MADS-Box gene diversity in seed plants 300 million years ago

The naked and the dead: the ABCs of gymnosperm reproduction and the origin of the angiosperm flower

20 years after establishment of the ABC model many of the molecular mechanisms underlying development of the angiosperm flower are relatively well understood. Central players in the gene regulatory network controlling flower development are SQUA-like, DEF/GLO-like, AG-like and AGL6/SEP1-like MIKC-type MADS-domain transcription factors. These provide class A, class B, class C and the more recently defined class E floral homeotic functions, respectively. There is evidence that the floral homeotic proteins recognize the DNA of target genes in an organ-specific way as multimeric protein complexes, thus constituting 'floral quartets'. In contrast to the detailed insights into flower development, how the flower originated during evolution has remained enigmatic. However, while orthologues of all classes of floral homeotic genes appear to be absent from all non-seed plants, DEF/GLO-like, AG-like, and AGL6-like genes have been found in diverse extant gymnosperms, the closest relatives of the angiosperms. While SQUA-like and SEP1-like MADS-box genes appear to be absent from extant gymnosperms, reconstruction of MADS-box gene phylogeny surprisingly suggests that the most recent common ancestor of gymnosperms and angiosperms possessed representatives of both genes, but that these have been lost in the lineage that led to extant gymnosperms. Expression studies and genetic complementation experiments indicate that both angiosperm and gymnosperm AG-like and DEF/GLO-like genes have conserved functions in the specification of reproductive organs and in distinguishing male from female organs, respectively. Based on these findings novel models about the molecular basis of flower origin, involving changes in the expression patterns of DEF/GLO-like or AGL6/SEP1/SQUA-like genes in reproductive structures, were developed. While in angiosperms SEP1-like proteins play an important role in floral quartet formation, preliminary evidence suggests that gymnosperm DEF/GLO-like and AG-like proteins alone can already form floral quartet-like complexes, further corroborating the view that the formation of floral quartet-like complexes predated flower origin during evolution.

Fleshy fruit expansion and ripening are regulated by the Tomato SHATTERPROOF gene TAGL1

The maturation and ripening of fleshy fruits is a developmental program that synchronizes seed maturation with metabolism, rendering fruit tissues desirable to seed dispersing organisms. Through RNA interference repression, we show that Tomato AGAMOUS-LIKE1 (TAGL1), the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) ortholog of the duplicated SHATTERPROOF (SHP) MADS box genes of Arabidopsis thaliana, is necessary for fruit ripening. Tomato plants with reduced TAGL1 mRNA produced yellow-orange fruit with reduced carotenoids and thin pericarps. These fruit are also decreased in ethylene, indicating a comprehensive inhibition of maturation mediated through reduced ACC Synthase 2 expression. Furthermore, ectopic expression of TAGL1 in tomato resulted in expansion of sepals and accumulation of lycopene, supporting the role of TAGL1 in ripening. In Arabidopsis, the duplicate SHP1 and SHP2 MADS box genes regulate the development of separation layers essential for pod shatter. Expression of TAGL1 in Arabidopsis failed to completely rescue the shp1 shp2 mutant phenotypes, indicating that TAGL1 has evolved distinct molecular functions compared with its Arabidopsis counterparts. These analyses demonstrate that TAGL1 plays an important role in regulating both fleshy fruit expansion and the ripening process that together are necessary to promote seed dispersal of fleshy fruit. From this broad perspective, SHP1/2 and TAGL1, while distinct in molecular function, regulate similar activities via their necessity for seed dispersal in Arabidopsis and tomato, respectively.

Involvement of the MADS-box gene ZMM4 in floral induction and inflorescence development in maize

