunodeficiency virus-positive men who have sex with men. High-risk patients may benefit from screening. The most common presentation is rectal bleeding, which is present in nearly 50% of patients. Twenty percent of patients have no symptoms at the time of presentation. Clinical staging of anal cancer requires a digital rectal exam and a positron emission tomography/computed tomography scan of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis. Endorectal/endoanal ultrasound appears to add more-specific staging information when compared with digital rectal examination alone. Treatment of anal cancer prior to the 1970s involved an abdominoperineal resection. However, the current standard of care for localized anal cancer is concurrent chemoradiation therapy, primarily because of its sphincter-saving and colostomy-sparing potential. Studies have addressed alternative chemoradiation regimens to improve the standard protocol of fluorouracil, misogynic, and radiation, but no alternative regimen has proven superior. Surgery is reserved for those patients with residual disease or recurrence.

Comprehensive clinical care for men who have sex with men: an integrated approach

Men who have sex with men (MSM) have unique health-care needs, not only because of biological factors such as an increased susceptibility to infection with HIV and sexually transmitted infections associated with their sexual behaviour, but also because of internalisation of societal stigma related to homosexuality and gender non-conformity, resulting in depression, anxiety, substance use, and other adverse outcomes. Successful responses to the global HIV/AIDS epidemic will require the development of culturally sensitive clinical care programmes for MSM that address these health disparities and root causes of maladaptive behaviour (eg, societal homophobia). Health-care providers need to become familiar with local outreach agencies, hotlines, and media that can connect MSM with positive role models and social opportunities. Research is needed to understand how many MSM lead resilient and productive lives in the face of discrimination to develop assets-based interventions that build on community support. Optimum clinical care for sexual and gender minorities is a fundamental human right. MSM deserve to be treated with respect, and health-care providers need to interact with them in ways that promote disclosure of actionable health information.

A pilot training programme for health and social care professionals providing oncological and palliative care to lesbian, gay and bisexual patients in Ireland

OBJECTIVE

The international literature points to the specific cancer risks and palliative care needs of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) populations. However, with the exception of a programme in the USA, there is a lack of training internationally for health and social care professionals providing oncological and palliative care to LGB patients. In Ireland, a training project funded by the Irish Cancer Society, the Irish Hospice Foundation and the Health Service Executive developed a training pilot programme for health and social care professionals providing oncological and palliative care to LGB patients.

METHODS

Over 200 (N = 201) oncology and palliative care staff participated in 17 brief, 50-min trainings in pilot sites. Evaluation of the training included self-report questionnaires at the end of each training and an evaluation interview with one participant from each of the four sites.

RESULTS

The majority of participants reported that they would recommend the training to their colleagues, were interested in further training in the area and found the training useful for their practice. They also reported becoming more familiar with LGB-related language and terminology, became more knowledgeable of LGB health issues and reported becoming more confident in providing care to LGB patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Recommendations are that the training be made available across the health services in Ireland and included in postgraduate courses for trainee health and social care professionals.

Anal human papillomavirus infection and associated neoplastic lesions in men who have sex with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are at greatly increased risk of human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated anal cancer. Screening for the presumed cancer precursor, high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN), followed by treatment in a manner analogous to cervical screening, has been proposed. We aimed to assess available data for anal HPV disease that can inform pre-cancer screening programmes.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, OVID Medline, and Embase for all studies published before Nov 1, 2011, that reported prevalence and incidence of anal HPV detection, AIN, and anal cancer in MSM. We calculated summary estimates using random-effects meta-analysis.

