51
|
Madigan S, Browne D, Racine N, Mori C, Tough S. Association Between Screen Time and Children's Performance on a Developmental Screening Test. JAMA Pediatr 2019; 173:244-250. [PMID: 30688984 PMCID: PMC6439882 DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Excessive screen time is associated with delays in development; however, it is unclear if greater screen time predicts lower performance scores on developmental screening tests or if children with poor developmental performance receive added screen time as a way to modulate challenging behavior. OBJECTIVE To assess the directional association between screen time and child development in a population of mothers and children. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This longitudinal cohort study used a 3-wave, cross-lagged panel model in 2441 mothers and children in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, drawn from the All Our Families study. Data were available when children were aged 24, 36, and 60 months. Data were collected between October 20, 2011, and October 6, 2016. Statistical analyses were conducted from July 31 to November 15, 2018. EXPOSURES Media. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES At age 24, 36, and 60 months, children's screen-time behavior (total hours per week) and developmental outcomes (Ages and Stages Questionnaire, Third Edition) were assessed via maternal report. RESULTS Of the 2441 children included in the analysis, 1227 (50.2%) were boys. A random-intercepts, cross-lagged panel model revealed that higher levels of screen time at 24 and 36 months were significantly associated with poorer performance on developmental screening tests at 36 months (β, -0.06; 95% CI, -0.10 to -0.01) and 60 months (β, -0.08; 95% CI, -0.13 to -0.02), respectively. These within-person (time-varying) associations statistically controlled for between-person (stable) differences. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The results of this study support the directional association between screen time and child development. Recommendations include encouraging family media plans, as well as managing screen time, to offset the potential consequences of excess use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sheri Madigan
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada,Department of Paediatrics, Alberta Children’s
Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Dillon Browne
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicole Racine
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada,Department of Paediatrics, Alberta Children’s
Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Camille Mori
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada,Department of Paediatrics, Alberta Children’s
Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Suzanne Tough
- Department of Paediatrics, Alberta Children’s
Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Young children use mobile devices on average 1 hour/day, but no studies have examined the prevalence of advertising in children's apps. The objective of this study was to describe the advertising content of popular children's apps. METHODS To create a coding scheme, we downloaded and played 39 apps played by children aged 12 months to 5 years in a pilot study of a mobile sensing app; 2 researchers played each app, took detailed notes on the design of advertisements, and iteratively refined the codebook (interrater reliability 0.96). Codes were then applied to the 96 most downloaded free and paid apps in the 5 And Under category on the Google Play app store. RESULTS Of the 135 apps reviewed, 129 (95%) contained at least 1 type of advertising. These included use of commercial characters (42%); full-app teasers (46%); advertising videos interrupting play (e.g., pop-ups [35%] or to unlock play items [16%]); in-app purchases (30%); prompts to rate the app (28%) or share on social media (14%); distracting ads such as banners across the screen (17%) or hidden ads with misleading symbols such as "$" or camouflaged as gameplay items (7%). Advertising was significantly more prevalent in free apps (100% vs 88% of paid apps), but occurred at similar rates in apps labeled as "educational" versus other categories. CONCLUSION In this exploratory study, we found high rates of mobile advertising through manipulative and disruptive methods. These results have implications for advertising regulation, parent media choices, and apps' educational value.
Collapse
|
53
|
Xie H, Peng J, Qin M, Huang X, Tian F, Zhou Z. Can Touchscreen Devices be Used to Facilitate Young Children's Learning? A Meta-Analysis of Touchscreen Learning Effect. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2580. [PMID: 30618995 PMCID: PMC6305619 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of the continuous stream of touchscreen apps that are claimed to be educational and the increasing use of touchscreen devices in early childhood, considerable attention is being paid to the effect of touchscreens on young children's learning. However, the existing empirical findings in young child samples are not consistent. In this meta-analysis we tested the overall effect of touchscreen devices on young children's (0- to 5-year-olds) learning performance, as well as moderators of this effect, based on 36 empirical articles (79 effect sizes) involving 4,206 participants. The overall analysis showed a significant touchscreen learning effect (d = 0.46), indicating that young children indeed benefited from touchscreen learning. Interestingly, age, learning material domain, comparison group, and experimental environment significantly moderated the effect of touchscreen devices on young children's learning outcome. These findings shed light on the role of touchscreen-related physical experience in early childhood education.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heping Xie
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ji Peng
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Mengyuan Qin
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xuzhe Huang
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Tian
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
- Air Force Early Warning Academy, Wuhan, China
| | - Zongkui Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Two are better than one: Infant language learning from video improves in the presence of peers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:9859-9866. [PMID: 30275298 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1611621115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies show that young children learn new phonemes and words from humans significantly better than from machines. However, it is not clear why learning from video is ineffective or what might be done to improve learning from a screen. The present study, conducted with 9-month-old infants, utilized a manipulation-touch screen video-which allowed infants to control presentations of foreign-language video clips. We tested the hypothesis that infant learning from a screen would be enhanced in the presence of a peer, as opposed to learning alone. Brain measures of phonetic learning and detailed analyses of interaction during learning confirm the hypothesis that social partners enhance learning, even from screens.