The switch from vegetative to reproductive growth is marked by the termination of vegetative development and the adoption of floral identity by the shoot apical meristem (SAM). This process is called the floral transition. To elucidate the molecular determinants involved in this process, we performed genome-wide RNA expression profiling on maize (Zea mays) shoot apices at vegetative and early reproductive stages using massively parallel signature sequencing technology. Profiling revealed significant up-regulation of two maize MADS-box (ZMM) genes, ZMM4 and ZMM15, after the floral transition. ZMM4 and ZMM15 map to duplicated regions on chromosomes 1 and 5 and are linked to neighboring MADS-box genes ZMM24 and ZMM31, respectively. This gene order is syntenic with the vernalization1 locus responsible for floral induction in winter wheat (Triticum monococcum) and similar loci in other cereals. Analyses of temporal and spatial expression patterns indicated that the duplicated pairs ZMM4-ZMM24 and ZMM15-ZMM31 are coordinately activated after the floral transition in early developing inflorescences. More detailed analyses revealed ZMM4 expression initiates in leaf primordia of vegetative shoot apices and later increases within elongating meristems acquiring inflorescence identity. Expression analysis in late flowering mutants positioned all four genes downstream of the floral activators indeterminate1 (id1) and delayed flowering1 (dlf1). Overexpression of ZMM4 leads to early flowering in transgenic maize and suppresses the late flowering phenotype of both the id1 and dlf1 mutations. Our results suggest ZMM4 may play roles in both floral induction and inflorescence development.

Gene duplications, robustness and evolutionary innovations

Mutational robustness facilitates evolutionary innovations. Gene duplications are unique kinds of mutations, in that they generally increase such robustness. The frequent association of gene duplications in regulatory networks with evolutionary innovation is thus a special case of a general mechanism linking innovation to robustness. The potential power of this mechanism to promote evolutionary innovations on large time scales is illustrated here with several examples. These include the role of gene duplications in the vertebrate radiation, flowering plant evolution and heart development, which encompass some of the most striking innovations in the evolution of life.

Isolation of the three grape sub-lineages of B-class MADS-box TM6, PISTILLATA and APETALA3 genes which are differentially expressed during flower and fruit development

The B class of MADS-box floral homeotic genes specifies petal and stamen identity in angiosperms. While this group is one of the most studied in herbaceous plant species, it has remained largely uncharacterized in woody species such as grapevine. Although the B class PI/GLO and AP3/DEF clades have been extensively characterized in model species, the role of the TM6 subgroup within the AP3 clade is not completely understood, since it is absent in Arabidopsis thaliana. In this study, the coding regions of VvTM6 and VvAP3 and the genomic sequence of VvPI, were cloned. VvPI and AtPI were confirmed to be functional homologues by means of complementation of the pi Arabidopsis mutant. Expression analysis revealed that VvPI and VvAP3 transcripts are restricted almost exclusively to inflorescences, although VvPI was detected at low levels in leaves and roots. VvTM6 expresses throughout the plant, with higher levels in flowers and berries. A detailed chronological study of grape flower progression by light microscopy and temporal expression analysis throughout early and late developmental stages, revealed that VvPI expression increases during pollen maturation and decreases between the events of pollination and fertilization, before the cap fall. On the other hand, VvTM6 is expressed in the last stage of anther development. Specific expression of VvAP3 and VvPI was detected in petals and stamens within the flower, while VvTM6 was also expressed in carpels. Moreover, this work provides the first evidence for expression of a TM6-like gene throughout fruit growth and ripening. Even if these genes belong to the same genetic class they could act in different periods and/or tissues during reproductive organ development.

Clues about the ancestral roles of plant MADS-box genes from a functional analysis of moss homologues

Classic MIKC-type MADS-box genes MIKC(c) genes) are indispensable elements in the genetic programming of pattern formation, including the segmental organisation of angiosperm flowers, in seed plants. Since little is known about the functions of MIKC(c) genes in non-seed plants, a functional analysis of moss MIKC(c) homologues was performed using the genetically amenable, simple model plant, Physcomitrella patens. Expression of moss homologues was knocked down using an antisense RNA approach or abolished by generating transformants with gene knockouts. The knocked down ("antisense") transformants displayed a multifaceted mutant phenotype comprising delayed gametangia formation, diminished sporophyte yield and, in the most extremely affected cases, abnormal sporophyte development and altered leaf morphogenesis. Knocked out transformants were phenotypically normal. Analysis of in situ MIKC(c) gene expression using transgenic strains containing MIKC(c) promoter-GUS fusions showed that these genes are generally expressed ubiquitously in vegetative and reproductive tissues. We conclude that MIKC(c) genes play significant roles in morphogenetic programming of the moss. Functional redundancy characterises some members of the gene group. Our findings provide clues concerning the ancestral roles of some MIKC(c) genes that may be represented in the genomes of diverse extant plant taxa.

