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Purino M, Ardiles AE, Callies O, Jiménez IA, Bazzocchi IL. Montecrinanes A–C: Triterpenes with an Unprecedented Rearranged Tetracyclic Skeleton from
Celastrus vulcanicola
. Insights into Triterpenoid Biosynthesis Based on DFT Calculations. Chemistry 2016; 22:7582-91. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201600294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martín Purino
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González” and Departamento de Química Universidad de La Laguna C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
| | - Alejandro E. Ardiles
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González” and Departamento de Química Universidad de La Laguna C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
- Departamento de Química Facultad de Ciencias Universidad de Chile Las Palmeras 3425 Ñuñoa, Santiago Chile
| | - Oliver Callies
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González” and Departamento de Química Universidad de La Laguna C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
| | - Ignacio A. Jiménez
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González” and Departamento de Química Universidad de La Laguna C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
| | - Isabel L. Bazzocchi
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González” and Departamento de Química Universidad de La Laguna C/Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
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Yu N, Nützmann HW, MacDonald JT, Moore B, Field B, Berriri S, Trick M, Rosser SJ, Kumar SV, Freemont PS, Osbourn A. Delineation of metabolic gene clusters in plant genomes by chromatin signatures. Nucleic Acids Res 2016; 44:2255-65. [PMID: 26895889 PMCID: PMC4797310 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkw100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2015] [Revised: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants are a tremendous source of diverse chemicals, including many natural product-derived drugs. It has recently become apparent that the genes for the biosynthesis of numerous different types of plant natural products are organized as metabolic gene clusters, thereby unveiling a highly unusual form of plant genome architecture and offering novel avenues for discovery and exploitation of plant specialized metabolism. Here we show that these clustered pathways are characterized by distinct chromatin signatures of histone 3 lysine trimethylation (H3K27me3) and histone 2 variant H2A.Z, associated with cluster repression and activation, respectively, and represent discrete windows of co-regulation in the genome. We further demonstrate that knowledge of these chromatin signatures along with chromatin mutants can be used to mine genomes for cluster discovery. The roles of H3K27me3 and H2A.Z in repression and activation of single genes in plants are well known. However, our discovery of highly localized operon-like co-regulated regions of chromatin modification is unprecedented in plants. Our findings raise intriguing parallels with groups of physically linked multi-gene complexes in animals and with clustered pathways for specialized metabolism in filamentous fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Yu
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | | | - James T MacDonald
- Centre for Synthetic Biology and Innovation, Imperial College, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ben Moore
- Centre for Synthetic Biology and Innovation, Imperial College, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ben Field
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Souha Berriri
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Martin Trick
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Susan J Rosser
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Building, Edinburgh, EH9 3JR, UK
| | - S Vinod Kumar
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Paul S Freemont
- Centre for Synthetic Biology and Innovation, Imperial College, South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Anne Osbourn
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
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53
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Takase H, Sasaki K, Shinmori H, Shinohara A, Mochizuki C, Kobayashi H, Ikoma G, Saito H, Matsuo H, Suzuki S, Takata R. Cytochrome P450 CYP71BE5 in grapevine (Vitis vinifera) catalyzes the formation of the spicy aroma compound (-)-rotundone. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:787-98. [PMID: 26590863 PMCID: PMC4737078 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
(-)-Rotundone is a potent odorant molecule with a characteristic spicy aroma existing in various plants including grapevines (Vitis vinifera). It is considered to be a significant compound in wines and grapes because of its low sensory threshold and aroma properties. (-)-Rotundone was first identified in red wine made from the grape cultivar Syrah and here we report the identification of VvSTO2 as a α-guaiene 2-oxidase which can transform α-guaiene to (-)-rotundone in the grape cultivar Syrah. It is a cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme belonging to the CYP 71BE subfamily, which overlaps with the very large CYP71D family and, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first functional characterization of an enzyme from this family. VvSTO2 was expressed at a higher level in the Syrah grape exocarp (skin) in accord with the localization of (-)-rotundone accumulation in grape berries. α-Guaiene was also detected in the Syrah grape exocarp at an extremely high concentration. These findings suggest that (-)-rotundone accumulation is regulated by the VvSTO2 expression along with the availability of α-guaiene as a precursor. VvSTO2 expression during grape maturation was considerably higher in Syrah grape exocarp compared to Merlot grape exocarp, consistent with the patterns of α-guaiene and (-)-rotundone accumulation. On the basis of these findings, we propose that VvSTO2 may be a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of (-)-rotundone in grapevines by acting as a α-guaiene 2-oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Takase
- Laboratory, New Product & Process Developments, Mercian Corporation, 4-9-1 Johnan, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-0057, Japan The Institute of Enology and Viticulture, University of Yamanashi, 1-13-1 Kitashin, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-0005, Japan
| | - Kanako Sasaki
- Laboratory, New Product & Process Developments, Mercian Corporation, 4-9-1 Johnan, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-0057, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Shinmori