FINDINGS

53 studies met the inclusion criteria, including 31 estimates of HPV prevalence, 19 estimates of cytological abnormalities, eight estimates of histological abnormalities, and nine estimates of anal cancer incidence. Data for incident HPV and high-grade AIN were scarce. In HIV-positive men, the pooled prevalence of anal HPV-16 was 35·4% (95% CI 32·9-37·9). In the only published estimate, incidence of anal HPV-16 was 13·0% (9·6-17·6), and clearance occurred in 14·6% (10·2-21·2) of men per year. The pooled prevalence of histological high-grade AIN was 29·1% (22·8-35·4) with incidences of 8·5% (6·9-10·4) and 15·4% (11·8-19·8) per year in two estimates. The pooled anal cancer incidence was 45·9 per 100,000 men (31·2-60·3). In HIV-negative men, the pooled prevalence of anal HPV-16 was 12·5% (9·8-15·4). Incidence of HPV-16 was 11·8% (9·2-14·9) and 5·8% (1·9-13·5) of men per year in two estimates. The pooled prevalence of histological high-grade AIN was 21·5% (13·7-29·3), with incidence of 3·3% (2·2-4·7) and 6·0% (4·2-8·1) per year in two estimates. Anal cancer incidence was 5·1 per 100,000 men (0-11·5; based on two estimates). There were no published estimates of high-grade AIN regression.

INTERPRETATION

Anal HPV and anal cancer precursors were very common in MSM. However, on the basis of restricted data, rates of progression to cancer seem to be substantially lower than they are for cervical pre-cancerous lesions. Large, good-quality prospective studies are needed to inform the development of anal cancer screening guidelines for MSM.

FUNDING

Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing.

Condylomata, cytological abnormalities and human papillomavirus infection in the anal canal in HIV-infected men

BACKGROUND

Genital infections with low-risk (LR) and high-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) genotypes are associated with ano-genital condylomata and anal squamous cell cancer. HPV-related pathologies in HIV-infected men are a serious concern. In this study, the prevalence of anal condylomata and their association with cytological abnormalities and HPV infection in the anal canal in HIV-infected men [men who have sex with men (MSM) and heterosexuals] were estimated.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study based on the first visits of patients in the Can Ruti HIV-positive Men (CARH·MEN) cohort. Anal condylomata were assessed by clinical and proctological examination. Samples from the anal canal were collected for HPV genotyping and cytological diagnoses.

RESULTS

A total of 640 HIV-infected men (473 MSM and 167 heterosexuals) were included in the study. The overall prevalence of anal condylomata was 25% [157 of 640; 95% confidence interval (CI) 21-28%]; in MSM it was 28% and in heterosexuals it was 15% [odds ratio (OR) 2.2; 95% CI 1.4-3.5]. In patients with anal condylomata, HPV infection in the anal canal was more prevalent (92% vs. 67% in those without anal condylomata; OR 8.5; 95% CI 3.2-22). This higher HPV prevalence involved at least two HPV genotypes (OR 4.0; 95% CI 2.2-7.1), mainly HR genotypes (OR 3.3; 95% CI 1.7-6.4). Similarly, the cumulative prevalence of HPV-6 and HPV-11 was higher in patients with anal condylomata (63% vs. 19% in those without anal condylomata). Having anal condylomata was associated with higher prevalences of cytological abnormalities (83% vs. 32% in those without anal condylomata; OR 6.9; 95% CI 3.8-12.7) and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs) (9% vs. 3% in those without anal condylomata; OR 9.0; 95% CI 2.9-28.4) in the anal canal.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-infected men with anal condylomata were at risk of presenting HSILs and harbouring multiple HR HPV infections in the anal canal. Although MSM presented the highest prevalence of anal condylomata, heterosexual men also had a clinically important prevalence. Our findings emphasize the importance of screening and follow-up for condylomata in the anal canal in HIV-infected men.

Prevalence, genotype diversity and determinants of anal HPV infection in HIV-uninfected men having sex with men

BACKGROUND

Anal human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is very common in men having sex with men (MSM), but the available data on its burden and characteristics mainly concern HIV-infected individuals.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the prevalence, spectrum of genotypes, and determinants of the anal HPV infection in metropolitan HIV-1 uninfected MSM.