Heterotopic expression of B-class floral homeotic genes PISTILLATA/GLOBOSA supports a modified model for crocus (Crocus sativus L.) flower formation

For uncovering and understanding the molecular mechanisms controlling flower development in cultivated Crocus sativus and particularly the transformation of sepals in outer whorl (whorl 1) tepals, we have cloned and characterized the expression of a family of five PISTILLATA/GLOBOSA-like (PI/GLO-like) MADS-box genes expressed in the C. sativus flower. The deduced amino acid sequences of the coded proteins indicated high homology with members of the MADS-box family of transcription factors, and particularly with other members of the PI/GLO family of MADS-box proteins that control floral organ identity. PI/GLO expression studies in cultivated C. sativus uncover the presence of PI/GLO transcripts not only in the second and third whorls of flower organs as expected, but also in the outer whorl tepals that are the sepals in most typical flowers. This heterotopic expression of both B-class genes: PI/GLO and AP3/DEF, known to form heterodimers for stamens and petals (petaloid inner whor l-whorl 2-tepals in C. sativus), explains the homeotic transformation of sepals into outer whorl tepals in this species. Analysis of PI/GLO sequences from C. sativus for putative targets to known micro-RNAs (miRNAs) showed that the target site for ath-miRNA167 found in Arabidopsis thaliana PI is not present in C. sativus, however, the PI/GLO sequences may be regulated by an ath-miRNA163.

MIKC* MADS-protein complexes bind motifs enriched in the proximal region of late pollen-specific Arabidopsis promoters

The genome of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) encodes over 100 MADS-domain transcription factors, categorized into five phylogenetic subgroups. Most research efforts have focused on just one of these subgroups (MIKC(c)), whereas the other four remain largely unexplored. Here, we report on five members of the so-called Mdelta or Arabidopsis MIKC* (AtMIKC*) subgroup, which are predominantly expressed during the late stages of pollen development. Very few MADS-box genes function in mature pollen, and from this perspective, the AtMIKC* genes are therefore highly exceptional. We found that the AtMIKC* proteins are able to form multiple heterodimeric complexes in planta, and that these protein complexes exhibit a for the MADS-family unusual and high DNA binding specificity in vitro. Compared to their occurrence in promoters genome wide, AtMIKC* binding sites are strongly overrepresented in the proximal region of late pollen-specific promoters. By combining our experimental data with in silico genomics and pollen transcriptomics approaches, we identified a considerable number of putative direct target genes of the AtMIKC* transcription factor complexes in pollen, many of which have known or proposed functions in pollen tube growth. The expression of several of these predicted targets is altered in mutant pollen in which all AtMIKC* complexes are affected, and in vitro germination of this mutant pollen is severely impaired. Our data therefore suggest that the AtMIKC* protein complexes play an essential role in transcriptional regulation during late pollen development.

Conservation and divergence in the AGAMOUS subfamily of MADS-box genes: evidence of independent sub- and neofunctionalization events

The MADS-box gene AGAMOUS (AG) plays a key role in determining floral meristem and organ identities. We identified three AG homologs, EScaAG1, EScaAG2, and EScaAGL11 from the basal eudicot Eschscholzia californica (California poppy). Phylogenetic analyses indicate that EScaAG1 and EScaAG2 are recent paralogs within the AG clade, independent of the duplication in ancestral core eudicots that gave rise to the euAG and PLENA (PLE) orthologs. EScaAGL11 is basal to core eudicot AGL11 orthologs in a clade representing an older duplication event after the divergence of the angiosperm and gymnosperm lineages. Detailed in situ hybridization experiments show that expression of EScaAG1 and EScaAG2 is similar to AG; however, both genes appear to be expressed earlier in floral development than described in the core eudicots. A thorough examination of available expression and functional data in a phylogenetic context for members of the AG and AGL11 clades reveals that gene expression has been quite variable throughout the evolutionary history of the AG subfamily and that ovule-specific expression might have evolved more than twice. Although sub- and neofunctionalization are inferred to have occurred following gene duplication, functional divergence among orthologs is evident, as is convergence, among paralogs sampled from different species. We propose that retention of multiple AG homologs in several paralogous lineages can be explained by the conservation of ancestral protein activity combined with evolutionarily labile regulation of expression in the AG and AGL11 clades such that the collective functions of the AG subfamily in stamen and carpel development are maintained following gene duplication.