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medical and Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-4-37 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan
| | - Akira Shinohara
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medical and Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-4-37 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan
| | - Chihiro Mochizuki
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medical and Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-4-37 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan
| | - Hironori Kobayashi
- Château Mercian, 1425-1 Shimoiwasaki, Katsunuma, Koshu, Yamanashi 409-1313, Japan
| | - Gen Ikoma
- The Institute of Enology and Viticulture, University of Yamanashi, 1-13-1 Kitashin, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-0005, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Saito
- Château Mercian, 1425-1 Shimoiwasaki, Katsunuma, Koshu, Yamanashi 409-1313, Japan
| | - Hironori Matsuo
- Château Mercian, 1425-1 Shimoiwasaki, Katsunuma, Koshu, Yamanashi 409-1313, Japan
| | - Shunji Suzuki
- The Institute of Enology and Viticulture, University of Yamanashi, 1-13-1 Kitashin, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-0005, Japan
| | - Ryoji Takata
- Laboratory, New Product & Process Developments, Mercian Corporation, 4-9-1 Johnan, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-0057, Japan
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54
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Ono NN, Qin X, Wilson AE, Li G, Tian L. Two UGT84 Family Glycosyltransferases Catalyze a Critical Reaction of Hydrolyzable Tannin Biosynthesis in Pomegranate (Punica granatum). PLoS One 2016. [PMID: 27227328 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.100156319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrolyzable tannins (HTs) play important roles in plant herbivore deterrence and promotion of human health. A critical step in HT production is the formation of 1-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (β-glucogallin, ester-linked gallic acid and glucose) by a UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT) activity. We cloned and biochemically characterized four candidate UGTs from pomegranate (Punica granatum), of which only UGT84A23 and UGT84A24 exhibited β-glucogallin forming activities in enzyme assays. Although overexpression and single RNAi knockdown pomegranate hairy root lines of UGT84A23 or UGT84A24 did not lead to obvious alterations in punicalagin (the prevalent HT in pomegranate) accumulation, double knockdown lines of the two UGTs resulted in largely reduced levels of punicalagins and bis-hexahydroxydiphenyl glucose isomers. An unexpected accumulation of galloyl glucosides (ether-linked gallic acid and glucose) was also detected in the double knockdown lines, suggesting that gallic acid was utilized by an unidentified UGT activity for glucoside formation. Transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and immunogold labeling in roots of pomegranate seedlings collectively indicated cytosolic localization of UGT84A23 and UGT84A24. Overall, functional characterization and localization of UGT84A23 and UGT84A24 open up opportunities for further understanding the regulatory control of HT metabolism in plants and its coordination with other biochemical pathways in the metabolic network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia N Ono
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Xiaoqiong Qin
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Alexander E Wilson
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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55
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. O'Connor
- The John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom;
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56
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Khakimov B, Kuzina V, Erthmann PØ, Fukushima EO, Augustin JM, Olsen CE, Scholtalbers J, Volpin H, Andersen SB, Hauser TP, Muranaka T, Bak S. Identification and genome organization of saponin pathway genes from a wild crucifer, and their use for transient production of saponins in Nicotiana benthamiana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 84:478-90. [PMID: 26333142 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The ability to evolve novel metabolites has been instrumental for the defence of plants against antagonists. A few species in the Barbarea genus are the only crucifers known to produce saponins, some of which make plants resistant to specialist herbivores, like Plutella xylostella, the diamondback moth. Genetic mapping in Barbarea vulgaris revealed that genes for saponin biosynthesis are not clustered but are located in different linkage groups. Using co-location with quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for resistance, transcriptome and genome sequences, we identified two 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclases that form the major triterpenoid backbones. LUP2 mainly produces lupeol, and is preferentially expressed in insect-susceptible B. vulgaris plants, whereas LUP5 produces β-amyrin and α-amyrin, and is preferentially expressed in resistant plants; β-amyrin is the backbone for the resistance-conferring saponins in Barbarea. Two loci for cytochromes P450, predicted to add functional groups to the saponin backbone, were identified: CYP72As co-localized with insect resistance, whereas CYP716As did not. When B. vulgaris sapogenin biosynthesis genes were transiently expressed by CPMV-HT technology in Nicotiana benthamiana, high levels of hydroxylated and carboxylated triterpenoid structures accumulated, including oleanolic acid, which is a precursor of the major resistance-conferring saponins. When the B. vulgaris gene for sapogenin 3-O-glucosylation was co-expressed, the insect deterrent 3-O-oleanolic acid monoglucoside accumulated, as well as triterpene structures with up to six hexoses, demonstrating that N. benthamiana further decorates the monoglucosides. We argue that saponin biosynthesis in the Barbarea genus evolved by a neofunctionalized glucosyl transferase, whereas the difference between resistant and susceptible B. vulgaris chemotypes evolved by different expression of oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bekzod Khakimov
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
- Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, Frederiksberg, DK-1958, Denmark
| | - Vera Kuzina
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Pernille Ø Erthmann
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Ery Odette Fukushima
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Jörg M Augustin