STUDY DESIGN

A cohort of 258 MSM (median age 32 years, IQR 26-39) enrolled at an STI Clinic was screened for anal HPV infection using a highly sensitive PCR-based genotyping method. Medical history and behavioral data were collected.

RESULTS

Overall, 74.8% of the MSM were HPV-positive, with 56.2% of the participants being infected by high-risk (HR) types. A multiple infection was detected in 65.3% of the HPV-positive MSM, with up to 10 different HPV types detected in the same sample. A broad spectrum of infecting HPV types was observed, with 36 different types found overall and HPV16 representing the most common type (17.8%). The lifetime and recent number of sexual partners as well as having receptive anal sex were significantly associated with the anal HPV infection, confirming the role of sexual behavior in risk of HPV infection. However, neither younger age at first intercourse nor inconsistent use of condom was significantly associated with the infection.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings highlight the need to create a more significant awareness about the risk of anal HPV infection among HIV-uninfected MSM and warrant the investigation of possible anal intraepithelial lesions, particularly in view of the increasing anal cancer incidence in high-risk populations.

HIV-associated anal dysplasia: experience from a multiethnic-HIV clinic in Hawaii

PURPOSE

To assess the proportion as well as predictors of anal dysplasia in HIV-infected Asian/Pacific Islanders.

METHODS

This was a retrospective chart review evaluating the proportion of anal dysplasia among a multiethnic population from an ambulatory university-based HIV clinic in Hawaii. Demographic, clinical, and virologic parameters were examined with respect to abnormal anal Pap smear. Variables included: Pap smear results (outcome variable), cytology results, age, self-reported ethnicity, CD4/ nadir CD4 counts, HIV viral load, antiretroviral therapy use, Hepatitis B and C co-infections, history of sexually transmitted diseases, personal history of cancer, tobacco use, alcohol use, intravenous drug abuse, family history of cancer, and history of genital/anal warts.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in rates of abnormal Pap smear among the ethnic groups. Abnormal Pap smears were associated with history of genital warts (7% normal vs. 18% abnormal, p=.01) and alcohol consumption (16% vs. 27%, p=.05). Hepatitis B infection and current anti-retroviral therapy (ART) were associated with normal Pap cytology (9.7% vs. 0%, p=.03) and (96.8% vs. 86.5%, p=.05) respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

No differences in the proportion of abnormal Pap smears were seen among ethnic groups followed within an ambulatory HIV clinic.

Sex-specific immunization for sexually transmitted infections such as human papillomavirus: insights from mathematical models

BACKGROUND

Sex-specific differences regarding the transmissibility and the course of infection are the rule rather than the exception in the epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Human papillomavirus (HPV) provides an example: disease outcomes differ between men and women, as does the potential for transmission to the opposite sex. HPV vaccination of preadolescent girls was recently introduced in many countries, and inclusion of boys in the vaccination programs is being discussed. Here, we address the question of whether vaccinating females only, males only, or both sexes is the most effective strategy to reduce the population prevalence of an STI like HPV.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We use a range of two-sex transmission models with varying detail to identify general criteria for allocating a prophylactic vaccine between both sexes. The most effective reduction in the population prevalence of infection is always achieved by single-sex vaccination; vaccinating the sex with the highest prevaccine prevalence is the preferred strategy in most circumstances. Exceptions arise only when the higher prevaccine prevalence is due to a substantially lower rate of natural immunity, or when natural immunity is lifelong, and a prolonged duration of infectiousness coincides with increased transmissibility. Predictions from simple models were confirmed in simulations based on an elaborate HPV transmission model. Our analysis suggests that relatively inefficient genital transmission from males to females might render male vaccination more effective in reducing overall infection levels. However, most existing HPV vaccination programs have achieved sufficient coverage to continue with female-only vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing vaccine uptake among preadolescent girls is more effective in reducing HPV infection than including boys in existing vaccination programs. As a rule, directing prophylactic immunization at the sex with the highest prevaccine prevalence results in the largest reduction of the population prevalence.