A new MADS-box gene (IbMADS10) from sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam) is involved in the accumulation of anthocyanin

A new MADS-box gene designated as IbMADS10 was cloned and its expression was characterized from sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) cv. Beniazuma. The deduced amino acid sequence of the gene indicated high homology with members of the MADS-box family of transcription factors. IbMADS10 shares high amino acid sequence similarity with the DEFH28 of Antirrhinum majus (64%) and with BpMADS4 of Betula pendula (61%) of the SQUA subfamily. Southern blot analysis revealed that the IbMADS10 is present in one or low copy number in the sweet potato genome. The gene is specifically expressed in the pigmented tissues such as in the flower bud, in the pink and in red roots, and hence, it was speculated that the IbMADS10 gene might be correlated with anthocyanin biosynthesis in sweet potato. RNA blot expression of the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes encoding for CHS, CHI, F3H, DFR, ANS and UFTG carried out in the tissues where the IbMADS10 gene was expressed revealed similar transcript levels in all tissues where the IbMADS10 gene is highly expressed, indicating that the IbMADS10 gene is highly correlated with the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes. Another important aspect is the pigmented phenotypes of transgenic calli that ectopically express the IbMADS10 gene, thereby supporting its involvement in the developmental regulation of pigment formation. Tissue printing result further strengthens the hypothesis that the IbMADS10 gene is indeed involved in anthocyanin pigmentation in sweet potato. As the purpose of the IbMADS10 gene is pigmentation, its function, therefore, resembles that of the transparent testa (tt) genes of Arabidopsis.

MADS box genes in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): patterns in the evolution of the SQUAMOSA, DEFICIENS, GLOBOSA, AGAMOUS, and SEPALLATA subfamilies

MADS box genes code for a large family of transcription factors which regulate development in higher plants, notably flower formation. We describe here a study of members of the MADS box gene family in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.), a representative of the family Arecaceae and order Arecales, a key group of monocotyledons which has been unreported in previous phylogenetic reconstructions of the different recognized clades of MADS box genes. In this study, 13 oil palm MADS box genes were identified and characterized. They were found to belong to five different subfamilies, namely, the previously defined SQUAMOSA, AGAMOUS, AGAMOUS-like2, DEFICIENS, and GLOBOSA groups. Genes belonging to each of these groups play a critical role in the determination of flower structure as defined by the ABCDE model. The in planta expression profiles of the oil palm MADS box genes were studied by RT-PCR and phylogenetic sequence diversity within individual subfamilies was investigated by comparing their deduced protein sequences with those of other angiosperms. Most of the oil palm sequences studied were observed to group with distinct supported clades within their subfamily. Some unexpected groupings were observed between monocot sequences (including oil palm ones) of non-Poaceae origin, probably illustrating the importance of obtaining adequate taxon representation in monocot molecular phylogenies.

PeMADS6, a GLOBOSA/PISTILLATA-like Gene in Phalaenopsis equestris Involved in Petaloid Formation, and Correlated with Flower Longevity and Ovary Development

In this study, we isolated and characterized the function of a GLOBOSA/PISTILLATA-like gene, PeMADS6, from a native Phalaenopsis species, P. equestris. Southern blot analysis showed PeMADS6 as a single copy in the Phalaenopsis genome. Results of the determination of temporal and spatial expression showed that PeMADS6 was expressed and thus participated in the development of the sepals, petals, labellum and column in Phalaenopsis. Further confirmation of the expression pattern of PeMADS6 was carried out with in situ hybridization. Repressed expression of PeMADS6 in the orchid ovary was found to be pollination regulated, which suggests that the gene may have an inhibitory effect on the development of the ovary or ovule. In addition, auxin acted as the candidate signal to regulate the repression of PeMADS6 expression in the ovary. Furthermore, the flowers of transgenic Arabidopsis plants ectopically overexpressing PeMADS6 showed the morphology of petaloid sepals, with a 3- to 4-fold increase in flower longevity. Concomitantly, delayed fruit maturation was also observed in the transgenic Arabidopsis, which is consistent with the inhibitory effect of PeMADS6 on the development of the ovary. Thus, as a B-function gene, PeMADS6, not only specifies floral organ identity but has functions in flower longevity and ovary development in orchids.