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Carl Erik Olsen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Jelle Scholtalbers
- EMBL, Heidelberg, Germany
- Keygene, Agro Business Park 90, Wageningen, 6708 PW, The Netherlands
| | - Hanne Volpin
- Keygene, Agro Business Park 90, Wageningen, 6708 PW, The Netherlands
- Danziger Innovations, Mishmar HaShiva, 5029700, Israel
| | - Sven Bode Andersen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Thure P Hauser
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
| | - Toshiya Muranaka
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Søren Bak
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg C, DK-1871, Denmark
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57
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Luthringer R, Lipinska AP, Roze D, Cormier A, Macaisne N, Peters AF, Cock JM, Coelho SM. The Pseudoautosomal Regions of the U/V Sex Chromosomes of the Brown Alga Ectocarpus Exhibit Unusual Features. Mol Biol Evol 2015; 32:2973-85. [PMID: 26248564 PMCID: PMC4610043 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msv173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The recombining regions of sex chromosomes (pseudoautosomal regions, PARs) are predicted to exhibit unusual features due to their being genetically linked to the nonrecombining, sex-determining region. This phenomenon is expected to occur in both diploid (XY, ZW) and haploid (UV) sexual systems, with slightly different consequences for UV sexual systems because of the absence of masking during the haploid phase (when sex is expressed) and because there is no homozygous sex in these systems. Despite a considerable amount of theoretical work on PAR genetics and evolution, these genomic regions have remained poorly characterized empirically. We show here that although the PARs of the U/V sex chromosomes of the brown alga Ectocarpus recombine at a similar rate to autosomal regions of the genome, they exhibit many genomic features typical of nonrecombining regions. The PARs were enriched in clusters of genes that are preferentially, and often exclusively, expressed during the sporophyte generation of the life cycle, and many of these genes appear to have evolved since the Ectocarpales diverged from other brown algal lineages. A modeling-based approach was used to investigate possible evolutionary mechanisms underlying this enrichment in sporophyte-biased genes. Our results are consistent with the evolution of the PAR in haploid systems being influenced by differential selection pressures in males and females acting on alleles that are advantageous during the sporophyte generation of the life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémy Luthringer
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | - Agnieszka P Lipinska
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | - Denis Roze
- UMI 3614, Evolutionary Biology and Ecology of Algae, CNRS, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC, PUCCh, UACH, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | - Alexandre Cormier
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | - Nicolas Macaisne
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | | | - J Mark Cock
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
| | - Susana M Coelho
- Sorbonne Université, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, Algal Genetics Group, UMR 8227, Integrative Biology of Marine Models, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Roscoff, France
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58
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Moghe GD, Last RL. Something Old, Something New: Conserved Enzymes and the Evolution of Novelty in Plant Specialized Metabolism. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2015; 169:1512-23. [PMID: 26276843 PMCID: PMC4634076 DOI: 10.1104/pp.15.00994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce hundreds of thousands of small molecules known as specialized metabolites, many of which are of economic and ecological importance. This remarkable variety is a consequence of the diversity and rapid evolution of specialized metabolic pathways. These novel biosynthetic pathways originate via gene duplication or by functional divergence of existing genes, and they subsequently evolve through selection and/or drift. Studies over the past two decades revealed that diverse specialized metabolic pathways have resulted from the incorporation of primary metabolic enzymes. We discuss examples of enzyme recruitment from primary metabolism and the variety of paths taken by duplicated primary metabolic enzymes toward integration into specialized metabolism. These examples provide insight into processes by which plant specialized metabolic pathways evolve and suggest approaches to discover enzymes of previously uncharacterized metabolic networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav D Moghe
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (G.D.M., R.L.L.) and Department of Plant Biology (R.L.L.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Robert L Last
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (G.D.M., R.L.L.) and Department of Plant Biology (R.L.L.), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
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59
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Bontpart T, Cheynier V, Ageorges A, Terrier N. BAHD or SCPL acyltransferase? What a dilemma for acylation in the world of plant phenolic compounds. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 208:695-707. [PMID: 26053460 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites involved in several plant growth and development processes, including resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The biosynthetic pathways leading to the vast diversity of plant phenolic products often include an acylation step, with phenolic compounds being the donor or acceptor molecules. To date, two acyltransferase families using phenolic compounds as acceptor or donor molecules have been described, with each using a different 'energy-rich' acyl donor. BAHD-acyltransferases, named after the first four biochemically characterized enzymes of the group, use acyl-CoA thioesters as donor molecules, whereas SCPL (Serine CarboxyPeptidase Like)-acyltransferases use 1-O-β-glucose esters. Here, common and divergent specifications found in the literature for both enzyme families were analyzed to answer the following questions. Are both acyltransferases involved in the synthesis of the same molecule (or same group of molecules)? Are both acyltransferases recruited in the same plant? How does the subcellular localization of these enzymes impact metabolite trafficking in plant cells?
