Noise induces up-regulation of P2X2 receptor subunit of ATP-gated ion channels in the rat cochlea

Historical review: ATP as a neurotransmitter

Purinergic signalling is now recognized to be involved in a wide range of activities of the nervous system, including neuroprotection, central control of autonomic functions, neural-glial interactions, control of vessel tone and angiogenesis, pain and mechanosensory transduction and the physiology of the special senses. In this article, I give a personal retrospective of the discovery of purinergic neurotransmission in the early 1970s, the struggle for its acceptance for approximately 20 years, the expansion into purinergic cotransmission and its eventual acceptance when receptor subtypes for ATP were cloned and characterized and when purinergic synaptic transmission between neurons in the brain and peripheral ganglia was described in the early 1990s. I also discuss the current status of the field, including recent interest in the pathophysiology of purinergic signalling and its therapeutic potential.

Developmentally regulated expression of the P2X3 receptor in the mouse cochlea

ATP-gated non-selective cation channels assembled from P2X(3) receptor subunits contribute to transduction and neurotransmitter signaling in peripheral sensory systems and also feature prominently in the development of the central nervous system. In this study, P2X(3) receptor expression was characterized in the mouse cochlea from embryonic day 18 (E18) using confocal immunofluorescence. From E18 to P6, spiral ganglion neuron cell bodies and peripheral neurites projecting to the inner and outer hair cells were labeled. The inner spiral plexus associated with the inner hair cell synapses had a stronger fluorescence signal than outer spiral bundle fibers which provide the afferent innervation to the outer hair cells. Labeling in the cell bodies and peripheral neurites diminished around P6, and was no longer detected after the onset of hearing (P11, P17, adult). In opposition to the axiom that P2X(3) expression is neuron-specific, inner and outer sensory hair cells were labeled in the base and mid turn region at E18, but at P3 only the outer hair cells in the most apical region of the cochlea continued to express the protein. These data suggest a role for P2X(3) receptor-mediated purinergic signaling in cochlear synaptic reorganization, and establishment of neurotransmission, which occurs just prior to the onset of hearing function.

Apical membrane P2Y4 purinergic receptor controls K+ secretion by strial marginal cell epithelium

Background

It was previously shown that K⁺ secretion by strial marginal cell epithelium is under the control of G-protein coupled receptors of the P2Y family in the apical membrane. Receptor activation by uracil nucleotides (P2Y₂, P2Y₄ or P2Y₆) leads to a decrease in the electrogenic K⁺ secretion. The present study was conducted to determine the subtype of the functional purinergic receptor in gerbil stria vascularis, to test if receptor activation leads to elevation of intracellular [Ca²⁺] and to test if the response to these receptors undergoes desensitization.

Results

The transepithelial short circuit current (Isc) represents electrogenic K⁺ secretion and was found to be decreased by uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP), adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A) but not uridine 5'-diphosphate (UDP) at the apical membrane of marginal cells of the gerbil stria vascularis. The potencies of these agonists were consistent with rodent P2Y₄ and P2Y₂ but not P2Y₆ receptors. Activation caused a biphasic increase in intracellular [Ca²⁺] that could be partially blocked by 2-aminoethoxy-diphenyl borate (2-APB), an inhibitor of the IP3 receptor and store-operated channels. Suramin (100 μM) did not inhibit the effect of UTP (1 μM). The ineffectiveness of suramin at the concentration used was consistent with P2Y₄ but not P2Y₂. Transcripts for both P2Y₂ and P2Y₄ were found in the stria vascularis. Sustained exposure to ATP or UTP for 15 min caused a depression of Isc that appeared to have two components but with apparently no chronic desensitization.

Conclusion

The results support the conclusion that regulation of K⁺ secretion across strial marginal cell epithelium occurs by P2Y₄ receptors at the apical membrane. The apparent lack of desensitization of the response is consistent with two processes: a rapid-onset phosphorylation of KCNE1 channel subunit and a slower-onset of regulation by depletion of plasma membrane PIP₂.

Differential expression of genes within the cochlea as defined by a custom mouse inner ear microarray

Microarray analyses have contributed greatly to the rapid understanding of functional genomics through the identification of gene networks as well as gene discovery. To facilitate functional genomics of the inner ear, we have developed a mouse inner-ear-pertinent custom microarray chip (CMA-IE1). Nonredundant cDNA clones were obtained from two cDNA library resources: the RIKEN subtracted inner ear set and the NIH organ of Corti library. At least 2000 cDNAs unique to the inner ear were present on the chip. Comparisons were performed to examine the relative expression levels of these unique cDNAs within the organ of Corti, lateral wall, and spiral ganglion. Total RNA samples were obtained from the three cochlear-dissected fractions from adult CF-1 mice. The total RNA was linearly amplified, and a dendrimer-based system was utilized to enhance the hybridization signal. Differentially expressed genes were verified by comparison to known gene expression patterns in the cochlea or by correlation with genes and gene families deduced to be present in the three tissue types. Approximately 22-25% of the genes on the array had significant levels of expression. A number of differentially expressed genes were detected in each tissue fraction. These included genes with known functional roles, hypothetical genes, and various unknown or uncharacterized genes. Four of the differentially expressed genes found in the organ of Corti are linked to deafness loci. None of these are hypothetical or unknown genes.