To B or Not to B a flower: the role of DEFICIENS and GLOBOSA orthologs in the evolution of the angiosperms

DEFICIENS (DEF) and GLOBOSA (GLO) function in petal and stamen organ identity in Antirrhinum and are orthologs of APETALA3 and PISTILLATA in Arabidopsis. These genes are known as B-function genes for their role in the ABC genetic model of floral organ identity. Phylogenetic analyses show that DEF and GLO are closely related paralogs, having originated from a gene duplication event after the separation of the lineages leading to the extant gymnosperms and the extant angiosperms. Several additional gene duplications followed, providing multiple potential opportunities for functional divergence. In most angiosperms studied to date, genes in the DEF/GLO MADS-box subfamily are expressed in the petals and stamens during flower development. However, in some angiosperms, the expression of DEF and GLO orthologs are occasionally observed in the first and fourth whorls of flowers or in nonfloral organs, where their function is unknown. In this article we review what is known about function, phylogeny, and expression in the DEF/GLO subfamily to examine their evolution in the angiosperms. Our analyses demonstrate that although the primary role of the DEF/GLO subfamily appears to be in specifying the stamens and inner perianth, several examples of potential sub- and neofunctionalization are observed.

The MADS-box gene DAL1 is a potential mediator of the juvenile-to-adult transition in Norway spruce (Picea abies)

Progression through the plant life cycle involves change in many essential features, most notably in the capacity to reproduce. The transition from a juvenile vegetative and non-reproductive to an adult reproductive phase is gradual and can take many years; in the conifer Norway spruce, Picea abies, typically 20-25 years. We present a detailed analysis of the activities of three regulatory genes with potential roles in this transition in Norway spruce: DAL1, a MADS-box gene related to the AGL6 group of genes from angiosperms, and the two LEAFY-related genes PaLFY and PaNLY. DAL1 activity is initiated in the shoots of juvenile trees at an age of 3-5 years, and then increases with age, whereas both LFY genes are active throughout the juvenile phase. The activity of DAL1 further shows a spatial pattern along the stem of the tree that parallels a similar gradient in physiological and morphological features associated with maturation to the adult phase. Constitutive expression of DAL1 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants caused a dramatic attenuation of both juvenile and adult growth phases; flowers forming immediately after the embryonic phase of development in severely affected plants. Taken together, our results support the notion that DAL1 may have a regulatory role in the juvenile-to-adult transition in Norway spruce.

The DAL10 gene from Norway spruce (Picea abies) belongs to a potentially gymnosperm-specific subclass of MADS-box genes and is specifically active in seed cones and pollen cones

Transcription factors encoded by different members of the MADS-box gene family have evolved central roles in the regulation of reproductive organ development in the flowering plants, the angiosperms. Development of the stamens and carpels, the pollen- and seed-bearing organs, involves the B- and C-organ-identity MADS-box genes. B- and C-type gene orthologs with activities specifically in developing pollen- and seed-bearing organs are also present in the distantly related gymnosperms: the conifers and the gnetophytes. We now report on the characterization of DAL10, a novel MADS-box gene from the conifer Norway spruce, which unlike the B- and C-type conifer genes shows no distinct orthology relationship to any angiosperm gene or clade in phylogenetic analyses. Like the B- and C-type genes, it is active specifically in developing pollen cones and seed cones. In situ RNA localization experiments show DAL10 to be expressed in the cone axis, which carry the microsporophylls of the young pollen cone. In contrast, in the seed cone it is expressed both in the cone axis and in the bracts, which subtend the ovuliferous scales. Expression data and the phenotype of transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing DAL10 suggest that the gene may act upstream to or in concert with the B- and C-type genes in the establishment of reproductive identity of developing cones.