Collapse
|
55
|
O'Toole KJ, Kannass KN. Emergent literacy in print and electronic contexts: The influence of book type, narration source, and attention. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:100-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
56
|
Kirkorian HL. When and How Do Interactive Digital Media Help Children Connect What They See On and Off the Screen? CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
57
|
Children learning a concept with a book and an e-book: a comparison with matched instruction. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10212-018-0370-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
58
|
Yadav S, Chakraborty P. Using smartphones with suitable apps can be safe and even useful if they are not misused or overused. Acta Paediatr 2018; 107:384-387. [PMID: 28833547 DOI: 10.1111/apa.14042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Savita Yadav
- Division of Computer Engineering; Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology; New Delhi India
| | - Pinaki Chakraborty
- Division of Computer Engineering; Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology; New Delhi India
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Strouse GA, Troseth GL, O'Doherty KD, Saylor MM. Co-viewing supports toddlers' word learning from contingent and noncontingent video. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 166:310-326. [PMID: 28992611 PMCID: PMC5777334 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Social cues are one way young children determine that a situation is pedagogical in nature-containing information to be learned and generalized. However, some social cues (e.g., contingent gaze and responsiveness) are missing from prerecorded video, a potential reason why toddlers' language learning from video can be inefficient compared with their learning directly from a person. This study explored two methods for supporting children's word learning from video by adding social-communicative cues. A sample of 88 30-month-olds began their participation with a video training phase. In one manipulation, an on-screen actress responded contingently to children through a live video feed (similar to Skype or FaceTime "video chat") or appeared in a prerecorded demonstration. In the other manipulation, parents either modeled responsiveness to the actress's on-screen bids for participation or sat out of their children's view. Children then viewed a labeling demonstration on video, and their knowledge of the label was tested with three-dimensional objects. Results indicated that both on-screen contingency and parent modeling increased children's engagement with the actress during training. However, only parent modeling increased children's subsequent word learning, perhaps by revealing the symbolic (representational) intentions underlying this video. This study highlights the importance of adult co-viewing in helping toddlers to interpret communicative cues from video.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Strouse
- Division of Counseling and Psychology in Education, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA.