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaut Bontpart
- INRA, UMR1083 SPO, 2, place, Viala, F-34060, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Agnès Ageorges
- INRA, UMR1083 SPO, 2, place, Viala, F-34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Nancy Terrier
- INRA, UMR1083 SPO, 2, place, Viala, F-34060, Montpellier, France
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60
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Sanz-Luque E, Chamizo-Ampudia A, Llamas A, Galvan A, Fernandez E. Understanding nitrate assimilation and its regulation in microalgae. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:899. [PMID: 26579149 PMCID: PMC4620153 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Nitrate assimilation is a key process for nitrogen (N) acquisition in green microalgae. Among Chlorophyte algae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has resulted to be a good model system to unravel important facts of this process, and has provided important insights for agriculturally relevant plants. In this work, the recent findings on nitrate transport, nitrate reduction and the regulation of nitrate assimilation are presented in this and several other algae. Latest data have shown nitric oxide (NO) as an important signal molecule in the transcriptional and posttranslational regulation of nitrate reductase and inorganic N transport. Participation of regulatory genes and proteins in positive and negative signaling of the pathway and the mechanisms involved in the regulation of nitrate assimilation, as well as those involved in Molybdenum cofactor synthesis required to nitrate assimilation, are critically reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Emilio Fernandez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of CordobaCordoba, Spain
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61
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Peyret H, Lomonossoff GP. When plant virology met Agrobacterium: the rise of the deconstructed clones. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2015; 13:1121-35. [PMID: 26073158 PMCID: PMC4744784 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In the early days of molecular farming, Agrobacterium-mediated stable genetic transformation and the use of plant virus-based vectors were considered separate and competing technologies with complementary strengths and weaknesses. The demonstration that 'agroinfection' was the most efficient way of delivering virus-based vectors to their target plants blurred the distinction between the two technologies and permitted the development of 'deconstructed' vectors based on a number of plant viruses. The tobamoviruses, potexviruses, tobraviruses, geminiviruses and comoviruses have all been shown to be particularly well suited to the development of such vectors in dicotyledonous plants, while the development of equivalent vectors for use in monocotyledonous plants has lagged behind. Deconstructed viral vectors have proved extremely effective at the rapid, high-level production of a number of pharmaceutical proteins, some of which are currently undergoing clinical evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadrien Peyret
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - George P Lomonossoff
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
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62
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Piasecka A, Jedrzejczak-Rey N, Bednarek P. Secondary metabolites in plant innate immunity: conserved function of divergent chemicals. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 206:948-964. [PMID: 25659829 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Plant secondary metabolites carry out numerous functions in interactions between plants and a broad range of other organisms. Experimental evidence strongly supports the indispensable contribution of many constitutive and pathogen-inducible phytochemicals to plant innate immunity. Extensive studies on model plant species, particularly Arabidopsis thaliana, have brought significant advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning pathogen-triggered biosynthesis and activation of defensive secondary metabolites. However, despite the proven significance of secondary metabolites in plant response to pathogenic microorganisms, little is known about the precise mechanisms underlying their contribution to plant immunity. This insufficiency concerns information on the dynamics of cellular and subcellular localization of defensive phytochemicals during the encounters with microbial pathogens and precise knowledge on their mode of action. As many secondary metabolites are characterized by their in vitro antimicrobial activity, these compounds were commonly considered to function in plant defense as in planta antibiotics. Strikingly, recent experimental evidence suggests that at least some of these compounds alternatively may be involved in controlling several immune responses that are evolutionarily conserved in the plant kingdom, including callose deposition and programmed cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Piasecka
- Institute of Plant Genetics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479, Poznan, Poland
| | - Nicolas Jedrzejczak-Rey
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704, Poznań, Poland
| | - Paweł Bednarek
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-704, Poznań, Poland
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63
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Kellner F, Kim J, Clavijo BJ, Hamilton JP, Childs KL, Vaillancourt B, Cepela J, Habermann M, Steuernagel B, Clissold L, McLay K, Buell CR, O'Connor SE. Genome-guided investigation of plant natural product biosynthesis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 82:680-92. [PMID: 25759247 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The medicinal plant Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don, produces hundreds of biologically active monoterpene-derived indole alkaloid (MIA) metabolites and is the sole source of the potent, expensive anti-cancer compounds vinblastine and vincristine. Access to a genome sequence would enable insights into the biochemistry, control, and evolution of genes responsible for MIA biosynthesis. However, generation of a near-complete, scaffolded genome is prohibitive to small research communities due to the expense, time, and expertise required. In this study, we generated a genome assembly for C. roseus that provides a near-comprehensive representation of the genic space that revealed the genomic context of key points within the MIA biosynthetic pathway including physically clustered genes, tandem gene duplication, expression sub-functionalization, and putative neo-functionalization. The genome sequence also facilitated high resolution co-expression analyses that revealed three distinct clusters of co-expression within the components of the MIA pathway. Coordinated biosynthesis of precursors and intermediates throughout the pathway appear to be a feature of vinblastine/vincristine biosynthesis. The C. roseus genome also revealed localization of enzyme-rich genic regions and transporters near known biosynthetic enzymes, highlighting how even a draft genome sequence can empower the study of high-value specialized metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Kellner
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The John Innes Centre, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jeongwoon Kim