Four DEF-like MADS box genes displayed distinct floral morphogenetic roles in Phalaenopsis orchid

The complex flower organization of orchids offers an opportunity to discover new variant genes and different levels of complexity in the morphogenesis of flowers. In this study, four B-class Phalaenopsis DEF-like MADS-box genes were identified and characterized, including PeMADS2, PeMADS3, PeMADS4 and PeMADS5. Differential expression profiles of these genes were detected in the floral organs of P. equestris, suggesting distinctive roles in the floral morphogenesis of orchids. Furthermore, expressions of these genes were varied to different extents in the peloric mutants with lip-like petals. Expression of PeMADS4 was in lips and columns of wild type, and it extended to the lip-like petals in the peloric mutant. Expression of PeMADS5 was mainly in petals and to a lesser extent in columns in the wild type, whereas it was completely eliminated in the peloric mutant. Disruption of the PeMADS5 promoter region of the peloric mutant was detected at nucleotide +312 relative to the upstream of translational start codon, suggesting that a DNA rearrangement has occurred in the peloric mutant. Genomic structure analysis of the PeMADS5 showed that the exon length was conserved in exons 1-6, similar to DEF-like genes of other plants. Collectively, this is the first report that four DEF-like MADS genes were identified in a single monocotyledonous species and that they may play distinctive morphogenetic roles in the floral development of an orchid.

And then there were many: MADS goes genomic

During the past decade, MADS-box genes have become known as key regulators in both reproductive and vegetative plant development. Traditional genetics and functional genomics tools are now available to elucidate the expression and function of this complex gene family on a much larger scale. Moreover, comparative analysis of the MADS-box genes in diverse flowering and non-flowering plants, boosted by bioinformatics, contributes to our understanding of how this important gene family has expanded during the evolution of land plants. Therefore, the recent advances in comparative and functional genomics should enable researchers to identify the full range of MADS-box gene functions, which should help us significantly in developing a better understanding of plant development and evolution.

Duplication and Diversification in the APETALA1/FRUITFULL Floral Homeotic Gene Lineage: Implications for the Evolution of Floral Development

Phylogenetic analyses of angiosperm MADS-box genes suggest that this gene family has undergone multiple duplication events followed by sequence divergence. To determine when such events have taken place and to understand the relationships of particular MADS-box gene lineages, we have identified APETALA1/FRUITFULL-like MADS-box genes from a variety of angiosperm species. Our phylogenetic analyses show two gene clades within the core eudicots, euAP1 (including Arabidopsis APETALA1 and Antirrhinum SQUAMOSA) and euFUL (including Arabidopsis FRUITFULL). Non-core eudicot species have only sequences similar to euFUL genes (FUL-like). The predicted protein products of euFUL and FUL-like genes share a conserved C-terminal motif. In contrast, predicted products of members of the euAP1 gene clade contain a different C terminus that includes an acidic transcription activation domain and a farnesylation signal. Sequence analyses indicate that the euAP1 amino acid motifs may have arisen via a translational frameshift from the euFUL/FUL-like motif. The euAP1 gene clade includes key regulators of floral development that have been implicated in the specification of perianth identity. However, the presence of euAP1 genes only in core eudicots suggests that there may have been changes in mechanisms of floral development that are correlated with the fixation of floral structure seen in this clade.

Analysis of the petunia MADS-box transcription factor family

Transcription factors are key regulators of plant development. One of the major groups of transcription factors is the MADS-box family, of which at least 80 members are encoded in the Arabidopsis genome. In this study, 23 members of the petunia MADS-box transcription factor family were investigated by Northern hybridisation, phylogenetic and yeast two-hybrid analyses. Many of the genes characterised appeared to have one or more close relatives that shared similar expression patterns. Comparison of the binding interactions of these proteins revealed that some show similar interaction patterns, and hence are likely to be functionally redundant. From an evolutionary point of view, their coding genes are probably derived from a recent duplication event. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction patterns, in combination with expression patterns and phylogenetic classification, appear to offer good criteria for the identification of functional homologues. Based on comparison of such data between petunia and Arabidopsis, functions can be predicted for several MADS-box transcription factors in both species.

Developmental morphology of normal and atypical flowers ofPhilodendron insigne(Araceae): a new case of homeosis

The early stages of development of the inflorescence of Philodendron insigne were examined using scanning electron microscopy. Pistillate flowers are initiated on the lower portion of the inflorescence and staminate flowers are initiated on the distal portion. The male flowers have three to five stamens. The female flowers have a multilocular ovary consisting of three to five locules. A transition zone consisting of sterile male flowers and atypical bisexual flowers with fused or free carpels and staminodes is located between the male and female floral zones. Generally, the portion of the bisexual flower facing the male zone forms stamens, and the portion facing the female zone develops one or two carpels. In P. insigne, the incomplete separation of staminodes from the gynoecial portion of the whorl shows that the staminodes and carpels belong to the same whorl. The atypical bisexual flowers of P. insigne are believed to be a case of homeosis where carpels have been replaced by sterile stamens on the same whorl. However, there is no regularity in the number of organs involved in the homeotic transformation taking place in atypical bisexual flowers. The presence of atypical bisexual flowers may correspond to a morphogenetic gradient at the level of the inflorescence as a whole.Key words: flower, development, gradient, inflorescence.