| | - Georgene L Troseth
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203, USA
| | | | - Megan M Saylor
- Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203, USA
| |
Collapse
|
60
|
Anderson DR, Subrahmanyam K. Digital Screen Media and Cognitive Development. Pediatrics 2017; 140:S57-S61. [PMID: 29093033 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2016-1758c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In this article, we examine the impact of digital screen devices, including television, on cognitive development. Although we know that young infants and toddlers are using touch screen devices, we know little about their comprehension of the content that they encounter on them. In contrast, research suggests that children begin to comprehend child-directed television starting at ∼2 years of age. The cognitive impact of these media depends on the age of the child, the kind of programming (educational programming versus programming produced for adults), the social context of viewing, as well the particular kind of interactive media (eg, computer games). For children <2 years old, television viewing has mostly negative associations, especially for language and executive function. For preschool-aged children, television viewing has been found to have both positive and negative outcomes, and a large body of research suggests that educational television has a positive impact on cognitive development. Beyond the preschool years, children mostly consume entertainment programming, and cognitive outcomes are not well explored in research. The use of computer games as well as educational computer programs can lead to gains in academically relevant content and other cognitive skills. This article concludes by identifying topics and goals for future research and provides recommendations based on current research-based knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel R Anderson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts;
| | - Kaveri Subrahmanyam
- Department of Psychology & Department of Child & Family Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, California; and.,Children's Digital Media Center, Los Angeles, California
| | | |
Collapse
|
61
|
Ho A, Lee J, Wood E, Kassies S, Heinbuck C. Tap, swipe, and build: Parental spatial input during iPad®and toy play. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Ho
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Ontario Canada
| | - Joanne Lee
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Ontario Canada
| | - Eileen Wood
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Ontario Canada
| | - Samantha Kassies
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Ontario Canada
| | - Carissa Heinbuck
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Ontario Canada
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Choi K, Kirkorian HL, Pempek TA. Understanding the Transfer Deficit: Contextual Mismatch, Proactive Interference, and Working Memory Affect Toddlers’ Video‐Based Transfer. Child Dev 2017; 89:1378-1393. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
63
|
Russo-Johnson C, Troseth G, Duncan C, Mesghina A. All Tapped Out: Touchscreen Interactivity and Young Children's Word Learning. Front Psychol 2017; 8:578. [PMID: 28446895 PMCID: PMC5388766 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Touchscreen devices differ from passive screen media in promoting physical interaction with events on the screen. Two studies examined how young children's screen-directed actions related to self-regulation (Study 1) and word learning (Study 2). In Study 1, 30 2-year-old children's tapping behaviors during game play were related to their self-regulation, measured using Carlson's snack task: girls and children with high self-regulation tapped significantly less during instruction portions of an app (including object labeling events) than did boys and children with low self-regulation. Older preschoolers (N = 47, aged 4-6 years) tapped significantly less during instruction than 2-year-olds did. Study 2 explored whether the particular way in which 170 children (2-4 years of age) interacted with a touchscreen app affected their learning of novel object labels. Conditions in which children tapped or dragged a named object to move it across the screen required different amounts of effort and focus, compared to a non-interactive (watching) condition. Age by sex interactions revealed a particular benefit of dragging (a motorically challenging behavior) for preschool girls' learning compared to that of boys, especially for girls older than age 2. Boys benefited more from watching than dragging. Children from low socioeconomic status families learned more object names when dragging objects versus tapping them, possibly because tapping is a prepotent response that does not require thoughtful attention. Parents and industry experts should consider age, sex, self-regulation, and the physical requirements of children's engagement with touchscreens when designing and using educational content.
Collapse
|
64
|
Galetzka C. Commentary: Mobile and Interactive Media Use by Young Children: The Good, the Bad, and the Unknown. Front Psychol 2017; 8:461. [PMID: 28400746 PMCID: PMC5368416 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cedric Galetzka
- Division of Cognitive Sciences, Psychology Department, University of PotsdamPotsdam, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
Strouse GA, Ganea PA. Toddlers' word learning and transfer from electronic and print books. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 156:129-142. [PMID: 28068550 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Transfer from symbolic media to the real world can be difficult for young children. A sample of 73 toddlers aged 17 to 23months were read either an electronic book displayed on a touchscreen device or a traditional print book in which a novel object was paired with a novel label. Toddlers in both conditions learned the label within the context of the book. However, only those who read the traditional format book generalized and transferred the label to other contexts. An older group of 28 toddlers aged 24 to 30months did generalize and transfer from the electronic book. Across ages, those children who primarily used screens to watch prerecorded video at home transferred less from the electronic book than those with more diverse home media experiences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle A Strouse
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada.