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | | | - John P Hamilton
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Kevin L Childs
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Brieanne Vaillancourt
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Jason Cepela
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Marc Habermann
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | | | | | | | - Carol Robin Buell
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Sarah E O'Connor
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The John Innes Centre, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
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64
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Tholl D. Biosynthesis and biological functions of terpenoids in plants. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 148:63-106. [PMID: 25583224 DOI: 10.1007/10_2014_295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Terpenoids (isoprenoids) represent the largest and most diverse class of chemicals among the myriad compounds produced by plants. Plants employ terpenoid metabolites for a variety of basic functions in growth and development but use the majority of terpenoids for more specialized chemical interactions and protection in the abiotic and biotic environment. Traditionally, plant-based terpenoids have been used by humans in the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries, and more recently have been exploited in the development of biofuel products. Genomic resources and emerging tools in synthetic biology facilitate the metabolic engineering of high-value terpenoid products in plants and microbes. Moreover, the ecological importance of terpenoids has gained increased attention to develop strategies for sustainable pest control and abiotic stress protection. Together, these efforts require a continuous growth in knowledge of the complex metabolic and molecular regulatory networks in terpenoid biosynthesis. This chapter gives an overview and highlights recent advances in our understanding of the organization, regulation, and diversification of core and specialized terpenoid metabolic pathways, and addresses the most important functions of volatile and nonvolatile terpenoid specialized metabolites in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Tholl
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, 409 Latham Hall, 24061, Blacksburg, VA, USA,
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65
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Yu ZX, Wang LJ, Zhao B, Shan CM, Zhang YH, Chen DF, Chen XY. Progressive regulation of sesquiterpene biosynthesis in Arabidopsis and Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) by the miR156-targeted SPL transcription factors. MOLECULAR PLANT 2015; 8:98-110. [PMID: 25578275 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant metabolites vary at different stages of their life cycle. Although it is well documented that environmental factors stimulate biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, the regulation by endogenous developmental cues remains poorly understood. The microRNA156 (miR156)-targeted squamosa promoter binding protein-like (SPL) factors function as a major age cue in regulating developmental phase transition and flowering. We show here that the miR156-targeted SPL transcription factor plays an important role in the spatiotemporal regulation of sesquiterpene biosynthesis. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the miR156-SPL module regulates the formation of (E)-β-caryophyllene in the flowering stage through modulating expression of the sesquiterpene synthase gene TPS21. We demonstrated that SPL9 directly binds to TPS21 promoter and activates its expression. In the perennial fragrant herb Pogostemon cablin, the accumulation of patchouli oil, largely composed of sesquiterpenes dominated by (-)-patchoulol, is also age-regulated, and the SPL promotes biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes in elder plants by upregulating patchoulol synthase (PatPTS) gene expression. As miR156-SPLs are highly conserved in plants, our finding not only uncovers a molecular link between developmental timing and sesquiterpene production but also suggests a new strategy to engineer plants for accelerated growth with enhanced production of terpenoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zong-Xia Yu
- Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai 201602, China; National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; University of CAS, Beijing 100049, China; College of Bioengineering, Dalian University, Dalian 116622, China
| | - Ling-Jian Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Bo Zhao
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; University of CAS, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chun-Min Shan
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China; University of CAS, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu-Hua Zhang
- Firmenich Aromatics (China) Co. Ltd., Shanghai 201108, China
| | - Dong-Fang Chen
- Firmenich Aromatics (China) Co. Ltd., Shanghai 201108, China
| | - Xiao-Ya Chen
- Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Shanghai 201602, China; National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China.
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66
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Investigation of terpene diversification across multiple sequenced plant genomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 112:E81-8. [PMID: 25502595 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1419547112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants produce an array of specialized metabolites, including chemicals that are important as medicines, flavors, fragrances, pigments and insecticides. The vast majority of this metabolic diversity is untapped. Here we take a systematic approach toward dissecting genetic components of plant specialized metabolism. Focusing on the terpenes, the largest class of plant natural products, we investigate the basis of terpene diversity through analysis of multiple sequenced plant genomes. The primary drivers of terpene diversification are terpenoid synthase (TS) "signature" enzymes (which generate scaffold diversity), and cytochromes P450 (CYPs), which modify and further diversify these scaffolds, so paving the way for further downstream modifications. Our systematic search of sequenced plant genomes for all TS and CYP genes reveals that distinct TS/CYP gene pairs are found together far more commonly than would be expected by chance, and that certain TS/CYP pairings predominate, providing signals for key events that are likely to have shaped terpene diversity. We recover TS/CYP gene pairs for previously characterized terpene metabolic gene clusters and demonstrate new functional pairing of TSs and CYPs within previously uncharacterized clusters. Unexpectedly, we find evidence for different mechanisms of pathway assembly in eudicots and monocots; in the former, microsyntenic blocks of TS/CYP gene pairs duplicate and provide templates for the evolution of new pathways, whereas in the latter, new pathways arise by mixing and matching of individual TS and CYP genes through dynamic genome rearrangements. This is, to our knowledge, the first documented observation of the unique pattern of TS and CYP assembly in eudicots and monocots.