On the origin of class B floral homeotic genes: functional substitution and dominant inhibition in Arabidopsis by expression of an orthologue from the gymnosperm Gnetum

Class B floral homeotic genes are involved in specifying stamen and petal identity in angiosperms (flowering plants). Here we report that gymnosperms, the closest relatives of the angiosperms, contain at least two different clades representing putative orthologues of class B genes, termed GGM2-like and DAL12-like genes. To obtain information about the functional conservation of the class B genes in seed plants, the representative of one of these clades from Gnetum, termed GGM2, was expressed under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter in Arabidopsis wild-type plants and in different class B mutants. In wild-type plants and in a conditional mutant grown at a permissive temperature, gain-of-function phenotypes were obtained in whorls 1 and 4, where class B genes are usually not expressed. In contrast, loss-of-function phenotypes were observed in whorls 2 and 3, where class B genes are expressed. In different class B gene null mutants of Arabidopsis, and in the conditional B mutant grown at the non-permissive temperature, a partial complementation of the mutant phenotype was obtained. In situ hybridization studies and class B gene promoter test fusion experiments demonstrated that the gain-of-function phenotypes are not due to an upregulation of the endogenous B genes from Arabidopsis, and hence probably involve interactions between GGM2 protein homodimers and class B protein target genes other than the Arabidopsis class B genes itself. To our knowledge, this is the first time that partial complementation of a homeotic mutant by an orthologous gene from a distantly related species has been reported. These data suggest that GGM2 has a function in the gymnosperm Gnetum which is related to that of class B floral organ identity genes of angiosperms. That function may be in the specification of male reproductive organ identity, and in distinguishing male from female reproductive organs.

Two ancient classes of MIKC-type MADS-box genes are present in the moss Physcomitrella patens

Characterization of seven MADS-box genes, termed PPM1-PPM4 and PpMADS1-PpMADS3, from the moss model species Physcomitrella patens is reported. Phylogeny reconstructions and comparison of exon-intron structures revealed that the genes described here represent two different classes of homologous, yet distinct, MIKC-type MADS-box genes, termed MIKC(c)-type genes-"(c)" stands for "classic"-(PPM1, PPM2, PpMADS1) and MIKC(*)-type genes (PPM3, PPM4, PpMADS2, PpMADS3). The two gene classes deviate from each other in a characteristic way, especially in a sequence stretch termed intervening region. MIKC(c)-type genes are abundantly present in all land plants which have been investigated in this respect, and give rise to well-known gene types such as floral meristem and organ identity genes. In contrast, LAMB1 from the clubmoss Lycopodium annotinum was identified as the only other MIKC(*)-type gene published so far. Our findings strongly suggest that the most recent common ancestor of mosses and vascular plants contained at least one MIKC(c)-type and one MIKC(*)-type gene. Our studies thus reveal an ancient duplication of an MIKC-type gene that occurred before the separation of the lineages that led to extant mosses and vascular plants more than about 450 MYA. The identification of bona fide K-domains in both MIKC(*)-type and MIKC(c)-type proteins suggests that the K-domain is more ancient than is suggested by a recent alternative hypothesis. MIKC(*)-type genes may have escaped identification in ferns and seed plants so far. It seems more likely, however, that they represent a class of genes which has been lost in the lineage which led to extant ferns and seed plants. The high number of P. patens MADS-box genes and the presence of a K-box in the coding region and of some potential binding sites for MADS-domain proteins and other transcription factors in the putative promoter regions of these genes suggest that MADS-box genes in mosses are involved in complex gene regulatory networks similar to those in flowering plants.