| | - Patricia A Ganea
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Ross KM, Pye RE, Randell J. Reading Touch Screen Storybooks with Mothers Negatively Affects 7-Year-Old Readers' Comprehension but Enriches Emotional Engagement. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1728. [PMID: 27899903 PMCID: PMC5110538 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Touch screen storybooks turn reading into an interactive multimedia experience, with hotspot-activated animations, sound effects, and games. Positive and negative effects of reading multimedia stories have been reported, but the underlying mechanisms which explain how children's learning is affected remain uncertain. The present study examined the effect of storybook format (touch screen and print) on story comprehension, and considered how level of touch screen interactivity (high and low) and shared reading behaviors (cognitive and emotional scaffolding, emotional engagement) might contribute to comprehension. Seven-year-olds (n = 22) were observed reading one touch screen storybook and one print storybook with their mothers. Story comprehension was inferior for the touch screen storybooks compared to the print formats. Touch screen interactivity level had no significant effect on comprehension but did affect shared reading behaviors. The mother-child dyads spent less time talking about the story in the highly interactive touch screen condition, despite longer shared reading sessions because of touch screen interactions. Positive emotional engagement was greater for children and mothers in the highly interactive touch screen condition, due to additional positive emotions expressed during touch screen interactions. Negative emotional engagement was greater for children when reading and talking about the story in the highly interactive condition, and some mothers demonstrated negative emotional engagement with the touch screen activities. The less interactive touch screen storybook had little effect on shared reading behaviors, but mothers controlling behaviors were more frequent. Storybook format had no effect on the frequency of mothers' cognitive scaffolding behaviors (comprehension questions, word help). Relationships between comprehension and shared reading behaviors were examined for each storybook, and although length of the shared reading session and controlling behaviors had significant effects on comprehension, the mechanisms driving comprehension were not fully explained by the data. The potential for touch screen storybooks to contribute to cognitive overload in 7-year-old developing readers is discussed, as is the complex relationship between cognitive and emotional scaffolding behaviors, emotional engagement, and comprehension. Sample characteristics and methodological limitations are also discussed to help inform future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty M Ross
- Department of Psychology, University of Winchester Winchester, UK
| | - Rachel E Pye
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading Reading, UK
| | - Jordan Randell
- Department of Psychology, University of Winchester Winchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
67
|
Kirkorian HL, Choi K. Associations Between Toddlers' Naturalistic Media Experience and Observed Learning from Screens. INFANCY 2016; 22:271-277. [DOI: 10.1111/infa.12171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Koeun Choi
- Human Development and Family Studies Department University of Wisconsin‐Madison
| |
Collapse
|
68
|
Abstract
Infants, toddlers, and preschoolers are now growing up in environments saturated with a variety of traditional and new technologies, which they are adopting at increasing rates. Although there has been much hope for the educational potential of interactive media for young children, accompanied by fears about their overuse during this crucial period of rapid brain development, research in this area still remains limited. This policy statement reviews the existing literature on television, videos, and mobile/interactive technologies; their potential for educational benefit; and related health concerns for young children (0 to 5 years of age). The statement also highlights areas in which pediatric providers can offer specific guidance to families in managing their young children's media use, not only in terms of content or time limits, but also emphasizing the importance of parent-child shared media use and allowing the child time to take part in other developmentally healthy activities.
Collapse
|
69
|
Reid Chassiakos YL, Radesky J, Christakis D, Moreno MA, Cross C. Children and Adolescents and Digital Media. Pediatrics 2016; 138:peds.2016-2593. [PMID: 27940795 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2016-2593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Today's children and adolescents are immersed in both traditional and new forms of digital media. Research on traditional media, such as television, has identified health concerns and negative outcomes that correlate with the duration and content of viewing. Over the past decade, the use of digital media, including interactive and social media, has grown, and research evidence suggests that these newer media offer both benefits and risks to the health of children and teenagers. Evidence-based benefits identified from the use of digital and social media include early learning, exposure to new ideas and knowledge, increased opportunities for social contact and support, and new opportunities to access health promotion messages and information. Risks of such media include negative health effects on sleep, attention, and learning; a higher incidence of obesity and depression; exposure to inaccurate, inappropriate, or unsafe content and contacts; and compromised privacy and confidentiality. This technical report reviews the literature regarding these opportunities and risks, framed around clinical questions, for children from birth to adulthood. To promote health and wellness in children and adolescents, it is important to maintain adequate physical activity, healthy nutrition, good sleep hygiene, and a nurturing social environment. A healthy Family Media Use Plan (www.healthychildren.org/MediaUsePlan) that is individualized for a specific child, teenager, or family can identify an appropriate balance between screen time/online time and other activities, set boundaries for accessing content, guide displays of personal information, encourage age-appropriate critical thinking and digital literacy, and support open family communication and implementation of consistent rules about media use.