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67
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Moses T, Papadopoulou KK, Osbourn A. Metabolic and functional diversity of saponins, biosynthetic intermediates and semi-synthetic derivatives. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 49:439-62. [PMID: 25286183 PMCID: PMC4266039 DOI: 10.3109/10409238.2014.953628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Saponins are widely distributed plant natural products with vast structural and functional diversity. They are typically composed of a hydrophobic aglycone, which is extensively decorated with functional groups prior to the addition of hydrophilic sugar moieties, to result in surface-active amphipathic compounds. The saponins are broadly classified as triterpenoids, steroids or steroidal glycoalkaloids, based on the aglycone structure from which they are derived. The saponins and their biosynthetic intermediates display a variety of biological activities of interest to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food sectors. Although their relevance in industrial applications has long been recognized, their role in plants is underexplored. Recent research on modulating native pathway flux in saponin biosynthesis has demonstrated the roles of saponins and their biosynthetic intermediates in plant growth and development. Here, we review the literature on the effects of these molecules on plant physiology, which collectively implicate them in plant primary processes. The industrial uses and potential of saponins are discussed with respect to structure and activity, highlighting the undoubted value of these molecules as therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Moses
- Department of Metabolic Biology, John Innes CentreColney Lane, NorwichUK
| | | | - Anne Osbourn
- Department of Metabolic Biology, John Innes CentreColney Lane, NorwichUK
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68
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King AJ, Brown GD, Gilday AD, Larson TR, Graham IA. Production of bioactive diterpenoids in the euphorbiaceae depends on evolutionarily conserved gene clusters. THE PLANT CELL 2014; 26:3286-98. [PMID: 25172144 PMCID: PMC4371829 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.114.129668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The Euphorbiaceae produce a diverse range of diterpenoids, many of which have pharmacological activities. These diterpenoids include ingenol mebutate, which is licensed for the treatment of a precancerous skin condition (actinic keratosis), and phorbol derivatives such as resiniferatoxin and prostratin, which are undergoing investigation for the treatment of severe pain and HIV, respectively. Despite the interest in these diterpenoids, their biosynthesis is poorly understood at present, with the only characterized step being the conversion of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate into casbene. Here, we report a physical cluster of diterpenoid biosynthetic genes from castor (Ricinus communis), including casbene synthases and cytochrome P450s from the CYP726A subfamily. CYP726A14, CYP726A17, and CYP726A18 were able to catalyze 5-oxidation of casbene, a conserved oxidation step in the biosynthesis of this family of medicinally important diterpenoids. CYP726A16 catalyzed 7,8-epoxidation of 5-keto-casbene and CYP726A15 catalyzed 5-oxidation of neocembrene. Evidence of similar gene clustering was also found in two other Euphorbiaceae, including Euphorbia peplus, the source organism of ingenol mebutate. These results demonstrate conservation of gene clusters at the higher taxonomic level of the plant family and that this phenomenon could prove useful in further elucidating diterpenoid biosynthetic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J King
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffrey D Brown
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AD, United Kingdom
| | - Alison D Gilday
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Tony R Larson
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Ian A Graham
- Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
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69
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Wilson SA, Cummings EM, Roberts SC. Multi-scale engineering of plant cell cultures for promotion of specialized metabolism. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2014; 29:163-70. [PMID: 25063984 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
To establish plant culture systems for product synthesis, a multi-scale engineering approach is necessary. At the intracellular level, the influx of 'omics' data has necessitated development of new methods to properly annotate and establish useful metabolic models that can be applied to elucidate unknown steps in specialized metabolite biosynthesis, define effective metabolic engineering strategies and increase enzyme diversity available for synthetic biology platforms. On an intercellular level, the presence of aggregates in culture leads to distinct metabolic sub-populations. Recent advances in flow cytometric analyses and mass spectrometry imaging allow for resolution of metabolites on the single cell level, providing an increased understanding of culture heterogeneity. Finally, extracellular engineering can be used to enhance culture performance through media manipulation, co-culture with bacteria, the use of exogenous elicitors or modulation of shear stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Wilson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 159 Goessmann Laboratory, 686 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, United States
| | - Elizabeth M Cummings
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 159 Goessmann Laboratory, 686 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, United States
| | - Susan C Roberts
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 159 Goessmann Laboratory, 686 North Pleasant Street, Amherst, MA 01003, United States.
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70
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Boycheva S, Daviet L, Wolfender JL, Fitzpatrick TB. The rise of operon-like gene clusters in plants. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 19:447-59. [PMID: 24582794 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 01/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Gene clusters are common features of prokaryotic genomes also present in eukaryotes. Most clustered genes known are involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Although horizontal gene transfer is a primary source of prokaryotic gene cluster (operon) formation and has been reported to occur in eukaryotes, the predominant source of cluster formation in eukaryotes appears to arise de novo or through gene duplication followed by neo- and sub-functionalization or translocation. Here we aim to provide an overview of the current knowledge and open questions related to plant gene cluster functioning, assembly, and regulation. We also present potential research approaches and point out the benefits of a better understanding of gene clusters in plants for both fundamental and applied plant science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Boycheva
- Department of Botany and Plant Biology, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Daviet
- Biotechnology Department, Corporate R&D Division, FIRMENICH SA, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Luc Wolfender
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, University of Lausanne, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Teresa B Fitzpatrick
- Department of Botany and Plant Biology, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland.