Evolution of class B floral homeotic proteins: obligate heterodimerization originated from homodimerization

The class B floral homeotic genes from the higher eudicot model systems Arabidopsis and Antirrhinum are involved in specifying the identity of petals and stamens during flower development. These genes exist in two different types termed DEF- and GLO-like genes. The proteins encoded by the class B genes are stable and functional in the cell only as heterodimeric complexes of a DEF- and a GLO-like protein. In line with this, heterodimerization is obligate for DNA binding in vitro. The genes whose products have to heterodimerize to be stable and functional are each other's closest relatives within their genomes. This suggests that the respective genes originated by gene duplication, and that heterodimerization is of relative recent origin and evolved from homodimerization. To test this hypothesis we have investigated the dimerization behavior of putative B proteins from phylogenetic informative taxa, employing electrophoretic mobility shift assays and the yeast two-hybrid system. We find that an ancestral B protein from the gymnosperm Gnetum gnemon binds DNA in a sequence-specific manner as a homodimer. Of the two types of B proteins from the monocot Lilium regale, the GLO-like protein is still able to homodimerize, whereas the DEF-like protein binds to DNA only as a heterodimeric complex with the GLO-like protein. These data suggest that heterodimerization evolved in two steps after a gene duplication that gave rise to DEF- and GLO-like genes. Heterodimerization may have originated after the gymnosperm-angiosperm split about 300 MYA but before the monocot-eudicot split 140-200 MYA. Heterodimerization may have become obligate for both types of flowering plant B proteins in the eudicot lineage after the monocot-eudicot split.

Plant evolution and development in a post-genomic context

Large-scale gene-sequencing projects that have been undertaken in animals have involved organisms from contrasting taxonomic groups, such as worm, fly and mammal. By contrast, similar botanical projects have focused exclusively on flowering plants. This has made it difficult to carry out fundamental research on how plants have evolved from simple to complex forms - a task that has been very successful in animals. However, in the flowering plants, the many completely or partially sequenced genomes now becoming available will provide a powerful tool to investigate the details of evolution in one group of related organisms.

Development of floral organ identity: stories from the MADS house

Recent studies on AGAMOUS-LIKE2-, DEFICIENS- and GLOBOSA-like MADS-box genes in diverse seed plant species have provided novel insights into the mechanisms by which the identity of the different floral organs is specified during flower development. These advances in understanding may lead to major refinements in the classical ABC model of floral organ identity.

Characterization of three GLOBOSA-like MADS-box genes from maize: evidence for ancient paralogy in one class of floral homeotic B-function genes of grasses

Floral homeotic B-function genes are involved in specifying the identity of petals and stamens during flower development in higher eudicotyledonous plants. Monocotyledonous plants belonging to the grass family (Poaceae) have very similar B-function genes, except that these genes specify lodicules rather than petals. All B-function genes known so far are members of the MADS-box gene family encoding transcription factors. In some eudicot model systems such as Arabidopsis and Antirrhinum, the B-function is provided by heterodimeric protein complexes encoded by one DEF- and one GLO-like gene. In several different lineages of flowering plant species, however, more than one DEF- or GLO-like gene is found. A known example is the monocot model system rice, which contains two GLO-like genes, termed OSMADS2 and OSMADS4. Duplications of floral homeotic genes may have played a critical role in the diversification of floral homeotic functions and thus the evolution of flowers. In order to date the gene duplication event that gave rise to these two genes, we cloned cDNAs of three different GLO-like genes from maize, a distant relative of rice within the Poaceae family. Phylogeny reconstructions and chromosomal mapping indicate that one of these genes, named ZMM16, is orthologous to OSMADS2, and that the other two, ZMM18 and ZMM29, are probably orthologous to OSMADS4. The gene duplication which gave rise to OSMADS2- and OSMADS4-like genes occurred probably after the split of the lineages that resulted in extant Liliaceae and Poaceae, but before the separation of the lineages that gave rise to extant maize and rice about 50 MYA. Northern and in situ hybridization studies demonstrated that the maize genes are expressed in lodicules, stamens and carpels throughout spikelet development in male and female inflorescences. The GLO-like genes from rice have very similar patterns of mRNA accumulation. In addition, ZMM16 shows also weak expression in vegetative organs. Conservation of the expression in lodicules and stamens is in perfect agreement with a floral homeotic B-function of the GLO-like genes in grasses. The conserved expression in carpels is discussed. Moreover, circumstantial evidence for a functional diversification of GLO-like genes in grasses is provided.