Collapse
|
70
|
Radesky JS, Christakis DA. Increased Screen Time: Implications for Early Childhood Development and Behavior. Pediatr Clin North Am 2016; 63:827-39. [PMID: 27565361 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The authors review trends in adoption of new digital technologies (eg, mobile and interactive media) by families with young children (ages 0-8 years), continued use of television and video games, and the evidence for learning from digital versus hands-on play. The authors also discuss continued concerns about health and developmental/behavioral risks of excessive media use for child cognitive, language, literacy, and social-emotional development. This evidence is then applied to clinical care in terms of the screening questions providers can use, tools available to providers and parents, and changes in anticipatory guidance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jenny S Radesky
- University of Michigan Medical School, University of Michigan, 300 North Ingalls Street, Suite 1107, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
| | - Dimitri A Christakis
- CW8-6 Child Health, Behavior and Development, 2001 Eighth Avenue, Seattle, WA 98121, USA
| |
Collapse
|
71
|
Schroeder EL, Kirkorian HL. When Seeing Is Better than Doing: Preschoolers' Transfer of STEM Skills Using Touchscreen Games. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1377. [PMID: 27679590 PMCID: PMC5020045 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which character familiarity and game interactivity moderate preschoolers’ learning and transfer from digital games. The games were based on a popular television show and designed to test skills related to STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics): numerical cognition (quantity of different sets) and knowledge of a biological concept (growth). Preschoolers (3.0–5.5 years, N = 44) were assigned to play one game and watch a recording of an experimenter playing the other game. Learning was assessed during pre-test and post-test using screenshots from the game. Transfer was assessed using modified screenshots (near) and real-life objects (far). Familiarity was assessed by asking children to identify the television characters and program. Findings indicate that the effectiveness of the games varied by age and condition: younger children learned from the quantity game, but only when they watched (rather than played) the game. They did not transfer this information in either condition. Conversely, older children learned from the growth game regardless of whether they played or watched. However, older children only demonstrated far transfer if they watched (rather than played) the growth game. Thus, preschoolers may benefit more by watching a video than by playing a game if the game is cognitively demanding, perhaps because making decisions while playing the game increases cognitive load. Character familiarity did not predict learning, perhaps because there was little overlap between the lessons presented in the television program and game. Findings from the current study highlight the need for more research into educational games and applications designed for preschoolers in order to establish whether, how, and for whom screen media can be educationally valuable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth L Schroeder
- Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI USA
| | - Heather L Kirkorian
- Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI USA
| |
Collapse
|
72
|
Zack E, Barr R. The Role of Interactional Quality in Learning from Touch Screens during Infancy: Context Matters. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1264. [PMID: 27625613 PMCID: PMC5003922 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Interactional quality has been shown to enhance learning during book reading and play, but has not been examined during touch screen use. Learning to apply knowledge from a touch screen is complex for infants because it involves transfer of learning between a two-dimensional (2D) screen and three-dimensional (3D) object in the physical world. This study uses a touch screen procedure to examine interactional quality measured via maternal structuring, diversity of maternal language, and dyadic emotional responsiveness and infant outcomes during a transfer of learning task. Fifty 15-month-old infants and their mothers participated in this semi-naturalistic teaching task. Mothers were given a 3D object, and a static image of the object presented on a touch screen. Mothers had 5 min to teach their infant that a button on the real toy works in the same way as a virtual button on the touch screen (or vice versa). Overall, 64% of infants learned how to make the button work, transferring learning from the touch screen to the 3D object or vice versa. Infants were just as successful in the 3D to 2D transfer direction as they were in the 2D to 3D transfer direction. A cluster analysis based on emotional responsiveness, the proportion of diverse maternal verbal input, and amount of maternal structuring resulted in two levels of interactional quality: high quality and moderate quality. A logistic regression revealed the level of interactional quality predicted infant transfer. Infants were 19 times more likely to succeed and transfer learning between the touch screen and real object if they were in a high interactional quality dyad, even after controlling for infant activity levels. The present findings suggest that interactional quality between mother and infant plays an important role in making touch screens effective teaching tools for infants' learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Zack
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown UniversityWashington, DC, USA
- Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA
| | - Rachel Barr
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown UniversityWashington, DC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
73
|