Developmental regulation of neuron-specific P2X3 receptor expression in the rat cochlea

ATP-gated ion channels assembled from P2X3 receptor (P2X3R) subunits contribute to neurotransmission and neurotrophic signaling, associated with neurite development and synaptogenesis, particularly in peripheral sensory neurons. Here, P2X3R expression was characterized in the rat cochlea from embryonic day 16 (E16) to adult (P49-56), using RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. P2X3R mRNA was strongly expressed in the cochlea prior to birth, declined to a minimal level at P14, and was absent in adult tissue. P2X3R protein expression was confined to spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) within Rosenthal's canal of the cochlea. At E16, immunolabeling was detected in the SGN neurites, but not the distal neurite projection within the developing sensory epithelium (greater epithelial ridge). From E18, the immunolabeling was observed in the peripheral neurites innervating the inner hair cells but was reduced by P6. However, from P2-8, immunolabeling of the SGN neurites extended to include the outer spiral bundle fiber tract beneath the outer hair cells. This labeling of type II SGN afferent fiber declined after P8. By P14, all synaptic terminal immunolabeling in the organ of Corti was absent, and SGN cell body labeling was minimal. In adult cochlear tissue, P2X3R immunolabeling was not detected. Noise exposure did not induce P2X3R expression in the adult cochlea. These data indicate that ATP-gated ion channels incorporating P2X3R subunit expression are specifically targeted to the afferent terminals just prior to the onset of hearing, and likely contribute to the neurotrophic signaling which establishes functional auditory neurotransmission.

The significance of the calcium signal in the outer hair cells and its possible role in tinnitus of cochlear origin

Finely tuned changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration modulate a variety of cellular functions in eukaryotic cells. The cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration is also tightly controlled in the outer hair cells (OHCs), the highly specialized receptor and effector cells in the mammalian auditory epithelium, which are responsible for high sensitivity and sharp frequency discrimination in hearing. OHCs possess a complex system of transporters, pumps, exchangers, channels and binding proteins to develop and to halt the regulatory Ca(2+) signal. The crucial role of elevated intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in OHCs is to increase the efficacy of the electromechanical (electromotile) feedback via remodeling of the cortical cytoskeleton. Anomalies in the Ca(2+) signaling pathway may lead to hypersensitivity of the cochlear amplifier and subsequently trigger tinnitus of cochlear origin. This review describes the dynamics of Ca(2+) signaling in the OHCs and a model that may convey a putative mechanism of development of subjective idiopathic cochlear tinnitus.

Noise exposure induces up-regulation of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases 1 and 2 in rat cochlea

Extracellular ATP acting via P2 receptors in the inner ear initiates a variety of signaling pathways that may be involved in noise-induced cochlear injury. Nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase)1/CD39 and NTPDase2/CD39L1 are key elements for regulation of extracellular nucleotide concentrations and P2 receptor signaling in the cochlea. This study characterized the effect of noise exposure on regulation of NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 expression in the cochlea using a combination of real-time RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and functional studies. Adult Wistar rats were exposed to broad band noise at 90 dB and 110 dB sound pressure level (SPL) for 72 h. Exposure to 90 dB SPL induced a small and temporary change of auditory thresholds (temporary threshold shift), while exposure to 110 dB SPL induced a robust and permanent change of auditory thresholds (permanent threshold shift). NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 mRNA transcripts were upregulated in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL, while mild noise (90 dB SPL) altered only NTPDase1 mRNA expression levels. Changes in NTPDases expression did not correlate with levels of circulating corticosterone, implying that the up-regulation of NTPDases expression was not stress-related. Semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry in the cochlea exposed to 110 dB SPL localized the increased NTPDase1 and NTPDase2 immunostaining in the stria vascularis and up-regulation of NTPDase2 in the intraganglionic spiral bundle. In contrast, NTPDase1 was down-regulated in the cell bodies of the spiral ganglion neurones. Distribution of NTPDases was not altered in the cochlea exposed to 90 dB SPL. Functional studies revealed increased ectonucleotidase activities in the cochlea after exposure to 110 dB SPL, consistent with up-regulation of NTPDases. The changes in NTPDases expression may reflect adaptive response of cochlear tissues to limit ATP signaling during noise exposure.

Inner ear: Ca(2+)n you feel the noise?

The death of hair cells in the inner ear as a result of exposure to loud noise can lead to irreversible deafness. New work shows that the mammalian cochlea can sense noxious sounds and use Ca(2+) waves to rapidly propagate hair cell damage signals.