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71
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Kemen AC, Honkanen S, Melton RE, Findlay KC, Mugford ST, Hayashi K, Haralampidis K, Rosser SJ, Osbourn A. Investigation of triterpene synthesis and regulation in oats reveals a role for β-amyrin in determining root epidermal cell patterning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:8679-84. [PMID: 24912185 PMCID: PMC4060722 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1401553111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Sterols have important functions in membranes and signaling. Plant sterols are synthesized via the isoprenoid pathway by cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene to cycloartenol. Plants also convert 2,3-oxidosqualene to other sterol-like cyclization products, including the simple triterpene β-amyrin. The function of β-amyrin per se is unknown, but this molecule can serve as an intermediate in the synthesis of more complex triterpene glycosides associated with plant defense. β-Amyrin is present at low levels in the roots of diploid oat (Avena strigosa). Oat roots also synthesize the β-amyrin-derived triterpene glycoside avenacin A-1, which provides protection against soil-borne diseases. The genes for the early steps in avenacin A-1 synthesis [saponin-deficient 1 and 2 (Sad1 and Sad2)] have been recruited from the sterol pathway by gene duplication and neofunctionalization. Here we show that Sad1 and Sad2 are regulated by an ancient root developmental process that is conserved across diverse species. Sad1 promoter activity is dependent on an L1 box motif, implicating sterol/lipid-binding class IV homeodomain leucine zipper transcription factors as potential regulators. The metabolism of β-amyrin is blocked in sad2 mutants, which therefore accumulate abnormally high levels of this triterpene. The accumulation of elevated levels of β-amyrin in these mutants triggers a "superhairy" root phenotype. Importantly, this effect is manifested very early in the establishment of the root epidermis, causing a greater proportion of epidermal cells to be specified as root hair cells rather than nonhair cells. Together these findings suggest that simple triterpenes may have widespread and as yet largely unrecognized functions in plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suvi Honkanen
- Departments of Metabolic Biology andInstitute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom; and
| | | | - Kim C Findlay
- Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Susan J Rosser
- Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom; and
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72
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Kemen AC, Honkanen S, Melton RE, Findlay KC, Mugford ST, Hayashi K, Haralampidis K, Rosser SJ, Osbourn A. Investigation of triterpene synthesis and regulation in oats reveals a role for β-amyrin in determining root epidermal cell patterning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:8679-8684. [PMID: 24912185 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1401553111s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Sterols have important functions in membranes and signaling. Plant sterols are synthesized via the isoprenoid pathway by cyclization of 2,3-oxidosqualene to cycloartenol. Plants also convert 2,3-oxidosqualene to other sterol-like cyclization products, including the simple triterpene β-amyrin. The function of β-amyrin per se is unknown, but this molecule can serve as an intermediate in the synthesis of more complex triterpene glycosides associated with plant defense. β-Amyrin is present at low levels in the roots of diploid oat (Avena strigosa). Oat roots also synthesize the β-amyrin-derived triterpene glycoside avenacin A-1, which provides protection against soil-borne diseases. The genes for the early steps in avenacin A-1 synthesis [saponin-deficient 1 and 2 (Sad1 and Sad2)] have been recruited from the sterol pathway by gene duplication and neofunctionalization. Here we show that Sad1 and Sad2 are regulated by an ancient root developmental process that is conserved across diverse species. Sad1 promoter activity is dependent on an L1 box motif, implicating sterol/lipid-binding class IV homeodomain leucine zipper transcription factors as potential regulators. The metabolism of β-amyrin is blocked in sad2 mutants, which therefore accumulate abnormally high levels of this triterpene. The accumulation of elevated levels of β-amyrin in these mutants triggers a "superhairy" root phenotype. Importantly, this effect is manifested very early in the establishment of the root epidermis, causing a greater proportion of epidermal cells to be specified as root hair cells rather than nonhair cells. Together these findings suggest that simple triterpenes may have widespread and as yet largely unrecognized functions in plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suvi Honkanen
- Departments of Metabolic Biology andInstitute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom; and
| | | | - Kim C Findlay
- Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - Susan J Rosser
- Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom; and
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73
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Sainsbury F, Lomonossoff GP. Transient expressions of synthetic biology in plants. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 19:1-7. [PMID: 24631883 PMCID: PMC4070481 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Recent developments in transient expression methods have enabled the efficient delivery and expression of multiple genes within the same plant cell over a timescale of days. In some cases, the vectors deployed can be fine-tuned to allow differential expression of the various genes. This has opened the way to the deployment of transient expression for such applications as the production of macromolecular complexes and the analysis and manipulation of metabolic pathways. The ability to observe the effect of gene expression in a matter of days means that transient expression is becoming the method of choice for many plant-based synthetic biology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Sainsbury
- The University of Queensland, Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, Centre for Biomolecular Engineering, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - George P Lomonossoff
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom.