HPV vaccine against anal HPV infection and anal intraepithelial neoplasia

BACKGROUND

The rate of anal cancer is increasing among both women and men, particularly men who have sex with men. Caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), primarily HPV type 16 or 18, anal cancer is preceded by high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia (grade 2 or 3). We studied the safety and efficacy of quadrivalent HPV vaccine (qHPV) against anal intraepithelial neoplasia associated with HPV-6, 11, 16, or 18 infection in men who have sex with men.

METHODS

In a substudy of a larger double-blind study, we randomly assigned 602 healthy men who have sex with men, 16 to 26 years of age, to receive either qHPV or placebo. The primary efficacy objective was prevention of anal intraepithelial neoplasia or anal cancer related to infection with HPV-6, 11, 16, or 18. Efficacy analyses were performed in intention-to-treat and per-protocol efficacy populations. The rates of adverse events were documented.

RESULTS

Efficacy of the qHPV vaccine against anal intraepithelial neoplasia associated with HPV-6, 11, 16, or 18 was 50.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 25.7 to 67.2) in the intention-to-treat population and 77.5% (95% CI, 39.6 to 93.3) in the per-protocol efficacy population; the corresponding efficacies against anal intraepithelial neoplasia associated with HPV of any type were 25.7% (95% CI, -1.1 to 45.6) and 54.9% (95% CI, 8.4 to 79.1), respectively. Rates of anal intraepithelial neoplasia per 100 person-years were 17.5 in the placebo group and 13.0 in the vaccine group in the intention-to-treat population and 8.9 in the placebo group and 4.0 in the vaccine group in the per-protocol efficacy population. The rate of grade 2 or 3 anal intraepithelial neoplasia related to infection with HPV-6, 11, 16, or 18 was reduced by 54.2% (95% CI, 18.0 to 75.3) in the intention-to-treat population and by 74.9% (95% CI, 8.8 to 95.4) in the per-protocol efficacy population. The corresponding risks of persistent anal infection with HPV-6, 11, 16, or 18 were reduced by 59.4% (95% CI, 43.0 to 71.4) and 94.9% (95% CI, 80.4 to 99.4), respectively. No vaccine-related serious adverse events were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of the qHPV vaccine reduced the rates of anal intraepithelial neoplasia, including of grade 2 or 3, among men who have sex with men. The vaccine had a favorable safety profile and may help to reduce the risk of anal cancer. (Funded by Merck and the National Institutes of Health; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00090285.).

Characteristics of HIV epidemics driven by men who have sex with men and people who inject drugs

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To highlight the latest developments in mathematical transmission modelling of HIV epidemics among men who have sex with men (MSM) and people who inject drugs (PWID).

RECENT FINDINGS

Mathematical approaches have been applied to a wide range of topics in recent HIV research. Epidemiological models have evaluated past and forecasted future trends in prevalence and incidence, evaluated innovative behaviour modification strategies and public health programmes aimed at minimizing risk, and explored the potential impact of various biomedical interventions. MSM have developed new risk reduction strategies which models have deemed to be effective at a population level only in certain settings, such as when there are high rates of HIV testing. Modelling has also indicated that persistent circulation of drug-resistant HIV strains is likely to become an inevitable public health issue in the near future in resource-rich settings among MSM. Models have also recently been used to demonstrate that needle and syringe programmes for harm reduction among PWID are effective and cost-effective.

SUMMARY

Mathematical modelling is particularly amenable to single population groups of concentrated HIV epidemics, such as among MSM and PWID. Models have been utilized to evaluate innovative areas in clinical, biomedical and public health research that cannot be conducted in other population groups. Future directions are likely to include evaluation of specific public health programmes and providing understanding of the importance of specific treatment regimens and incidence and interaction of comorbid conditions associated with HIV.