Sheehan KJ, Uttal DH. Children's Learning from Touch Screens: A Dual Representation Perspective. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1220. [PMID: 27570516 PMCID: PMC4981688 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Parents and educators often expect that children will learn from touch screen devices, such as during joint e-book reading. Therefore an essential question is whether young children understand that the touch screen can be a symbolic medium – that entities represented on the touch screen can refer to entities in the real world. Research on symbolic development suggests that symbolic understanding requires that children develop dual representational abilities, meaning children need to appreciate that a symbol is an object in itself (i.e., picture of a dog) while also being a representation of something else (i.e., the real dog). Drawing on classic research on symbols and new research on children’s learning from touch screens, we offer the perspective that children’s ability to learn from the touch screen as a symbolic medium depends on the effect of interactivity on children’s developing dual representational abilities. Although previous research on dual representation suggests the interactive nature of the touch screen might make it difficult for young children to use as a symbolic medium, the unique interactive affordances may help alleviate this difficulty. More research needs to investigate how the interactivity of the touch screen affects children’s ability to connect the symbols on the screen to the real world. Given the interactive nature of the touch screen, researchers and educators should consider both the affordances of the touch screen as well as young children’s cognitive abilities when assessing whether young children can learn from it as a symbolic medium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Sheehan
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA
| | - David H Uttal
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
74
|
Lovato SB, Waxman SR. Young Children Learning from Touch Screens: Taking a Wider View. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1078. [PMID: 27486421 PMCID: PMC4947576 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Touch screen devices such as smartphones and tablets are now ubiquitous in the lives of American children. These devices permit very young children to engage interactively in an intuitive fashion with actions as simple as touching, swiping and pinching. Yet, we know little about the role these devices play in very young children’s lives or their impact on early learning and development. Here we focus on two areas in which existing research sheds some light on these issues with children under 3 years of age. The first measures transfer of learning, or how well children use information learned from screens to reason about events off-screen, using object retrieval and word learning tasks. The second measures the impact of interactive screens on parent-child interactions and story comprehension during reading time. More research is required to clarify the pedagogical potential and pitfalls of touch screens for infants and very young children, especially research focused on capabilities unique to touch screens and on the social and cultural contexts in which young children use them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia B Lovato
- Center on Media and Human Development, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Sandra R Waxman
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| |
Collapse
|
75
|
Myers LJ, LeWitt RB, Gallo RE, Maselli NM. Baby FaceTime: can toddlers learn from online video chat? Dev Sci 2016; 20. [PMID: 27417537 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
There is abundant evidence for the 'video deficit': children under 2 years old learn better in person than from video. We evaluated whether these findings applied to video chat by testing whether children aged 12-25 months could form relationships with and learn from on-screen partners. We manipulated social contingency: children experienced either real-time FaceTime conversations or pre-recorded Videos as the partner taught novel words, actions and patterns. Children were attentive and responsive in both conditions, but only children in the FaceTime group responded to the partner in a temporally synced manner. After one week, children in the FaceTime condition (but not the Video condition) preferred and recognized their Partner, learned more novel patterns, and the oldest children learned more novel words. Results extend previous studies to demonstrate that children under 2 years show social and cognitive learning from video chat because it retains social contingency. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/rTXaAYd5adA.
Collapse
|
76
|
Choi K, Kirkorian HL. Touch or Watch to Learn? Toddlers’ Object Retrieval Using Contingent and Noncontingent Video. Psychol Sci 2016; 27:726-36. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797616636110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The experiment reported here was designed to examine the effect of contingent interaction with touch-screen devices on toddlers’ use of symbolic media (video) during an object-retrieval task. Toddlers (24–36 months old; N = 75) were randomly assigned to watch an animated character hiding on screen either in a no-contingency video (requiring no action), a general-contingency video (accepting touch input anywhere on screen), or a specific-contingency video (requiring touch input on a particular area of interest). After the hiding event, toddlers searched for the character on a corresponding felt board. Across all trials, younger toddlers were more likely to search correctly after a specific-contingency video than after a no-contingency video, which suggests that contingent interaction designed to emphasize specific information on screen may promote learning. However, this effect was reversed for older toddlers. We interpret our findings with respect to the selective encoding of target features during hiding events and the relative strength of memory traces during search.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koeun Choi
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
| | - Heather L. Kirkorian
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin–Madison
| |
Collapse
|