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74
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Cook C, Martin L, Bastow R. Opportunities in plant synthetic biology. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:1921-6. [PMID: 24502956 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic biology is an emerging field uniting scientists from all disciplines with the aim of designing or re-designing biological processes. Initially, synthetic biology breakthroughs came from microbiology, chemistry, physics, computer science, materials science, mathematics, and engineering disciplines. A transition to multicellular systems is the next logical step for synthetic biologists and plants will provide an ideal platform for this new phase of research. This meeting report highlights some of the exciting plant synthetic biology projects, and tools and resources, presented and discussed at the 2013 GARNet workshop on plant synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charis Cook
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Campus, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
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75
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Gene clustering in plant specialized metabolism. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2014; 26:91-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2013.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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76
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Thimmappa R, Geisler K, Louveau T, O'Maille P, Osbourn A. Triterpene biosynthesis in plants. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 65:225-57. [PMID: 24498976 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 414] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The triterpenes are one of the most numerous and diverse groups of plant natural products. They are complex molecules that are, for the most part, beyond the reach of chemical synthesis. Simple triterpenes are components of surface waxes and specialized membranes and may potentially act as signaling molecules, whereas complex glycosylated triterpenes (saponins) provide protection against pathogens and pests. Simple and conjugated triterpenes have a wide range of applications in the food, health, and industrial biotechnology sectors. Here, we review recent developments in the field of triterpene biosynthesis, give an overview of the genes and enzymes that have been identified to date, and discuss strategies for discovering new triterpene biosynthetic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesha Thimmappa
- Department of Metabolic Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom;
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77
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Farré G, Blancquaert D, Capell T, Van Der Straeten D, Christou P, Zhu C. Engineering complex metabolic pathways in plants. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 65:187-223. [PMID: 24579989 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-035825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic engineering can be used to modulate endogenous metabolic pathways in plants or introduce new metabolic capabilities in order to increase the production of a desirable compound or reduce the accumulation of an undesirable one. In practice, there are several major challenges that need to be overcome, such as gaining enough knowledge about the endogenous pathways to understand the best intervention points, identifying and sourcing the most suitable metabolic genes, expressing those genes in such a way as to produce a functional enzyme in a heterologous background, and, finally, achieving the accumulation of target compounds without harming the host plant. This article discusses the strategies that have been developed to engineer complex metabolic pathways in plants, focusing on recent technological developments that allow the most significant bottlenecks to be overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Farré
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Agrotecnio Center, 25198 Lleida, Spain;
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78
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Gleadow RM, Møller BL. Cyanogenic glycosides: synthesis, physiology, and phenotypic plasticity. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 65:155-85. [PMID: 24579992 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050213-040027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cyanogenic glycosides (CNglcs) are bioactive plant products derived from amino acids. Structurally, these specialized plant compounds are characterized as α-hydroxynitriles (cyanohydrins) that are stabilized by glucosylation. In recent years, improved tools within analytical chemistry have greatly increased the number of known CNglcs by enabling the discovery of less abundant CNglcs formed by additional hydroxylation, glycosylation, and acylation reactions. Cyanogenesis--the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide from endogenous CNglcs--is an effective defense against generalist herbivores but less effective against fungal pathogens. In the course of evolution, CNglcs have acquired additional roles to improve plant plasticity, i.e., establishment, robustness, and viability in response to environmental challenges. CNglc concentration is usually higher in young plants, when nitrogen is in ready supply, or when growth is constrained by nonoptimal growth conditions. Efforts are under way to engineer CNglcs into some crops as a pest control measure, whereas in other crops efforts are directed toward their removal to improve food safety. Given that many food crops are cyanogenic, it is important to understand the molecular mechanisms regulating cyanogenesis so that the impact of future environmental challenges can be anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roslyn M Gleadow
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, 3800 Victoria, Australia;
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Geisler K, Hughes RK, Sainsbury F, Lomonossoff GP, Rejzek M, Fairhurst S, Olsen CE, Motawia MS, Melton RE, Hemmings AM, Bak S, Osbourn A. Biochemical analysis of a multifunctional cytochrome P450 (CYP51) enzyme required for synthesis of antimicrobial triterpenes in plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:E3360-7. [PMID: 23940321 PMCID: PMC3761579 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1309157110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Members of the cytochromes P450 superfamily (P450s) catalyze a huge variety of oxidation reactions in microbes and higher organisms. Most P450 families are highly divergent, but in contrast the cytochrome P450 14α-sterol demethylase (CYP51) family is one of the most ancient and conserved, catalyzing sterol 14α-demethylase reactions required for essential sterol synthesis across the fungal, animal, and plant kingdoms. Oats (Avena spp.) produce antimicrobial compounds, avenacins, that provide protection against disease. Avenacins are synthesized from the simple triterpene, β-amyrin. Previously we identified a gene encoding a member of the CYP51 family of cytochromes P450, AsCyp51H10 (also known as Saponin-deficient 2, Sad2), that is required for avenacin synthesis in a forward screen for avenacin-deficient oat mutants. sad2 mutants accumulate β-amyrin, suggesting that they are blocked early in the pathway. Here, using a transient plant expression system, we show that AsCYP51H10 is a multifunctional P450 capable of modifying both the C and D rings of the pentacyclic triterpene scaffold to give 12,13β-epoxy-3β,16β-dihydroxy-oleanane (12,13β-epoxy-16β-hydroxy-β-amyrin). Molecular modeling and docking experiments indicate that C16 hydroxylation is likely to precede C12,13 epoxidation. Our computational modeling, in combination with analysis of a suite of sad2 mutants, provides insights into the unusual catalytic behavior of AsCYP51H10 and its active site mutants. Fungal bioassays show that the C12,13 epoxy group is an important determinant of antifungal activity. Accordingly, the oat AsCYP51H10 enzyme has been recruited from primary metabolism and has acquired a different function compared to other characterized members of the plant CYP51 family--as a multifunctional stereo- and regio-specific hydroxylase in plant specialized metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Geisler
- Departments of Metabolic Biology and
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, VKR Research Centre Pro-Active Plants, Faculty of Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; and
| | - Richard K. Hughes
- Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Frank Sainsbury
- Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Martin Rejzek
- Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Shirley Fairhurst
- Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Carl-Erik Olsen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, VKR Research Centre Pro-Active Plants, Faculty of Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; and
| | - Mohammed Saddik Motawia
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, VKR Research Centre Pro-Active Plants, Faculty of Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; and
| | | | - Andrew M. Hemmings
- Schools of Chemistry and
- Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Søren Bak
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, VKR Research Centre Pro-Active Plants, Faculty of Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; and
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