The changing picture of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia in men who have sex with men: the effects of 10 years of experience performing high-resolution anoscopy

BACKGROUND

Ten years ago, we published findings from anal dysplasia screening in a metropolitan surgical practice where the majority of men who have sex with men had biopsy-proven high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine the effect of 10 years of experience in anal dysplasia screening on the prevalence of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

DESIGN

A retrospective chart review was performed of all anal cytology results of 1189 men who have sex with men screened in a 1-year period, with subsequent high-resolution anoscopy and biopsy as necessary.

PATIENTS

The patients studied were men who have sex with men.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The main outcome measure was biopsy-proven high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

RESULTS

: There were 315 (37.2%) biopsy-verified instances of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia. Regression analysis determined that age, HIV status, infection by high-risk human papillomavirus, and abnormal cytology results were significant predictors of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia. In a 1-year period, the number of men who have sex with men screened was nearly 7 times greater than in the 2-year period studied 10 years earlier.

LIMITATIONS

We did not separately analyze patients who had previously been treated for high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia.

CONCLUSIONS

Severity of cytology and infection with high-risk human papillomavirus are the most significant predictors of high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia, underscoring the importance of anal dysplasia screening. Our ability to identify high-grade anal intraepithelial neoplasia has improved with 10 years of experience performing high-resolution anoscopy.

Association of human papillomavirus-related knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs with HIV status: a national study of gay men

OBJECTIVE

Anal cancer and other diseases caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) are more common among people who are HIV-positive. To understand the potential role of HIV status in HPV prevention efforts, we examined HPV-related knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs among HIV-positive and HIV-negative gay men.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In January 2009, we interviewed a national sample of 247 adult gay men from the United States that included an oversample of HIV-positive men.

RESULTS

Status of HIV was not associated with most beliefs about HPV-related diseases (i.e., genital warts, oral cancer, and anal cancer); however, HIV-positive men had higher worry about and perceived likelihood of these diseases. Most men correctly believed that HIV increases risk of HPV-related diseases, yet 29% to 42% still did not. Relatively few men believed that HPV vaccine works in males or that physicians are allowed to give it to men. Acceptability of the HPV vaccine was high and not associated with HIV status (78% of HIV-positive men vs 74% of HIV-negative men; adjusted odds ratio = 1.48; 95% confidence interval = 0.67-3.27).

CONCLUSIONS

The high acceptability of HPV vaccine, relatively low knowledge of how HIV increases risk for HPV-related diseases, and misperceptions about HPV vaccine can inform HPV prevention efforts for gay men. The few differences by HIV status suggest that HPV prevention programs may be able to use similar approaches with both HIV-negative and HIV-positive gay men.

Prevalence of anal cytological abnormalities in women with positive cervical cytology

The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of cytological abnormalities of the anal mucosa in women with positive cervical cytology, but without macroscopic anal lesion. Ultimately we postulated if the anal mucosa may be a reservoir of HPV, which would allow the reinfection of cervix. Forty-nine patients with abnormal cervical cytology were selected for this work. In a period not exceeding one week of collecting cervix cytology, two swab specimens of the anal canal were also collected. Women diagnosed with cervical HSIL by Pap smear were referred for colposcopy with biopsy of the lesions, to confirm the cytologic diagnosis and ablation of the lesion. We demonstrated a high prevalence of anal squamous intraepithelial lesions in patients with cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions (29 of the total of 49 patients = 59.2%). Of the 20 cases of cervical LSIL, 11 (55%) had abnormal anal cytology. Of the 26 cases with cervical HSIL, 16 (61.5%) had abnormal anal cytology. So, there was a discrete higher prevalence of abnormal anal cytology in cases of high-grade cervical squamous lesions (cervical HSIL). These results help to support the hypothesis that the anal mucosa is a reservoir of HPV, which can be a source of re-infection for the cervix. However, there was no significant association between the practice of anal sex and the prevalence of anal cytological abnormalities. These facts are epidemiologically important for future programs for population eradication of cervical lesions related to HPV. Diagn. Cytopathol. 2011;39:323-327. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.